AMINO ACIDS  

        
It is called an alpha amino acid because both the amino acid and carboxyl groups are attached to
the alpha carbon atom.

Serine – the reference compound for amino acids.

FOUR MAIN FAMILIES OF AA BASED ON THE POLARITY OF THEIR GROUPS: (polarity – because

their tendency to interact with water at
biological pH)
1. AA with nonpolar (hydrophobic) R groups:
Ø  Alanine
Ø  Valine
Ø  Leucine
Ø  Isoleucine
Ø  Methionine
Ø  Phenylalanine
Ø  Tryptophan – it is the most complex AA found in proteins
Ø  Proline – it is referred to as alpha AA, since there is no primary amino group exists.

2. AA with polar but uncharged R groups: (The R groups of these AA are soluble in water, mean
they are more hydrophilic, than those of the nonpolar AA, because they contain functional groups
that form hydrogen bonds with water)
Ø  Glycine
Ø  Serine – its polarity is due to its hydroxyl group
Ø  Threonine
Ø  Cysteine – sulfur analogue of serine
Ø  Tyrosine
Ø  Asparagine
Ø  Glutamine

3. AA with negatively charged R groups:

Ø  Aspartic acid
Ø  Glutamic acid

4. AA with positively R groups:

Ø  Arginine – most basic of the AA
Ø  Lysine
Ø  Histidine

ANOTHER WAY OF CLASSIFYING AA:

1. Neutral AA – they are monamino-monocarboxylic AA (with 1 amino and 1 carboxyl group)

Ø  Aliphatic AA – straight or branched chains of carbon atoms
        Straight chain AA:
                    *     Glycine
                    *     Alanine
                    *     Serine
                    *     Threonine
       Branched chain AA:
                   *     Valine
                   *     Leucine
                   *     Isoleucine
Ø Aromatic AA – consists of AA with phenyl, hydroxyphenyl or indole rings
                  *     Phenylamine – contains phenyl ring
                  *     Tyrosine – contains hydroxyphenyl ring
                  *     Tryptophan – contains the indole ring

Ø Sulfur containing AA
                 *     Cysteine
                 *     Cystine
                 *     Methionine

2. Basic AA:
Ø  Lysine
Ø  Arginine
Ø  Histidine

3. Acidic AA:
Ø  Aspartic acid
Ø  Glutamic acid

4. Imino Acids – they are two heterocyclic AA, in which the alpha amino nitrogen is part of a ring
structure
Ø Proline
Ø Hydroxyproline

SPECIAL AA PRESENT IN SOME PROTEINS:

1. Hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine – found in collagen of connective tissue
2. N-methyllysine – found in myosin, a muscle of protein functioning in contraction
3. Desmosine – a derivative of lysine, found only in the fibrous protein elastin.

PEPTIDES – are chains of AA

SOME PEPTIDES WITH BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY:

1. Insulin – a hormone secreted bynthe B cells of the pancreas, stimulates the capacity of cells to
use glucose asnmetabolic fuel
2. Oxytocin – a hormone with 9AA residues secreted by the posterior pituitary gland, they
stimulates uterine contraction
3. Bradykinin – a substance that inhibits inflammations of tissue
4. Enkephalins – a short peptide formed in the central nervous system
5. Corticotropin - a hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex.

PROTEIN
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS:
1. Enzymatic catalysis – all known enzymes are proteins, but not all proteins are enzymes
2. Transport protein – hemoglobin of RBC binds oxygen as the blood passes through the lungs
and carries it to the peripheral tissue
3. Nutrient protein – examples are ovalbumin – the major protein of egg white; and casein – the
major protein of milk
4. Storage protein – ferritin of animal tissues stores iron
5. Contractile protein – actin and myosin are filamentous proteins functioning in the contractile
system of skeletal muscle
6. Structural protein – examples:
      * Collagen – the major components of tendons and cartilage
      * Elastin – found in the ligaments of the structural protein, capable for stretching
      * Keratin – fond in hair, fingernails and feathers
      * Fibroin – the major component of silk fibers and spider webs
7. Defense protein – examples:
       * Ig (immunoglobulins) or Ab’s (antibodies) – specialized proteins made by lymphocytes
which can be neutralize or recognize invading bacteria, viruses and other pathogenic
microorganisms
       * Prothrombin and fibrinogen – are blood clotting proteins that prevent loss of blood when
the vascular system is injured
8. Regulatory proteins - examples are polypeptides or peptide hormones that help regulate
cellular or physiological activity

CLASSIFICATIONS OF PROTEINS (based on the composition, physical and chemical properties):

1. Simple protein – those proteins which upon hydrolysis yield only AA on their derivatives
    * Albumins – examples:  Lactalbumin from milk; Ovalbumin from egg white
    * Globulins – examples: Ovoglobulin of eggyolk; Serum globulin of blood
    * Glutelins – examples: Glutenin of wheat; Oryzenin of rice
    * Prolamines or Gliadins – they are alcohol soluble proteins; plant proteins found principally in
seeds. Zein of corn; Gliadin of wheat
    * Scleroproteins – the least soluble of all the proteins
    * Histones – it characterized by a high content of basic AA. Example:  Histones of
nucleoproteins; Globin of hemoglobin
    *  Protamines – the simplest of the proteins. Example: Salmine of salmon sperm
2. Conjugated protein – they are composed of simple proteins combined with some non-protein
substance. The non-protein group is referred to as the prosthetic group.
     * Nucleoproteins – the prosthetic group is a nucleic acid. They are the protein of cell nuclei
and apparently are the chief constituent of chromatin. Example: Nucleohistone
     * Glycoproteins and mucoproteins – these are compounds with carbohydrates prosthetic
groups (mucopolysaccharides)
     * Phosphoproteins – the prosthetic group is phosphoric acid. Example:  Casein of milk
     * Chromoproteins – composed of simple proteins united with a colored prosthetic group.
Example: Heme of hemoglobin
     *  Lipoproteins
     * Metalloproteins – proteins plus metallic elements such as Fe, Cu, Mn, etc. example:  Copper
of ceruloplasmin

3. Derived proteins – these kinds of proteins include these substances formed from single and
conjugated proteins
     * Primary derived proteins,. Examples: Proteans, Metaproteins, Coagulated proteins
     * Secondary derived proteins. Examples; Proteoses, Peptones, Peptidase