TNSS701 &TPSF701

Learning Theories in Science

Week 4
Outcomes - UNIT 2: On successful completion, you will be able to:

• relate theories of learning & teaching (& knowledge?) from

Education modules to L & T of Science
• explain the role of constructivism (linked to falsification?) in
the L & T of NS & PS.
• illustrate the use of falsification as learning strategy within
the context of cognitive dissonance (conceptual change?).
• Outline and illustrate, with examples, the role of inquiry
learning within the context of both theoretical & practical
learning in NS & PS.
Learning Content: Current Theories on how children learn
Natural Sciences
Constructivism
The conceptual change approach
The inquiry (enquiry) approach
Experiential learning (hands-on)
The learning cycle approach
Direct instruction approach
Physical Sciences
Constructivism
The conceptual change approach
The inquiry (enquiry) approach
Experiential Learning (hands-on)
Co-operative Learning
Discussion approaches
Problem-solving method
Heuristic Method – 'I discover
Demonstration methods: practicals
Direct instruction approach
 SCHOOL SCIENCE

REAL WORLD
 SCHOOL SCIENCE

REAL WORLD
Correlation versus Causation (another COVID-19 example)

• Italy: ave. age at death = 81 (If you old you - more likely to die of COVID)
• Italy has the oldest population demographic in the world
• China: 72% of deaths are men
• Poor lungs – inflammation overload – in China 52% of men smoke and
3% of women
• World wide: <0.2% children die while 15% > 80 die
• Children kept away from sick and better protected by their parents
• Less likely to be infected
• Bodies have less ware and tare

• Correlation versus causation video clip (change subtitles)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VMUQSMFGBDo
Menti

• Ukraine example
• Only 25% of enrolled TNSS and TPSF students attend a live session the cause of this is:
 THE NEXT DAY
What is the equator? • TEACHER: Class what is the equator.
TEACHER: The EQUATOR is a line
• LEARNER: The EQUATOR is a lion thatIfruns
only these
that runs around the Earth
around the Earth.
children
• TEACHER: Excellent would learn
to spell
correctly
What goes on in the learner’s mind

TEST TIME

LEARNER’S WRITTEN ANSWER

The EQUATOR is a lion

that runs around the Earth.
KNOWLEDGE, LEARNING, TEACHING

• What is knowledge?
• What is learning?
• What is teaching?
Knowledge, Learning and Teaching in
Science

A Constructivist Perspective
Constructivism as a theory on knowledge

• Knowledge is viewed differently…

• Behaviourists view knowledge as a passive,
largely automatic responses to external factors in
the environment
• Cognitivists view knowledge as abstract symbolic
representations in the heads of individuals
• Constructivists view knowledge as a constructed
entity made by individuals through the learning
process
Constructivism as a theory on knowledge (cont)
• Behaviourists and cognitivists see knowledge
• as given and absolute
• Constructivists see knowledge as
• Relativistic – nothing is absolute, but can vary according to
time, space and context
• Fallibilist – nothing can be taken for granted
Two broad types of constructivism:
• Cognitively orientated constructivist theories
• Etc
• Socially orientated constructivist theories
• Radical social constructivism
• etc
Behaviourist / Constructivist Learning
Behaviourist viewpoints cannot justify constructivism because
behaviourist do not consider the existence of internal mental
processes
Which view? How unique are our thoughts?

• Each person has a right & tendency to construct unique

meanings but
• these may not be completely unique
• because we share common languages, think through
language & other communal symbols, knowledge is
believed to be socially constructed
• In a sense, an individual's thought is never purely their
own
Constructivist Learning Principles

LEARNERS
• have ideas! (Ask a 6 yr old Why?)
• ideas often contradict those of teachers! (Alternative Conceptions)
• like their ideas! (Resistance to change)
• see what they want to see!
• often are not aware of what they know!
• may not discover experts' conclusions! (Discovery Learning Heuristic)
• need 'first-hand' experiences! (authentic investigations)
• and scientists' inquiries are self-fulfilling!
• need other people! (to create dissonance)
• need to know how to learn!
• deserve the right to determine their beliefs!
Children’s ideas: Find out what the learners know and teach accordingly
(Ausubel)

• When you breath, you inspire. When you do not breath, you exspire.
• “H20 is hot water, and CO2 is cold water
• Dew is formed on leaves when the sun shines down on them and makes
them perspire
• weeds are not 'plants' because plants have to be nurtured;
• steam turns into ‘air’ once it disappears into the air;
• electric current is used-up by light bulbs;
• objects can only move if there is a force directly on them;
• cold water freezes faster than does hot water;
• the sun revolves around the Earth.
• Mushrooms always grow in damp places and so that is why they look
like umbrellas.
Strategies to develop if you want to become more of a
constructivist teacher
1. Encourage and accept learners’ autonomy & initiative
2. Use words such as ‘classify’, ‘analyse’, ‘predict’, ‘create’ etc.
3. Find out learner’s ideas before sharing your own understandings
4. Seek elaboration of learners’ initial responses
5. Allow learner responses to drive lessons, shift instructional
strategies and alter content
6. Encourage dialogue – learner/teacher, learner/learner
6 Ask thoughtful open-ended questions, encourage learners to ask
questions of each other
7 Engage learners in experiences that create cognitive dissonance –
encourage discussion
8 Allow long wait times
9 Allow time for the creation of relationships and metaphors
10 Nurture natural curiosity
A Constructivist View of Learning (Driver)
i. Learning outcomes depend not only on the learning environment,
but on what the learner already knows
ii. Learning involves constructing meaning
iii. Constructing meaning is a continuous and active process
iv. Belief and the evaluation of meaning
v. Learners are responsible for their own learning
vi. Some meanings are shared
Prior ideas interact with teaching
Using surface tension to float a needle on water

Chris: It might be full of air.

Gary: Yeah. And if think of if they sink

if, say you chuck a tennis ball down in water it will come back

(Johnston 1989)
Prior ideas interact with teaching

Bulb 1 Bulb 2

L1: Sir, Sir, they will divide, Sir.

T: What will divide?
L1: The electricity, Sir. One will go that way, Sir, and one will go
that way, Sir. It will be very dim.
L2: ‘Cos there’s only one battery
T: Will they be as bright as each other or will one be brighter?
L2: The same.
Unintended meanings can be constructed

L1: It’s gone green hasn’t it?

R: So it’s gone green because you put the iodine on. Is that what you are saying?
L1: Well, my conclusion for that job was that iodine…
L3: Makes it go green…
L1: Puts back the…
L3: colour
L2: …Chlorophyll
ALL: Puts back the chlorophyll.
R: Iodine puts back the chlorophyll?
L1: Yeah!
L2: Conclusion. Meths takes out the chlorophyll from plants. Iodine puts back the chlorophyll.
L1: Well, I don’t know what it does, but it’s gone, definitely a different colour.
(Bell:1985)
Criticisms of a constructivist perspective on teaching
and learning?
• It's elitist.
• Constructivism (& "progressive" educational theories) have been most
successful with children from privileged backgrounds - outstanding teachers,
committed parents, & rich home environments.
• Disadvantaged children, lacking such resources, benefit more from more
explicit instruction.
• Social constructivism leads to "group think."
• Collaborative aspects of constructivist classrooms may produce a "tyranny of
the majority,“: a few learners' voices or interpretations dominate the group's
conclusions
• Little hard evidence that constructivist methods work.
• Some studies - learners in constructivist classrooms lag behind those in more
traditional classrooms in basic skills.
• Constructivists counter that in studies where children were compared on
higher-order thinking skills, constructivist learners seemed to outperform their
peers
Implications for teaching (cont)
• Provide experiences which relate to learners’ prior ideas.
• Start form where the children are at
• Encourage learners to extend their knowledge of phenomena
• Encourage differentiation of ideas (e.g. heat/temperature;
mass/weight; respiration/breathing)
• Encourage the bringing together and integration of ideas
• Provide experience which challenge learners’ ideas
• Provide opportunities for learners to think about their experiences
• Provide opportunities for imaginative thinking
• Encourage reflection on the use of models and theories
• Consider alternative ideas or theories
• Introduce the school science view
Implications for teaching (cont)
• Provide opportunities for learners to try out new ideas
• Allow learners to gain confidence in trying out new ideas
• Use a variety of contexts (familiar and new)
• Use a variety of teaching and learning strategies
• Encourage learners to put forward their own ideas
• Encourage learners to listen to each other
• Avoid creating the impression that there is only one ‘right
answer’
• Provide opportunities where learners are encouraged to reflect
(think) on changes in their ideas
 Orientation

Elicitation of ideas

Restructuring of
ideas

Application of ideas

Review change in
ideas
Conceptual Change

• Learners make predictions about the situation based on prior

understandings
• This brings existing beliefs to the surface, giving the teachers access to
what is in the learners’ minds.
• Learners become aware of conflict between what they thought was true and
what they observe.
• Existing conceptions must fail or be unsatisfactory.
• When children have the opportunity to cultivate their own skills and
construct their own ideas and concepts, then they can develop an
understanding of the world that is deep and real, and begin to enjoy,
understand, predict, and generate new knowledge on their own.
Summary

• Individuals do not obtain knowledge by internalizing it from the outside but by constructing
it from within, in interaction with the environment (Kamii, Manning, & Manning, 1991;
Perkins, 1992; Piaget, 1969; Vygotsky, 1978)
• Constructivism is based on reflecting on our experiences and constructing our own
understanding of the world.
• Learning is a process of modifying our mental models to accommodate new experiences.
• Research: Learners learn science best by engaging in hands-on minds-on lessons through
a inquiry-based curriculum (Abell and Bryan, 1997; Stepans, et. al., 1995: Metz, 1995;
Glasson, 1989).
• Inquiry is a fundamental component of effective science teaching and learning (Lunetta,
1997; Roth, 1995).
• Inquiry-based instruction allows students to make connections between the classroom
experience and their personal lives.
• Learning becomes relevant to students.
Implications for Science Teaching
• Educators must be aware of our own assumptions.

• Learners bring their own ideas.

• Educators should look at the curriculum from a more developmental point of view.

• Use conceptions and explanations which are useful to students.

• There can be wrong answers

• Lack of time to prepare
• Familiarising oneself with learners’ misconceptions
• Having a clear understanding of scientists views
• The ‘hidden curriculum’
• Pure information transfer
• Lack confidence and competence in certain areas