Chapter 1

01.
LLT - Lecturer: Nguyen Duc Hoat

Introduction to Learning Theories
"We think too much about effective methods of teaching and not enough about effective
methods of learning." John Carolus S. J.
Definitions: Learning is …
1. “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought)
about as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. “the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to
experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion,
which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
What is Learning?
 Learning is a process
 Learning is a product
Products of Learning
 Learning is about ideas and concepts
 Learning is about behaviors and skills
 Learning is about attitudes and values
Contexts of Learning
1. Learning involves the individual
 Brain
 Body
2. Learning involves others
 Dyads
 Groups
 Organizations
 Communities
 Society
3. Learning takes place somewhere
 In physical environment
 With things and tools
4. Learning occurs over time
So, how do people learn?
 Easy answer: We don’t know for sure.
 Difficult answer: We have multiple theories that provide glimpses of an answer from
many different perspectives. These stem from psychologists, philosophers,
sociologists, anthropologists, evolutionary biologists, linguists, neuroscientists…
Learning is complex, but not entirely unpredictable

Learning has been the subject of formal study throughout recorded history
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The study of learning has been approached from a variety of perspectives:
⯍ Philosophy-based Learning Theory
⯍ Psychology-Based Learning Theory
⯍ Nature vs Nurture
⯍ Rationalism (the working of the mind / mental processes) vs Empiricism (The
environment)
Definition: Theories are…

What is a theory?
 A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time.
 A theory explains and predicts behavior.
 A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.
 A theory may be modified.
Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a
theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved.
Theories and Models

 A scientific theory is an explanation or model based on observation, experimentation
and / or reasoning (research). Theories have been tested or confirmed as general
principle(s) that help to explain or predict things (facts, observations or events).
 Theories are generally accepted as valid after surviving repeated testing. A theory can
never be established beyond all doubts.
 A model is a theoretical construct or a mental picture that helps one understand
something that cannot be experienced or observed directly.
Teaching defined from multiple perspectives
Socrates
I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.
Galileo
You cannot teach a man anything.
You can only help him to find it for himself.
Einstein
I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can learn.
Eastern perspectives: Confucian
So what?
Why is an understanding of learning theory important for educators?
Philosophy of Learning: Epistemology
 Our beliefs about the nature of knowledge, our epistemology, profoundly influence
our approach to education.
Epistemology – Theory - Practice
 All three of these need to align
 Our beliefs about knowledge
 Our beliefs about learning
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 Our strategies for practice
Psychology of Learning
Our beliefs about how people learn, our psychology of learning, profoundly influence our
approach to education.
Resulting Theories and Methods
These four sets of theories (and corresponding practices) must be aligned to make teaching
effective:
 Theories of learning
 Theories of instruction / Teaching methodology
 Theories of instructional design
 Theories of assessment
Historical development:
Philosophy-Based Learning Theory
o Over 2000 years’ debate on how people learn as far back as the Greek
philosophers, Socrates (469 –399 B.C.), Plato (427 – 347 B.C.), and Aristotle
(384 – 322 B.C)
o The big question still remains about the nature of learning: “Is truth and
knowledge to be found within us (rationalism) or is it to be found outside
of ourselves by using our senses (empiricism)?”
o The Roman views on Education: More practical, considering education as
vocational training, rather than as training of the mind for discovering the
truth, meaning of life …
o The role of the Roman Catholic Church (500 AD-1500 AD.): Learning
delivered by the church including universities (12th century). Learning is
mainly transmission based.
o The Renaissance (15th-17th centuries):
1. The revival of the Greek concept of “Liberal education” focusing on the arts
and humanities.
2. Freedom of thought (Humanism), studying human values that are not religion
based.
o Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)
o revived the Platonic concept of innate knowledge. Descartes believed that
ideas existed within human beings prior to experience
o John Locke (1632 - 1704) revived Aristotle’s empiricism with the concept that
the child’s mind is a blank tablet (tabula rasa) that gets shaped and formed by
his/her own experiences.
o Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) was one of the first philosophers to
suggest that education should be shaped to the child. The child-centered
philosophies of Dewey, Montessori, Piaget and others follow in part from
similar views.
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o Kant (1724 – 1804) refined and modernized Plato’s rationalist theory with his
suggestion that “a priori” knowledge was knowledge that was present before
experience
Psychology-based Learning Theory

The nineteenth century brought about the scientific study of learning.
⮚ Psychologists began conducting objective tests to study how people learn, and to
discover the best approach to teaching.
⮚ The 20th century debate on how people learn has focused
largely on behaviorist vs. cognitive psychology. Psychologists have asked, “Is the human
simply a very advanced mammal that operates by a stimulus response mechanism, or
actually a cognitive creature that uses its brain to construct knowledge from the
information received by the senses?”
Learning Theories: Perspectives
Approaches to the Study of Learning
o Behavioral (observable performance)
o Cognitive (operational constructs, memory structures, and mental processes –
Knowledge exists as objective reality external of the learner).
o Constructivist (construction of mental representations by the learner rather than the
teacher, knowledge is mentally constructed and subjective based on existing
knowledge – internal of the learner) >>> Cognitive Constructivism – Social
Constructivism.
o Humanist (the learner as a whole person)
o Connectionist (distributed knowledge / networking / digital age learning) (cf.
Connectivist view (Thorndike - Behaviorism)
Classification of Learning Outcomes

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains
Bloom’s Taxonomy: Levels of Cognition
Competency-Based Learning
(Jones et al, 2002)
Summary
o Theories of learning attempt to explain how people learn.
o Different theories are based on different assumptions and are appropriate for
explaining some aspects / dimensions of learning but not all.
o Theories inform teaching practices but ultimately individual student’s learning efforts
(mental, physical, emotional and social) shall determine his/her learning outcomes
>>> the need for autonomous learning >> learner in control.
In summary:
The learning process
o The brain plays a role
o The learning environment makes a difference
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o Learning is based on associations
o Learning occurs in cultural and social contexts
o People learn in different ways
o People think about their own learning
o Learners’ feelings matter
Teaching
o Teaching is a process of organizing the learning environment
o Teaching is a process of organizing knowledge, information and activities
o Teaching is a process of organizing people
o Teaching is linking theories to practices: each teacher must also be a theorist forming
his/her own theory.
o As a practicing teachers, we have to develop our own “Learning Theory” to guide our
teaching based on own experience and teaching context and principles drawn from
different theoretical / philosophical perspectives.
o Not a single effective learning / teaching method for all learners / teachers and
applicable to all teaching and learning contexts >>> “Post Methods Era” requires
critical thinking and the ability to look at your own teaching from different
perspectives, teacher’s problem solving ability.
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Chapter 1.
Language Learning in Early Childhood
 Definitions of L1, L2, FL, TL
 Patterns and sequences in L1 development
 Theoretical approaches to first language acquisition: Behaviorism, Innatism, and
Interactionism
 Childhood bilingualism
Definitions of L1 & L2
■ Definition of “first language” (L1):
■ The language(s) that an individual learns first.
■ Other terms for “first language”-
• Native language or mother tongue
■ Definition of “second language” (L2):
■ Any language other than the first language learned (in a broader sense).
■ A language learned after the first language in a context where the language is
used widely in the speech community (in a narrower sense).
• e.g., For many people in Taiwan, their L1 is Taiwanese and L2 is
Mandarin.
Definitions of FL & TL
■ Definition of “foreign language” (FL)
■ A second (or third, or fourth) language learned in a context where the language is
NOT widely used in the speech community. This is often contrasted with second
language learning in a narrower sense.
e.g., English or Japanese is a foreign language for people in Viet Nam.
■ Definition of “target language” (TL)

■ A language which is being learned, where it is the first language or a second,
third language.
e.g., English is a target language for you now.
Patterns in L1 Development
Characteristics of the language of children:
■ Their language development shows a high degree of similarity among children all over
the world. There are predicable patterns in the L1 development and their L1
developmental patterns are related to their cognitive development (predictability).
■ Their language reflects the word order of the language that they are hearing. The
combination of the words has a meaning relationship (learning through imitation).
■ Their language also shows they are able to apply the rules of the language to make
sentences which they have never heard before (creativity).
Before First Words -
■ The earliest vocalizations
■ Involuntary crying (when they feel hungry or uncomfortable)
■ Cooing and gurgling – showing satisfaction or happiness
■ “Babbling”
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■ Babies use sounds to reflect the characteristics of the different language they are
learning.
First Words –
■ Around 12 months (“one-word” stage):

■ Babies begin to produce one or two recognizable words (esp. content word);
producing single-word sentences.
■ By the age of 2 (“two-word” stage):

■ 1) at least 50 different words
■ 2) “telegraphic” sentences (no function words and
grammatical morphemes)
e.g., “Mommy juice”, “baby fall down”
■ 3) reflecting the order of the language
e.g., “kiss baby”, “baby kiss”
■ 4) creatively combining words
e.g., “more outside”, “all gone cookie”
L1 Developmental Sequences
■ Acquisition of Grammatical morphemes
■ Acquisition of Negation (to deny, reject, disagree with, and refuse something)
■ Acquisition of Questions
Acquisition of
Grammatical morphemes
Roger Brown’s study (1973):
- approximate order of acquiring grammatical morphemes
■ Present progressive –ing (running)

■ Plural –s (books)
■ Irregular past forms (went)
■ Possessive -’s (daddy’s hat)
■ Copula (am/is/are)
■ Articles (a/an/the)
■ Regular past –ed (walked)
■ Third person singular simple present –s (he runs)
■ Auxiliary ‘be’ (He is coming)
Acquisition of
Grammatical morphemes
e.g., “wug test” –
1) Here is a wug. Now there are two of them.
There are two ______.
2) John knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the
same thing. Yesterday, he_______.
■ Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the
formation of plural and simple past in English.
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■ By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before, they
show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs such as
‘book/books’ and ‘nod/nodded’.
Acquisition of Negation
Lois Bloom’s study (1991) – four stages
■ Stage 1: ‘no’ – e.g., “No go”. “No cookie.”
■ Stage 2: subject + no – e.g., “Daddy no comb hair.”
■ Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not

(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses)
e.g., “I can’t do it “, “He don’t want it.”
■ Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesn’t/is/are) + not

e.g., He didn’t go. She doesn’t want it.
But sometimes double negatives are used
e.g., I don’t have no more candies.
Acquisition of Questions
Lois Bloom’s study (1991):

Order of the occurrence of wh- question words
• “What” - Whatsat? Whatsit?

• “Where” and “who”
• “Why” (emerging at the end of the 2nd year and becomes a favorite at the
age of 3 or 4)
• “How” and “When” (yet children do not fully understand the meaning of
adults’ responses)
e.g., Child: When can we go outside?
Mother: In about 5 minutes.
Child: 1-2-3-4-5! Can we go now?
Lois Bloom’s study (1991):

Six stages of children’s question-making
■ Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with rising
intonation
(“Mommy book?” “Where’s Daddy?”)
■ Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (“You like this?” “Why
you catch it?”)
■ Stage 3: “fronting” - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence

(“Is the teddy is tired?” “Do I can have a cookie?”)
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Lois Bloom’s study (1991) – six stages (II)
■ Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions but not in wh-questions
(“Do you like ice cream?” “Where I can draw?”)
■ Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative wh-

questions
(“Why can he go out?” “Why he can’t go out?”)
■ Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions

(“I don’t know why can’t he go out.”)
■ By the age of 4:
■ Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real events, and
create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order and grammatical
markers most of the time.
■ They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages spoken to
them in these early years.
■ They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures such
as passives and relative clauses.
■ They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social environment.
Development of Metalinguistic Awareness

■ Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to treat language as an object,
separate from the meaning it conveys.
■ A dramatic development in metalinguistic awareness occurs when children begin
to learn to read. They see words represented by letters on a page and start to
discover that words and sentences have multiple meaning.
e.g., “drink the chair” (5 year-olds’ reaction: silly)
“cake the eat” (5 year-olds’ reaction: wrong)
“Why is caterpillar longer than train?” (a riddle)
Development of Vocabulary
■ One of the most impressive language developments in the early school years is
the astonishing growth of vocabulary.
■ Vocabulary grows at a rate between several hundred and more than a thousand
words a year, depending mainly on how much and how widely children read.
■ Vocabulary growth required for school success is likely to come from both
reading for assignments and reading for pleasure. Reading a variety of text types
is an essential part of vocabulary growth.
■ Reading reinforces the understanding that language has form as well as meaning
and a “word” is separate from the thing it represents.
■ Another important development in the school years is the acquisition of different
language registers.
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Theoretical Approaches to L1 Acquisition
■ Behaviorism: Say what I say
■ Innatism: It’s all in your mind
■ Interactionist/Developmental perspectives: Learning from inside and out
1. Behaviorism: Say what I say

■ Skinner: language behavior is the production of correct responses to stimuli
through reinforcement.
■ Language learning is the result of 1) imitation (word-for-word repetition), 2)
practice (repetitive manipulation of form), 3) feedback on success (positive
reinforcement), and 4) habit formation.
■ The quality and quantity of the language that the child hears, as well as the
consistency of the reinforcement offered by others in the environment, would
shape the child’s language behavior.
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(Examples: imitation and practice)
Behaviorism: Say what I say

■ Children’s imitations are not random:
Their imitation is selective and based on what they are currently learning. They choose
to imitate something they have already begun to understand, rather than simply
imitating what is available in the environment.
(see example on Peter’s & Cindy’s case)
■ Children’s practice of new language forms
■ The way they practice new forms is very similar to the way foreign language
students do substitution drills.
■ Their practice of language forms is also selective and reflects what they would
like to learn. They are often in charge of the conversation with adults.
(see example on Kathryn’s case)
Behaviorism: Comments
■ However, children do use language creatively, not just repeat what they have heard.
■ Patterns in language
• Mother: Maybe we need to take you to the doctor.
Randall (36 months): Why? So he can doc my little bump?” (showing the
understanding of the suffix ‘er/or’)
• Son: I putted the plates on the table!
Mother: You mean, I put the plates on the table.
Son: No, I putted them on all by myself.
(showing the understanding of using ‘ed’ to make the past tense for a verb”
and the focus on the meaning, not form)
■ Unfamiliar formulas, focus on meaning
• Father: I’d like to propose a toast.
Child: I’d like to propose a piece of bread.
• Mother: I love you to pieces.
Child: I love you three pieces.
Behaviorism: Critical comments

■ Question formation
• Are dogs can wiggle their tails?
• Are those are my boots?
• Are this is hot?
■ Order of events
• You took all the towels away because I can’t dry my hands.
Imitation and practice alone cannot explain some of the forms created by
children. Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize or
overgeneralize them to new contexts. They create new forms or new uses of
words.
2. Innatism: It’s all in your mind

■ Chomsky’s viewpoints:
■ Children are biologically programmed for language and language develops in the
child in just the same way that other biological functions develop.
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■ The environment makes only a basic contribution, that is, the availability of
people who speak to the child. Therefore, the child’s biological endowment
(LAD) will do the rest.
■ Children are born with a specific innate ability to discover for themselves the
underlying rules of a language system on the basis of the samples of a natural
language they are exposed to.
Innatism: It’s all in your mind
■ Chomsky argues that behaviorism cannot provide sufficient explanations for children’s
language acquisition for the following reasons:
• Children come to know more about the structure of their language than they
could be expected to learn on the basis of the samples of language they
hear.
• The language children are exposed to includes false starts, incomplete
sentences and slips of the tongue, and yet they learn to distinguish between
grammatical and ungrammatical sentences.
• Children are by no means systematically corrected or instructed on
language by parents.

■ LAD (an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the brain):
■ LAD contains the principles which are universal to all human languages (i.e..
Universal Grammar – UG).
■ For the LAD to work, children need access only to samples of a natural language,
which serve as a trigger to activate the device.
■ Once the LAD is activated, children are able to discover the structure of the
language to be learned by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical
principles (UG) to the structures of the particular language in the environment.

■ Evidence used to support Chomsky’s innatist position:
• Virtually all children successfully learn their native language at a time in life
when they would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated (i.e.
biologically programmed).
• Language is separate from other aspects of cognitive developments (e.g.,
creativity and social grace) and may be located in a different “module" of the
brain.
• The language children are exposed to does not contain examples of all the
linguistic rules and patterns.
• Animals cannot learn to manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the
natural language of a 3- or 4-year-old child.
• Children acquire grammatical rules without getting explicit instruction.
Therefore, children’s acquisition of grammatical rules is probably guided by
principle of an innate UG which could apply to all languages.
■ The biological basis for the innatist position:
■ The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) –
Lenneberg: There is a specific and limited time period (i.e., “critical period”)
for the LAD to work successfully.
The best evidence for the CPH is that virtually every child learns language on
a similar schedule in spite of different environments.
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■ Three case studies of abnormal language development - evidence of the CPH
(Read the case studies on pp. 19-21).
• Victor – a boy of about 12 years old (1799)

• Genie – a girl of 13 years old (1970)
• Deaf signers (native signers, early learners, vs. late learners)
3. Interactionist/developmental Perspectives:
Learning from inside and out
■ Problems of Innatism:
■ The innatists placed too much emphasis on the “final state” (i.e. the linguistic
competence of adult native speakers), but not enough on the developmental
aspects of language acquisition.
■ Language acquisition is an example of children’s ability to learn from
experience. What children need to know is essentially available in the language
they are exposed to.
Interactionist/developmental Perspectives:
Learning from inside and out
■ This position views that language develops as a result of the interplay between the
innate learning ability of children and the environment in which they develop.
■ Developmental psychologists attribute more importance to the environment than the
innatists, though they also recognize a powerful learning mechanism in the human
brain.
■ They see language acquisition as similar to and influenced by the acquisition of other
kinds of skill and knowledge, rather than as something that is largely independent of the
child’s experience and cognitive development.
The Interactionist Position
■ Piaget: Language is dependent upon and springs from cognitive development. That is,
children’s cognitive development determines their language development.
(e.g., the use of words as “bigger” or “more” depends on children’s understanding of
the concepts they represent.)
■ He argued that the developing cognitive understanding is built on the interaction
between the child and the things which can be observed, touched, and manipulated.
■ For him, language was one of a number of symbol systems developed in childhood,
rather than a separate module of the mind. Language can be used to represent
knowledge that children have acquired through physical interaction with the
environment.

■ Vygotsky: sociocultural theory of human mental processing. He argued that
language develops primarily from social interaction.
■ Zone of proximal development (ZPD): a level that a child is able to do when
there is support from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor. That is, a
supportive interactive environment (scaffolding)enables children to advance
to a higher level of knowledge and performance than s/he would be able to
do independently.
■ He observed the importance of conversations as scaffolding which children
have with adults and with other children and saw in these conversations the
origins of both language and thought.
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■ How Piaget’s view differs from Vygotsky’s:
■ Piaget hypothesized that language developed as a symbol system to express
knowledge acquired through interaction with the physical world.
■ Vygotsky hypothesized that thought was essentially internalized speech, and
speech emerged in social interaction.
■ Language socialization framework: observed from childrearing patterns (parent-child
interaction)
■ Child-directed Speech (modified language interaction):
■ Phonological modification: a slower rate of delivery, higher pitch, more varied
intonation
■ Syntactical modification: shorter, simpler sentence patterns, frequent repetition,
and paraphrase.
■ Limited conversation topics: e.g., the ‘here and now’ and topics related to the
child’s experiences.
■ More important than modification is the conversational give-and-take.
■ The interaction between a language-learning child and an interlocutor who responds in
some way to the child is important (Jim’s case).
■ Exposure to impersonal sources of language such as television or radio alone are not
sufficient for children to learn the structure of a particular language.
■ One-on-one interaction gives children access to language that is adjusted to their level
of comprehension.
■ Once children have acquired some language, however, television can be a source of
language and cultural information.
Connectionism: Usage based Learning
■ Though both innatism and connectionism look at the cognitive aspect of
language acquisition, yet they differ in the following:
• Connectionists hypothesize that language acquisition does not require a
separate “module of the mind” but can be explained in terms of learning in
general.
• Connectionists argue that what children need to know is essentially
available in the language they are exposed to. They attribute greater
importance to the role of the environment than to any innate knowledge in
the learner.
Connectionism
■ Connectionism views language as a complex system of units which become
interconnected in the mind as they are encountered together. The more often units are
heard or seen together, the more likely it is that the presence of one will lead to the
activation of the other.
■ Language acquisition is not just a process of associating words with elements of
external reality. It is also a process of associating words and phrases with the other
words and phrases that occur with them, or words with grammatical morphemes that
occur with them.

■ Food for thought:
• Why do many researchers think Chomsky’s innatism is not sufficient?
• What is the purpose for parents to play the ‘thank-you’ game with children?
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• Interactionists stress that language use is not only referential but it can be used for
social purposes. Can you give examples for these two types of purposes?
• Why is it too simplistic to think children either memorize or analyze things they
hear and then they produce language?
• How do children learn ‘routinized’ phrases?
Childhood bilingualism
■ “Simultaneous bilinguals”
■ Children who learn more than one language from birth.
■ “Sequential bilinguals”
■ Children who begin to learn a second language after they have acquired the first
language.
■ Is it difficult for children to cope with 2 languages?
• There is little support for the myth that learning more than one language in early
childhood slows down the child’s linguistic development or interferes with cognitive
and academic development.
• Bilingualism can have positive effects on abilities that are related to academic success,
such as metalinguistic awareness.
• The learning of languages for bilingual children is more related to the circumstances in
which each language is learned than to any limitation in the human capacity to learn
more than one language.
■ Language attrition for bilinguals -
“Subtractive bilingualism” (Lambert, 1987)
▪ When children are “submerged” in a second language for long periods in early
schooling, they may begin to lose their native language (L1) before they have
developed an age-appropriate mastery of the L2.
▪ It can have negative consequences for children’s self-esteem.
▪ In some cases, children continue to be caught between two languages; not having
mastered the L2, but not having continued to develop the L1.
■ Solution for “subtractive bilingualism”:
to strive for “additive bilingualism”
■ Parents should continue speaking the L1 to their children to maintain the home
language, while the L2 is being learned at school.
■ Maintaining the family language also creates opportunities for the children to
continue both cognitive and affective development in a language they understand
easily while they are still learning the L2.
Summary
■ Each of the three theoretical approaches explains a different aspect of first language
acquisition.
• Behaviorists (learning through imitation, practice, reinforcement, habit-
formation) – the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical morphemes.
• Innatists (LAD/UG/CPH) – the acquisition of complex grammar (structure of
the language).
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• Interactionists (social interaction) – the acquisition of how form and meaning
are related, how communicative functions are carried out, and how language
is used appropriately.
Part 2: Second Language Learning

Second Language Learning: (cf, Chapter 2 - Light Brown & Spada: pp 35-74)
 Learner characteristics
 Learning Conditions
 Learner Language: CA, Error Analysis, and Interlanguage
 Developmental sequences: Vocabulary, Pragmatics, Phonology.
Contexts for Language Learning

A child or adult learning a second language is different from a child acquiring a first
language in terms of both
1) learner characteristics
and
2) learning conditions
Differences in Learning L1 & L2
Learner Characteristics
1. Knowledge of another language
2. Cognitive maturity
3. Metalinguistic awareness
4. World Knowledge
5. Anxiety about speaking
Learning Conditions
1. Freedom to be silent
2. Ample time & contact
3. Corrective feedback: (grammar and pronunciation)
4. Corrective feedback: (meaning, word choice, politeness)
5. Modified input
Summary:
SLA (Second Language Acquisition) theories need to account for language acquisition
by learners with a variety of characteristics and learning in a variety of contexts.
Studying the language of the second language learner
Contrastive Analysis (C.A.):
Before 1960s, behaviorist psychology, structural linguistics, audio lingual methods
 First language influence: transfer
Error Analysis: 1970s, Pit Corder article (1967)
Interlanguage: >> Learner language
Larry Selinker (1972) “Learners’ developing second language knowledge”
Developmental sequences
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 Learner Language
o What is Learner Language?
o The purpose of studying Learner Language
o Learner Language and errors
o Developmental sequences of Learner Language
o L1 influence and Learner language
I. What is learner language?

 Second language Learner Language is also called “interlanguage” – learners’
developing second language knowledge (Selinker,1972).
 Interlanguage is a developing system with its interim structure, rather than an
imperfect imitation of the TL.
 it is systematic, predictable but also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive
more input and revise their hypotheses about the TL.
Interlanguage has the following characteristics:

 some characteristics influenced by the learner’s previous learned
language(s),
 some characteristics of the L2, and
 some characteristics which seem to be general and tend to occur in all or
most interlanguage systems.

The study of L2 learner language includes
 What types of errors learners make?
 How their errors show their TL knowledge and ability to use the TL
 How L2 learners develop their interlanguage
 What factors influence their interlanguage
II. Purpose of studying learner language

 The study of leaner language helps teachers to assess teaching procedures in the light of
what they can reasonably expect to accomplish in the classroom.
 It also helps learners to be aware of the steps that they go through in acquiring L2
features.
 It provides a deeper understanding of errors that L2 learners make. An increase in
errors may not result from a lack of practice or negative transfer from L1; rather, it can be
an indication of progress (e.g., due to overgeneralization).
III. Learner language and errors

During the 1960s:
 Most people regarded L2 learners’ speech as an incorrect version of the TL.
 Their errors were believed to be the results mainly of transfer from their L1.
 Contrastive Analysis (CA) was the basis for identifying differences between
the L1 and the L2 and for predicting areas of potential errors (i.e., based on CAH).
Why is CAH problematic?
A number of SLA research studies show that
 Many errors can be explained better in terms of learners’ attempts to discover
the structure of the language being learned rather than an attempt to transfer
patterns of their L1.
17
 Some errors are remarkably similar to the kinds of errors made by young
L1 learners (e.g., the use of a regular -ed past tense for an irregular verb).
Why is CAH problematic? (continued)

A number of SLA research studies show that
 Errors are not always “bi-directional” when differences between L1 and L2 exist.
 Learners have intuitions that certain features of their L1 are less likely to be transferable
than others. For example, they believe that idiomatic or metaphorical expressions
cannot simply be translated word for word.
 III. Learner language and errors
During the 1970s:
 The research goal was to discover what learners really know about the TL. Their
errors reflect their current understanding of the rules and patterns of the TL.
 Error analysis replaced contrastive analysis. It did not set out to predict L2 learners’
errors; rather, it aims to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to
understand how learners process the L2.
 Error analysis is based on the assumption that L2 learner language is a system in its
own right – one which is rule-governed and predictable.
Learner errors and Error Analysis
 Human learning is fundamentally a process that involves the making of mistakes.
 They form an important aspect of learning virtually any skill or acquiring information.
 Language learning is like any other human learning.
 L2 learning is a process that is clearly not unlike L1 learning in its trial-and-error
nature. Inevitably, learners will make mistakes in the process of acquisition, and that
process will be impeded if they do not commit errors and then benefit from various
forms of feedback on those errors.
 Corder (1967) noted: “a learner’s errors are significant in that they provide to the
researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or
procedures the learner is employing in the discovery of the language.”
Learner errors and Error Analysis

Mistakes and Errors
 In order to analyze learner language in an appropriate perspective, it is crucial to make
a distinction between mistakes and errors, technically two very different phenomena.
 Mistake –refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a “slip”, in that
is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. Native speakers make mistakes. When
attention is called to them, they can be self-corrected.
 Error –a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflects the
competence of the learner (Does John can sing?)
• Learner language and errors
- Types of errors
 Developmental errors: the errors that might very well be made by children acquiring
their L1 (e.g., “a cowboy go”).
 Overgeneralization errors: the errors that are caused by trying to use a rule in a
context where it does not belong (e.g., “They plays toys in the bar”, “She buyed a
dress.”).
 Simplification errors: the errors that are caused by simplifying or leaving out some
elements (e.g., all verbs have the same form regardless of person, number or tense).
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 Misuse of formulaic expressions: (e.g., “Santa Claus ride a one horse open sleigh to
sent present for children”).
*See the lyric of Jingle Bell
 Interference errors (transfer from L1): (e.g., “On the back of his body has big packet”
>> “Trên lưng anh có đeo một túi to”
• Learner language and errors
- Discussion of Error Analysis
 Advantage:
It permits a description of some systematic aspects of learner language.
 Constraints:
It does not always give us clear insights into what causes learners to do what they
do, because
• It is very often difficult to determine the source of errors.
• Learners sometimes avoid using certain features of language which they
perceive difficult. The avoidance of particular features will be difficult to
observe, but it may also be a part of the learner’s systematic L2 performance.
IV. Developmental sequences
SLA research has revealed that
 L2 learners, like L1 learners, pass through sequences of development.
 In a given language, many of these developmental sequences are similar for L1 and L2
learners.
 It is not always the case that L2 features which are heard or read most frequently are
easier to learn (e.g., articles - ‘a’ & ‘the’).
 Even among L2 learners from different L1 backgrounds and different learning
environments, many of these developmental sequences are similar.
IV. Developmental sequences
 Grammatical morphemes
 Negation
 Questions
 Relative clauses
 Reference to past
 Developmental sequences
 Grammatical morphemes
 Learners are often more accurate in using plural -s than in using possessive -s’.
 Learners are often more accurate in using -ing than in using -ed past.
 The learner’s L1 has some effect on the accuracy order of grammatical morphemes;
however, it is not entirely determined by the learner’s L1. There are some strong
patterns of similarity among learners of different L1 backgrounds.
(* Please see p. 5 for the L1 development of grammatical morphemes)
Developmental sequences - Negation
 The acquisition of negative sentences by L2 learners follows a path that looks nearly
identical to the stages of L1 language acquisition (* Please see p. 6).
 The difference is that L2 learners from different language backgrounds behave
somewhat differently within those stages.
 Stages of forming negative sentences (see examples on pp. 77-78):
• stage 1 – using ‘no’ before the verb or noun
• stage 2 – using ‘don’t’
• stage 3 – using ‘are’, ‘is’, and ‘can’ with ‘not’
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• stage 4 – using auxiliary verbs with ‘not’ that agree with tense, person, and
number.
Developmental sequences - Questions
 The developmental sequence for questions by L2 learners is similar in most respects to
L1 language acquisition (* Please see pp. 7-8).
 The developmental sequence for questions, while very similar across learners, also
appears to be affected to some degrees by L1 influence (e.g., French learners of
English, p. 49).
 Stages of forming questions (see examples on p. 79):
• stage 1 – single words or sentence fragments
• stage 2 – declarative word order (no fronting and no inversion)
• stage 3 – fronting (wh- fronting but no inversion; do-fronting)
• stage 4 – inversion in wh- + copula and ‘yes/no’ questions
• stage 5 – inversion in wh- questions
• stage 6 – complex questions (tag questions; negative questions; embedded
questions)
Developmental sequences - Relative clauses
 The pattern of acquisition for relative clauses (the “accessibility hierarchy” for relative
clause in English):
 Subject (‘The girl who was sick went home’)
 Direct object (‘The story that/which I read was long’)
 Indirect object (‘The man who[m] I gave the present to was absent’)
 Object of preposition (‘I found the book that John was talking about’)
 Possessive (‘I know the woman whose father is visiting’)
 Object of comparison (‘The person that Susan is taller than is Mary’)
Developmental sequences - Reference to past (I)
 Learners with very limited language may simply refer to events in the order in which
they occurred or mention a time or place to show that event occurred in the past.
e.g. My son come. He work in restaurant. He don’t like his boss.
 Later, learners start to attach a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is
marked for the past. After they begin marking past tense on verbs, learners may still
make errors such as overgeneralization of the regular -ed ending.
e.g. John worked in the bank. He rided a bicycle.
Developmental sequences - Reference to past (II)
 Learners are more likely to mark past tense on some verbs (action verbs) than on others
(state verbs).
For example, learners seem to mark past tense more easily in the sentences “I broke the
vase” and “He fixed the car.” than in the sentences “She seemed happy last week” or
“My father belonged to a club”.
 Learners seem to find it easier to mark past tense when referring to completed events
than when referring to states and activities which may last for extended periods without
a clear end-point.
e.g. He stays there for a week. I want to know how he learns English.
Developmental sequences - Conclusion
 Research shows that there are systematic and predictable developmental stages, or
sequences, of second language acquisition.
 It is important to emphasize that developmental stages are not liked “closed rooms”.
Learners do not leave one behind when they enter another. It is common that learners
produce sentences typical of several different stages.
20
 It is better to think of a stage as being characterized by the “emergence” and
“increasing frequency” of a particular form rather than by the disappearance of an
earliest one.
 Even for a more advanced learner, conditions of stress or complexity in a
communicative interaction can cause the learner to ‘slip back’ to an earlier stage.
V. L1 influence and learner language
 Learners’ knowledge of their L1 helps them to learn the parts of the L2 that are similar to
the L1.
 The L1 may interact with learners’ developmental sequences of the L2.
 “Avoidance” may be associated with learners’ perception that a feature in the L2 is
distant and different from their L1.
 Learners are usually aware that idiomatic or metaphorical uses of words are often unique
to a particular language; therefore, L1 transfer of these uses seldom occurs.
 When learners’ interlanguage form does not cause any difficulty in communicating
meaning, they may find it difficult to get rid of it (i.e., fossilization).
Summary
 Researchers have found that learners who receive grammar-based instruction still pass
through the same developmental sequences and make the same types of errors as those
who acquire language in natural settings.
 Research also shows that L2 learners from different L1 backgrounds often make the same
kinds of errors when learning the L2.
 The transfer of patterns from the L1 is only one of the major sources of errors in learner
language; however, there are other causes for errors too, such as developmental errors,
overgeneralization errors, and simplification errors, which constantly affect
interlanguage.
 Therefore, interlanguage errors are evidence of the learners’ efforts to discover the
structure of the TL itself rather than just attempts to transfer patterns from their L1.
4. Explaining Second Language Learning (Chapter 4: pp103-122): Main Perspectives /

Theories / Paradigms / Approaches /
 Behaviorist Perspective / Structural Linguistics
 Innatist Perspective
 Cognitive Perspective
 Constructivist Perspective:
- Cognitive Constructivism
- Social Constructivism: Socio-cultural perspective / Interactionist/
Language – Learning - Teaching
Language: Definitions
Language is:
21
 Systematic, multilevels: Phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse.
 Used to convey meanings >>> semantics and pragmatics
 Largely universal: Implicit vs explicit rules
 For communication
 Operating in a specific socio-cultural contexts
Language learning / acquisition and teaching
Learning vs acquisition
Implicit vs explicit learning (Declarative vs Procedural knowledge)
“Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Teaching is guiding and facilitating
learning, enabling the learner to learn, seeting the conditions for learning” D Brown p.7.
Schools of Thought in SLA
Behaviorism / Structuralism
Cognitive Psychology
Constructivism
 School of Thought in SLA
 I) The Behaviorist Perspective
 Four characteristics of behaviorism:
1) imitation, 2) practice, 3) reinforcement, and
4) habit formation
 Brooks (1960) & Lado (1964):
- emphasizing mimicry and memorization
(audiolingual teaching methods)
 Behaviorist Perspective / CAH

 A person learning an L2 starts off with the habits formed in the L1 and these habits
would interfere with the new ones needed for the L2.
 Behaviorism was often linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH):
It predicts that where there are similarities between the L1 and the target language, the
learner will acquire target-language structures with ease; where there are differences,
the learner will have difficulty.
 Behaviorism / CAH
 Criticisms about the CAH:
Though a learner’s L1 influences the acquisition of an L2, researchers have found
that L2 learners do not make all the errors predicted by the CAH.
 Many of their errors are not predictable on the basis of their L1 (e.g. ‘putted’;
‘cooker’ meaning a person who cooks; ‘badder than’)
 Some errors are similar across learners from a variety of L1 backgrounds (e.g.
he/she; “th” sound; the use of the past tense; the relative clauses)
 Behaviorism / Summary
 The L1 influence may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits, but a more
subtle and complex process of
- identifying points of similarity,
- weighing the evidence in support of some particular feature, and
- reflecting (though not necessarily consciously) about whether a certain feature
seems to ‘belong’ in the L2.
 By the 1970s, many researchers were convinced that behaviorism and the CAH were
inadequate explanations for SLA.
 II) The Innatist Perspective

 Chomsky’s Universal Grammar (UG) in relation to second language development
22
 Competence vs. Performance
 Krashen’s “monitor model”
 Innatism:
Universal Grammar
 UG and SLA
 Chomsky has not made specific claims about the implications of his theory for
second language learning.
 Linguists working within the innatist theory have argued that UG offers the best
perspective to understand SLA. UG can explain why L2 learners eventually know
more about the language than they could reasonably have learned (i.e. UG can
explain L2 learners’ creativity and generalization ability).
 Other linguists argue that UG is not a good explanation for SLA, especially by
learners who have passed the critical period (i.e. CPH does not work in SLA).
(* Note: See Chapter 3: Age of acquisition and CPH)
 Innatism:
Universal Grammar
 How UG works in SLA:
Two different views -
 The nature and availability of UG are the same in L1 and L2 acquisition.
Adult L2 learners, like children, neither need nor benefit from error correction
and metalinguistic information. These things change only the superficial
appearance of language performance and do not affect the underlying
competence of the new language (e.g., Krashen’s “monitor model”).
 Innatism:
Universal Grammar
 How UG works in SLA:
Two different views -
 UG may be present and available to L2 learners, but its exact
nature has been altered by the prior acquisition of the first language.
L2 learners need to be given some explicit information about what is not
grammatical in the L2. Otherwise, they may assume that some structures of the
L1 have equivalents in the L2 when, in fact, they do not.
 Innatism:
Competence vs. Performance
 Competence:
It refers to the knowledge which underlies our ability to use language.
 Performance:
It refers to the way a person actually uses language in listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. Performance is subject to variations due to inattention, anxiety, or fatigue
whereas competence (at least for the mature native speaker) is more stable.
 Innatism:
Competence vs. Performance
 SLA researchers from the UG perspective (innatism) are more interested in the
language competence (i.e., knowledge of complex syntax) of advanced learners rather
than in the simple language of early stage learners.
 Their investigations often involve comparing the judgments of grammaticality made by
L2 and L1 learners, rather than observations of actual language performance (i.e., use of
language).
23
 Innatism:
Krashen’s “monitor model” (1982)
 The acquisition-learning hypothesis
 The monitor hypothesis
 The natural order hypothesis
 The input hypothesis
 The affective filter hypothesis
 History
Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell developed the "Natural Approach" in the early eighties
(Krashen and Terrell, 1983), based on Krashens’ five theories on second language
acquisition.
“Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and
does not require tedious drill."
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication

- in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages
they are conveying and understanding."
 Theoretical base
“Reflecting the cognitive psychology and humanistic approach prominent in the field of
education at that time, Krashens’ five theories on second language acquisition
shifted the culture of the language classroom 180 degrees and brought a sense of community
to the students by their sharing of the experience of learning the same language together.”
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001)
 Innatism:
Krashen’s “monitor model”
 The acquisition-learning hypothesis
 Acquisition: we acquire L2 knowledge as we are exposed to samples of the L2
which we understand with no conscious attention to language form. It is a
subconscious and intuitive process.
 Learning: we learn the L2 via a conscious process of study and attention to form
and rule learning.
 Krashen argues that “acquisition” is a more important process of constructing the
system of a language than “learning” because fluency in L2 performance is due
to what we have acquired, not what we have learned.
 Innatism:
 The monitor hypothesis
 The acquired system acts to initiate the speaker’s utterances and is responsible
for spontaneous language use, whereas the learned system acts as a “monitor”,
making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system has produced.
 Such monitoring takes place only when the speaker/writer has plenty of time, is
concerned about producing correct language, and has learned the relevant rules.
24
 Innatism:
 The natural order hypothesis
 L2 learners acquire the features of the TL in predictable sequences.
 The language features that are easiest to state (and thus to ‘learn’) are not
necessarily the first to be acquired.
e.g. the rule for adding an –s to third person singular verbs in the present
tense
 Innatism:
 The input hypothesis
 Acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and
that contains “i +1”.
 If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner’s current level
of competence in the language (“i +1”), then both comprehension and acquisition
will occur.
 Innatism:
 The affective filter hypothesis
 “Affect” refers to feelings, motives, needs, attitudes, and emotional states.
 The “affective filter” is an imaginary/metaphorical barrier that prevents learners
from acquiring language from the available input.
 Depending on the learner’s state of mind, the filter limits what is noticed and
what is acquired. A learner who is tense, anxious, or bored may “filter out” input,
making it unavailable for acquisition.
 Innatism:
 Summary
 Krashen’s “monitor model” (i.e., acquisition vs. learning, monitor, natural order,
comprehensible input, and affective filter) has been very influential in supporting
communicative language teaching (CLT), which focuses on using language for
meaningful interaction and for accomplishing tasks, rather than on learning rules.
 Krashen’s hypotheses are intuitively appealing, but those hypotheses are hard to
be tested by empirical evidence.
 Criticisms of Krashen’s Five Hypotheses
 Criticisms of Krashen’s
Five Hypotheses
 1. Input Hypothesis
 McLaughlin claims that the concept of a learner’s “level” is extremely difficult to
define, just as the idea of i+1
 How can we know which language data contains i+1 rather than i+3
 It is difficult to determine the learners' current levels due to individual differences
 1. Input Hypothesis
 no clear evidence shows that increased input will result in more language acquisition,
and that increased output will not
 if comprehensible input is necessary, then so is comprehensible output
25
 2. Affective Filter Hypothesis
 First, Krashen claims that children lack the affective filter that causes most adult second
language learners to never completely master their second language.
 Such a claim fails to withstand scrutiny because children also experience differences in
non-linguistic variables such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety that
supposedly account for child-adult differences in second language learning.

 Furthermore, evidence in the form of adult second language learners who acquire a
second language to a native-like competence except for a single grammatical feature
 problematizes the claim that an affective filter prevents comprehensible input from
reaching the language acquisition device.

 Again, if the absence of the filter can make children such effective learners, how to
explain the achievement of some adults who attain native-like proficiency — what
happens in their case is left unexplained.
 In other words, the affective filter hypothesis fails to answer the most important
question about affect alone accounting for individual variation in second language
acquisition.
 3. Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
 It is difficult to accept the idea of a fully operational Language Acquisition Device
(LAD) in adults, since adults are well past the age of puberty.
McLaughin (1978, 1987) and Gregg (1984)
 Acknowledge the limited accessibility of LAD in adults but not in children.
 LAD declines as you age.
 The older you get, the limited access you have towards LAD.
Chomsky (1975)
 Feels the needs of an accurate definition for the vague terminology of that Krashen used
i.e. acquisition/learning, conscious/subconscious etc.
 However, Krashen does not seem to be anxious by the critics (Zafar, 2009).
McLaughin (1978, 1987)
 Difficult to perceive how acquisition and learning ‘housed’ in two separate linguistics
systems, could be put into use by L2 learners.
Gass and Selinker (1994)
 Acquisition could be better understood when described as a process enriched by the
learned system.
 Instead of drawing a borderline separating acquisition and learning into two discrete
disciplines, the cross-currents at both are constantly at work in SLA are to be
acknowledged and explained.
Zafar (2009)
26
 Zafar (2009)
 Zafar (2009)
 4. Monitor Hypothesis
 Krashen assumes that young learners are better language learners than adolescents
because they are less affected by linguistic monitors.
 But McLaughlin stated that children and adolescents are equally capable of L2
acquisition.
McLaughlin (1992)
 4. Monitor Hypothesis
McLaughlin (1987)
“People have rules for language use in their heads, but these rules are not those of the
grammarian. People operate on the basis of informal rules of limited scope and validity.
These rules are sometimes conscious and sometimes not, but in any given utterance it is
impossible to determine what the knowledge source is.”
 5. Natural Order Hypothesis

 Krashen claimed for a natural order is based mainly on English morphemes order
studies which has been demonstrated unsatisfactory.
(Gass and Selinker, 1994; McLaughlin, 1987).
 5. Natural Order Hypothesis
 The natural order hypothesis fails to account for the considerable influence of the first
language on the acquisition of a second language.
 In fact, the results of other studies indicate that second language learners acquire a
second language in different orders depending on their native language.
(Wode 1977, Zobl, 1980, 1982).
 III. Cognitive Perspective
 Since 1990s, Cognitive psychologists working in this model have contributed to further
understanding of SL development:
 compare language acquisition to the capacities of computers for storing,
integrating, and retrieving information.
 do not think that humans have a language-specific module (i.e. LAD) in the
brain.
 do not assume that ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ are distinct mental processes.
 see L2 acquisition as the building up of knowledge that can eventually be called
on automatically for speaking and understanding (i.e., general theories of
learning can account for SLA).
 3.1. Information processing models:
• Attention-processing
• Skill learning
• Restructuring
• Transfer appropriate processing (TAP)
 Information processing
• Attention-processing: McLaughlin’s Model
 This model suggests that learners have to pay attention at first to any aspect of
the language that they are trying to understand or produce.
 It also suggests there is a limit to how much information a learner can pay
attention to or engage in at one time.
27
 Gradually, through experience and practice, information that was new becomes
easier to process, and learners become able to access it quickly and even
automatically.
 This can explain why L2 readers need more time to understand a text, even if
they eventually do fully comprehend it.
• Skill Learning: Implicit vs explicit learning
 Some researchers (Robert DeKeyser et al 1998, 2007) regard SLA as ‘skill
learning’. They suggest that most learning, including language learning, starts
with declarative knowledge (knowledge that).
 Through practice, declarative knowledge may become procedural knowledge
(knowledge how).
 Once skills become procedualized and automatized, thinking about the
declarative knowledge while trying to perform the skill disrupts the smooth
performance of it.
 In SLA, the path from declarative to procedural knowledge is often like
classroom learning where rule learning is followed by practice.
• Restructuring:
 Sometimes changes in language behavior do not seem to be explainable in terms
of a gradual build-up of fluency through practice.
 Restructuring may account for what appear to be sudden bursts of progress and
apparent backsliding.
 It may result from the interaction of knowledge we already have and the
acquisition of new knowledge (without extensive practice).
e.g. “I saw” → “I seed” or “I sawed” –
overapplying the general rule.
• Transfer appropriate processing:
 This hypothesizes that Information is best retrieved in situations that are similar
to those in which it was acquired. This is because when we learn something our
memories also record something about the context and the way in which it was
learned.
 This can explain why knowledge that is acquired mainly in rule learning or drill
activities may be easier to access on tests that resemble the learning activities
than in communicative situation.
 On the other hand, if learners’ cognitive resources are occupied with a focus on
meaning in communicative activities, they may find grammar tests very difficult.
 3.2. Usage based learning: Connectionist views
 Cognitive psychologists see no need to hypothesize the existence of a neurological
module dedicated exclusively to language acquisition but simply the ability to learn in
general rather than any specific linguistic principles or rules.
 Learners develop a stronger network of connections or associations between language
features and the contexts in which they occur through practice and observations.
 3.3. The Competition Model
28
 The competition model is closely related to the connectionist perspective. It is based on
the hypothesis that language acquisition occurs without the necessity of a learner's
focused attention or the need for any innate capacity specifically for language.
 This model takes into account not only language form but also language meaning and
language use.
 Through exposure to thousands of examples of language associated with particular
meanings, learners come to understand how to use the ‘cues’ with which a language
signals specific function.
 Most languages make use of multiple cues, but they differ in the primacy of each.
Therefore, SLA requires that learners learn the relative importance of the different cues
appropriate in the language they are learning.
 3.4. Brain - Based Learning
 Different or same brain areas responsible for first and second language learning, how
input is processed at each stage of maturity ?
 Still new area of research.
 SLA classroom applications
 The interaction hypothesis
 The noticing hypothesis
 Input processing
 Processability theory
 The role of practice
 The Interaction Hypothesis
 Long’s original formulation (1983) of the Interaction Hypothesis:
1. Interactional modification makes input comprehensible;
2. Comprehensible input promotes acquisition;
Therefore,
3. Interactional modification promotes acquisition.
 Modified interaction involves linguistic simplifications and conversational
modifications.
 Examples of conversational modifications:
elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, additional contextual cues,
comprehension checks, clarification requests, and self-repetition or paraphrase.
 Research has demonstrated that conversational adjustments can aid comprehension in
the L2.
 Long’s revised version (1996) of the Interaction Hypothesis:
- more emphasis is placed on the importance of
corrective feedback during interaction.
- “negotiating for meaning” is seen as the opportunity for
language development.
 “Comprehensible output hypothesis” (Swain, 1985)
The demands of producing comprehensible output “push” learners ahead in their
development.
 The Noticing Hypothesis
 Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990, 2001)
- Nothing is learned unless it has been noticed.
- Noticing does not itself result in acquisition, but it is the
essential starting point.
- L2 learners could not begin to acquire a language
29
feature until they had become aware of it in the input.
 Whether learners must be aware that they are “noticing” something in the input in order
to acquire linguistic feature is considered debatable.
 Input Processing
 Input processing (VanPatten, 2004)
- Learners have limited processing capacity and cannot
pay attention to form and meaning at the same time.
- They tend to give priority to meaning. When the
context in which they hear a sentence helps them
make sense of it, they do not notice details of the
language form.
 Processability Theory
 Processability theory (Pienemann, 1999, 2003)
- The research showed that the sequence of development
for features of syntax and morphology was affected by
how easy these were to process.
- It integrates developmental sequences with L1 influence.
- Learners do not simply transfer features from their L1
at early stages of acquisition.
- They have to develop a certain level of processing
capacity in the L2 before they can use their knowledge
of the features that already exist in their L1.
 The Role of Practice (revisited !)
 Practice should be:
 Interactive;
 Meaningful;
 There should be a focus on task-essential forms
 IV. Constructivism: The Socio-cultural perspective
 Two branches of Constructivism: Cognitive Constructivism and Social Cultural
Constructivism;
 Unlike other psychological theories that view thinking and speaking (language and
thought) as independent processes, Sociocultural theory views speaking and thinking as
tightly connected.
 SLA takes place through conversational interaction (learning by talking).
 Long (1983) argued that modified interaction is the necessary mechanism for making
language comprehensible.
 What learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an
opportunity to interact with other speakers, working together to reach mutual
comprehension.
 Research shows that native speakers consistently modify their speech in sustained
conversation with non-native speakers.
 Social Cognitivism
 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
 Language development takes place in the social interactions between individuals.
 Speaking (and writing) mediate thinking.
 Zone of proximal development (ZPD): when there is support from interaction with an
interlocutor, the learner is capable of performing at a higher level.
 L2 learners advance to higher levels of linguistic knowledge when they collaborate and
interact with speakers of the L2 who are more knowledgeable than they are.
30
 The Sociocultural Perspective
 The difference between Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and the interaction hypothesis:
 Summary
 There is no agreement on a “complete” theory of second language acquisition yet.
 Each theoretical framework has a different focus and its limitations.
 Behaviorism: emphasizing stimuli and responses, but ignoring the mental processes
that are involved in learning.
 Innatism: innate LAD, based on intuitions
 Information processing and connectionism: involving controlled laboratory
experiments where human learning is similar to computer processing.
 Interactionist position: modification of interaction promotes language acquisition and
development.
31
Individual differences in SLA:
Part One
Introduction
Individual Learner Differences
Learner Differences: Introduction

The differences among individuals, that distinguish or separate them from one another and
make one as an unique individual in oneself, may be termed as individual
differences.
The psychology of individual differences is concerned with the systematic study of

intelligence and abilities associated with personality of learner, learning styles and
needs and interests of learner.
Introduction…
Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s language, cultural, and social
behaviour are taken into account.
A teacher should be sensitive to individual differences.
A teacher’s challenge is to acknowledge and celebrate the differences among learners and
work to maximize their learning effectiveness.
The “Good Language Learner”

Are there personal characteristics that make one learner more successful than another?
In your experience, as an English learner, which characteristics seem to you most
likely to be associated with success in L2 acquisition?
(Please turn to p. 55 and do the questionnaire)
Then share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important and
three least important learner characteristics.
A good language learner:
• is a willing and accurate guesser
• tries to get a message across even if specific language knowledge is lacking
• is willing to make mistakes
• constantly looks for patterns in the language
• practices as often as possible
• analyzes his or her own speech and the speech of others
• attends to whether his or her performance meets the standards he or she has learned
• enjoys grammar exercises
• begins learning in childhood
• has an above-average IQ
32
• has good academic skills
• has a good self-image and lots of confidence
Before looking at
learner characteristics…
What problems can you see in the following statements?
a) Extroverted learners learn a foreign language more successfully than introverted learners.
b) Low motivation causes low achievement in English language learning.
Before looking at
learner characteristics…
Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and second language acquisition (SLA):
• definition and measurement of variables, personal qualities, i.e. “motivation”
e.g., “willing to make mistakes”
• definition and measurement of language proficiency
literacy/academic skills vs. conversational skills
• correlation vs. causal relationship
• socio-cultural factors
e.g., power relationship between L1 and L2,
social/cultural identity
Factors affecting learning

“Success depends less on materials, techniques, and linguistic analyses, and more on
what goes on inside and between the people in the classroom” (Stevick, 1980, p.4)
According to Stevick, what goes on inside learners, i.e. cognitive, affective factors,
seems to have a strong impact on learners’ learning process
(Stevick, E. W. (1980). Teaching languages: A way and ways. Rowley, MA:
Newbury. House Publishers, Inc.)
Individual Learner Differences

Individual Differences in Second Language Learning
 Intelligence / MI theory
 Aptitude
 Learning styles, learning strategies
 Personality, anxiety
 Motivation and Attitudes
 Learner beliefs
 Identity and ethnic group affiliation
 Age of acquisition
What is Intelligence?
According to Sternberg and Sternberg, intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience,
using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability to adapt to the
surrounding environment (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012).
There are many different people that have contributed to this field of study including Carroll,
Gardner, and Sternberg(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012).
Intelligence (I)
Intelligence has multiple types:
33
Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental abilities that are measured by an IQ
(intelligence quotient) test. It usually measures only two types of intelligence:
verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligence.
There are other types of intelligence such as spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal
intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences
(Howard Gardner, 1993)
Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing, giving presentations, solving word
problems.
Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers, logic, calculations; learning and
understanding grammar rules.
Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using color, art, graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination, athletic skill, body language, drama
and theater.
Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing; producing the intonation and rhythm of a
language.
Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people, understanding them, using language to
communicate.
Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, self-confidence, using language to analyze
yourself.
Naturalistic Intelligence: The ability to work with and around nature.
MI Theory: Application
Gardner (1993:12) explains the social advantages inherent in the application of his theory:
“It is of the utmost importance that we recognize and nurture all the varied human
intelligences, and all of the combinations of intelligences.
We are all so different largely because we all have different combinations of intelligences. If
we recognize this, I think we will have at least a better chance of dealing appropriately with
the many problems that we face in the world.
If we can mobilize the spectrum of human abilities, not only will people feel better about
themselves and more competent; it is even possible that they will also feel more engaged and
better able to join the rest of the world community in working for the broader good.”
Objections to Gardner’s Intelligence Theory

There are some psychologists that disagree with this theory because this view focuses on
modularity. Modularity theorists believe that these intelligences can be located in
specific areas of the brain but such findings have not been proved with empirical
data. Scientists also question the flexibility of an idea of multiple intelligences
because of narrow long term memory.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Whereas Gardner focused on specific and separate areas of intelligence, Sternberg focuses on
how all of these intelligence factors work together. People do better when matched
for a task in their strongest area of intelligence. Sternberg was more focused on
improving overall performance of all three factors.
The Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence refers to the analytic, creative, and practical
aspects of intelligence.
Intelligence (II)
Research Findings:
34
 Intelligence, especially measured by verbal IQ tests, may be a strong factor
when it comes to learning that involves language analysis and rule learning.
 On the other hand, intelligence may play a less important role in language
learning that focuses more on communication and interaction.
 It is important to keep in mind that “intelligence” is complex and that a person
has many kinds of abilities and strengths.
 Research into relationship among intelligence types, personalities, learning
strategy choice, learning success.
MI in the classroom
Aptitude (I)
Aptitude refers to the ability to learn quickly (Carroll, 1991) and is thought to predict success
in learning.
It is hypothesized that a learner with high aptitude may learn with greater ease and speed.
(But other learners may also be successful if they persevere).
Language aptitude tests usually measure the ability to:
 identify and memorize new sounds
 understand the function of particular words in sentences
 figure out grammatical rules from language samples
 memorize new words
Language Aptitude tests
Aptitude :
Aptitude is natural ability, referring to potential for achievement. Therefore, an
aptitude test is designed to make a prediction about an individual’s future
achievements.
According to the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and the Pimsleur
Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB), the language aptitude is composed of
four different types of abilities: 1) the ability to identify and memorize new
sounds, 2) the ability to understand the function of particular words in
sentences, 3) the ability to figure out grammatical rules from language
samples, and 4) memory for new words
Aptitude (II)
Research findings:
 Early research revealed a substantial relationship between performance on
language aptitude tests and performance in foreign language learning that was
based on grammar translation or audiolingual methods.
 However, performance on language aptitude tests seems irrelevant to L2
learning with the adoption of a more communicative approach to teaching.
 Successful language learners may not be strong in all of the components of
aptitude. Learners’ strengths and weaknesses in the different components may
account for their ability to succeed in different types of instructional programs.
LEARNING STYLES
What is a learning style?
Where do learning styles come from?
Why should teachers know about learning styles?
What types of learning styles are there?
What teaching methods and activities suit different learning styles?
What is a learning style?
35
Ellis (1985) described a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a
person perceives, conceptualizes, organizes and recalls information.
Learning style refers to an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of
absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995).
Learning style is distinguished from ability in that it constitutes preferences that
orient a learner to how they approach the learning task rather than capacities that
determine how well they learn. (Ellis 2009)
Types of learning styles related to L2 learning

Dörnyei (2005), drawing on Raynar (2000), distinguished ‘learning style’ and
‘cognitive style’.
Cognitive styles are seen as relatively fixed but learning styles are often seen as
mutable, changing according to experience, and potentially trainable (Little and
Singleton 1990; Holec 1987)
Where do learning styles come from?

Your students' learning styles will be influenced by
• their genetic make-up,
• their previous learning experiences,
• their culture and
• the society they live in.
Why should teachers know about learning styles?

Davidoff and van den Berg (1990) suggest four teaching steps: plan, teach/act, observe and
reflect.
Here are some guidelines for each step.

Students learn better and more quickly if the teaching methods used match their
preferred learning styles.
As learning improves, so too does self esteem; This has a further positive effect on
learning.
Students who have become bored with learning may become interested once again.
The student-teacher relationship can improve because the student is more successful
and is more interested in learning.
What types of learning styles are there?

There are many ways of looking at learning styles.
Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:
• Perceptual learning styles /modalities:
visual, aural/auditory, and haptic (kinesthetic & tactile)
• Cognitive learning styles:
field-independent vs. field-dependent
(tendency to see the trees or the forest)
Global vs Concrete
right-brain dominance vs. left-brain dominance
• Personality related:
Introverted vs. extroverted
Learning Style Preferences: Andrew D. Cohen, Rebecca L. Oxford, & Julie C. Chi (2001)
Sensory Style Preferences:
36
visual   auditory   hands on (kinesthetic & tactile)
Cognitive Style Preferences:
abstract-intuitive   concrete-sequential
global   particular
synthesizing   analytic
field-dependent   field-independent
Personality-Related Style Preferences:
extroverted   introverted
reflective   impulsive
open   closure-oriented
Sensory Style Preferences
visual – relying more on the sense of sight and learn best through visual means (e.g., books,
video, charts, pictures). Visual Vera→
auditory – preferring listening and speaking activities (e.g., discussions, debates, audiotapes,
role-plays, lectures).
Visual learners
Those who prefer a visual learning style...
...look at the teacher's face intently
...like looking at wall displays, books etc.
...often recognize words by sight
...use lists to organize their thoughts
...recall information by remembering how it was set out on a page
Auditory learners
Those who prefer an auditory learning style...
...like the teacher to provide verbal instructions
...like dialogues, discussions and plays
...solve problems by talking about them
...use rhythm and sound as memory aids
Kinesthetic learners
Those who prefer a kinesthetic learning style...
...learn best when they are involved or active
...find it difficult to sit still for long periods
...use movement as a memory aid
Tactile learners
Those who prefer a tactile way of learning...
...use writing and drawing as memory aids
...learn well in hands-on activities like projects and demonstrations
Cognitive Style Preferences

abstract-intuitive – future-oriented, enjoying abstract thinking, and happy speculating about
possibilities.
concrete-sequential – present-oriented, preferring one-step-at-a-time activities and wanting to

know where they are going in their learning at every moment.
37
more global – enjoying getting the main idea and comfortable communicating even without
knowing all the words or concepts.
more particular – focusing more on details and remembering specific information about a
topic well.
more synthesizing – summarizing material well and noticing similarities quickly.
more analytic – pulling ideas apart, doing well on logical analysis and contrast tasks, and
tending to focus on grammar rules.
more field-dependent – needs context in order to focus and understand something; takes each
language part one at a time and may have difficulty handling all of the parts at one
time.
more field-independent – able to keep a sense of the whole while handling all the individual
parts as well without being distracted
Learning Styles Check

field-independent vs. field-dependent
Here’s a puzzle for you. Look at the row of strange shapes below. Can you find what
the message is?
Left-brain dominated vs.

right-brain dominated
Students who are left-brain dominated...
...are intellectual
...process information in a linear way
...tend to be objective
...prefer established, certain information
...rely on language in thinking and remembering
Students who are right-brain dominated...

...are intuitive
...process information in a holistic way
...tend to be subjective
...prefer elusive, uncertain information
...rely on drawing and manipulating to help them think and learn
Personality-Related
Style Preferences
extroverted – enjoying a wide range of social, interactive learning tasks (e.g., games,
conversations, debates, role-plays, simulations).
Extroverted Ellie→
introverted – preferring more independent work (e.g., studying or reading by oneself or
learning with the computer) or enjoying working with, say, one other person.
Introverted Iris→
38
more reflective – processes material at a low speed with high accuracy; avoids risks and
guessing
more impulsive – processes material at a high speed with low accuracy; often takes risks and
guesses
keeping all options open – enjoying discovery learning where information is picked up
naturally and where learning doesn’t involve a concern for deadlines or rules.
Open-Oriented Oliver→
closure-oriented – focusing carefully on all learning tasks and seek clarity, meeting
deadlines, planning ahead for assignments and staying organized, and wanting
explicit directions and decisions.
* A Learning Style Survey: Assessing Your Own Learning Styles by Andrew D.

Cohen, Rebecca L. Oxford, & Julie C. Chi (2001) – downloadable from the CARLA
website at:
http://www.carla.umn.edu/about/profiles/Cohen
• Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire (Barbara A. Soloman & Richard M.
Felder, North Carolina State University)
http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSpage.html
Concerns about Styles

Are the descriptions of style too vague and superficial?
• How certain that assessing the style constructs through measures? What if the
characteristic is more an ability than a style preference?
• And what if a person comes out in the middle on a dichotomous measure?
• Asking learners to self-report about their style preferences isn’t as valuable as
actually giving them performance tasks where their style preferences emerge.
See Ch. 5, “Learning styles and cognitive styles” in Dörnyei (2005) on individual
differences.
Teacher-Learner Style Conflicts in the Classroom

The teacher is more analytic, reflective, and auditory, while the learner is more global,
impulsive, and visual,
The teacher is more open-oriented, while the learner is more closure-oriented,
The teacher is more concrete-sequential, while the learner is more random-intuitive,
The teacher is more extroverted and hands-on, while the learner is more introverted and
visual.
[From Oxford, R. L. & Lavine, R. Z. (1992). Teacher-student style wars in the

language classroom: Research insights and suggestions. ADFL Bulletin, 23 (2), 38-
45.]
To avoid or resolve such conflicts:

 Assessment of students' and teachers' styles and use of this information in
understanding classroom dynamics,
39
 Changes in the teacher's instructional style,
 Style-stretching by students,
 Changes in the way group work is done in the classroom,
 Changes in the curriculum,
 Changes in the way style conflicts are viewed.
The Four Modalities
Visual
Use many visuals in the classroom. For example, wall displays posters, realia, flash
cards, graphic organizers etc.
Auditory
Use audio tapes and videos, storytelling, songs, jazz chants, memorization and drills
Allow learners to work in pairs and small groups regularly.
Kinesthetic
Use physical activities, competitions, board games, role plays etc.
Intersperse activities which require students to sit quietly with activities that allow
them to move around and be active
Tactile
Use board and card games, demonstrations, projects, role plays etc.
Use while-listening and reading activities. For example, ask students to fill in a table
while listening to a talk, or to label a diagram while reading
Field-independent vs. field-dependent
Field-independent
Let students work on some activities on their own

Field-dependent
Let students work on some activities in pairs and small groups

Left-brain vs. right-brain dominated
Left-brain dominated
Give verbal instructions and explanations
Set some closed tasks to which students can discover the "right" answer
Right-brain dominated
Write instructions as well as giving them verbally
Demonstrate what you would like students to do
Give students clear guidelines, a structure, for tasks
Set some open-ended tasks for which there is no "right" answer
Use realia and other things that students can manipulate while learning
Sometimes allow students to respond by drawing
Learning Styles: Research Issues
field-independent: see things more analytically
field-dependent: see things more holistically
40
Research findings:
FI is related to classroom language learning that involves analysis, attention to details,
and mastering of exercise, drills, and other focused activities.
FD is related to the communicative aspects of language learning that require social
outreach, empathy, perception of other people, and communicative skills.
FI/FD may also prove to be a valuable tool for differentiating child and adult
language acquisition due to the fact that FI increases as a child matures to
adulthood.
Learning Styles
right-brain vs. left-brain dominance
The right brain perceives and remembers visual, tactile, and auditory images. It is
more efficient in processing holistic, integrative, and emotional information.
The left brain is associated with logical, analytical thought, with mathematical and
linear processing of information.
Though we all tend to have one hemisphere that is more dominant, it is important to
remember that the left and right hemispheres need to operate together as a “team”.
Learning Styles
Research findings and implications:
 Every person, student or teacher, has a learning style; therefore, there is no
particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all learners.
 Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often described as
opposites.
 Learning styles are value-neutral; that is, no one style is better than others.
 Very little research has examined the interaction between different learning
styles and success in L2 learning; however, students should be encouraged to
“stretch” their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety
of leaning situations.
Learning Styles: References
Oxford, R. L. (1993). Style Analysis Survey. In J. Reid (Ed.) (1995). Learning styles in the
ESL/EFL classroom (pp. 208-215). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Ehrman, M. E. & Leaver, B. L. (1997). Sorting our global and analytic functions in second
language learning. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied
Linguistics annual meeting, Orlando, FL, March 8-11, 1997.
Ehrman, M. E. & Leaver, B. L. (2001). E&L Questionnaire.
Ehrman, M. & Leaver, B. L. (2003). Cognitive styles in the service of language learning.
System, 31(3), 313-330.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
References:
Links to websites:
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/learning-styles-teaching
http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/learningstyle.php
http://www.eslkidstuff.com/blog/classroom-management/6-different-types-of-esl-learners-
and-how-to-teach-them#sthash.ORmUQ9jW.dpbs
Links to YouTube Videos:
41
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NoEee9l9nCw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_bQUSFzLI4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zXb0Bj97yDU
Language Learning Strategies
• History
• Definitions
• Classifications
• Factors affecting LLS use
• Research issues
• Learning vs Using Strategies?
• LLS Instruction
1. History
 Language learning strategies were first introduced to the second language literature
in 1975, with research on the good language learner (Rubin, Joan. "What the good
language learner can teach us". TESOL Quarterly 9 (1): 41–51). At the time it was
thought that a better understanding of strategies deployed by successful learners
could help inform teachers and students alike of how to teach and learn languages
more effectively. Initial studies aimed to document the strategies of good language
learners. In the 80s the emphasis moved to classification of language learning
strategies. Strategies were first classified according to whether they were direct or
indirect, and later they were strategies divided into cognitive, metacognitive or
affective/social categories.
 In 1990, Rebecca Oxford published her landmark book "Language Learning
Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know" which included the "Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning" or "SILL", a questionnaire which was used in a
great deal of research in the 1990s and early 2000s.
 Controversy over basic issues such as definition grew stronger in the late 1990s and
early 2000s, however, with some researchers giving up trying to define the concept
in favour of listing essential characteristics. Others abandoned the strategy term in
favour of "self regulation". Rose, Heath (2012). "Reconceptualizing strategic
learning in the face of self-regulation: Throwing language learning strategies out
with the bathwater". Applied Linguistics 33 (1): 92–98.
2. LLS definitions
• Rubin (1975)
“LLS are the techniques or devices that learners use to acquire a second language
knowledge.”
• Chamot (1987)
“LLS are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to
facilitate learning & recall of both linguistic & content area information.”
• Oxford (1990)
“LLS are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, & more transferable to new situation.”
• Oxford (1993)
42
“LLS are specific actions, behaviours, steps or techniques that students use to
improve their progress in developing second language skills.”
3. LLS Classifications
O'Malley and Chamot classification
In 1990, O'Malley and Chamot[5] developed a classification of three types of language
learning strategies:
• Metacognitive strategies, which involved thinking about (or knowledge of) the
learning process, planning for learning, monitoring learning while it is taking place,
or self‐evaluation of learning after the task had been completed.
• Cognitive strategies, which invoked mental manipulation or transformation of
materials or tasks, intended to enhance comprehension, acquisition, or retention.
• Social/affective strategies, which consisted of using social interactions to assist in
the comprehension, learning or retention of information. As well as the mental
control over personal affect that interfered with learning.
This model was based on cognitive theory, which was commended, but it was also criticized
for the ad hoc nature of its third category.
LLS Classifications
Oxford taxonomy
in 1990, Rebecca Oxford developed a taxonomy for categorizing strategies under six
headings:
• Cognitive—making associations between new and already known information;
• Mnemonic—making associations between new and already known information
through use of formula, phrase, verse or the like;
• Metacognitive—controlling own cognition through the co‐ordination of the
planning, organization and evaluation of the learning process;
• Compensatory—using context to make up for missing information in reading and
writing;
• Affective—regulation of emotions, motivation and attitude toward learning;
• Social—the interaction with other learners to improve language learning and cultural
understanding.
In later years this classification system was criticized for its problems in separating
mnemonic strategies from cognitive strategies, when one is a sub-category of the other, and
the inclusion of compensatory strategies, which are connected to how a learner uses the
language, rather than learns it.
LLS Classifications According to Skills
4. FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES (LLSs)
 Learner’s levels of language proficiency
 Motivation
 Learning Style
 Gender
 Age
 Others: Previous learning, personalities, language tasks, culture,
beliefs, academic disciplines …
Learner's Levels of Language Learning Proficiency

Students with high level of language proficiency used more direct and indirect strategies
(Green & Oxford 1995).
43
Specifically, they have been associated with the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies
(Peacock & Ho 2003).
For example, a study done by O’Malley et al. (1985), showed that intermediate students used
more metacognitive strategies than the beginners.
Motivation
Motivation is the most important factor in influencing the strategy use (Oxford & Nyikos
1989).
A study by Tamada (1996) that investigated the effect of instrumental and integrative
motivation on the strategy use of 24 Japanese ESL college students in England
reported that both integrative and instrumental motivation had a significant effect on
learners’ choice of LLSs.
McIntyre and Noels’s (1996) study revealed that learners who were substantially motivated
employed more learning strategies and used them frequently in their learning.
Learning Style
According to Ehrman and Oxford (1990), a learner’s learning styles will influence the type of
LLSs used.
Both scholars added that an extroverts would prefer to use social strategies while an introvert
rather choose metacognitive strategies.
Gender
There have been a lot of researches done in order to investigate the effect of gender on LLSs.
Majority of the studies reported that female learners have been using LLSs more frequently
compared to male learners (Hashim & Sahil 1994).
Age
Age is often mentioned as an influence on language learning success (Scarcella & Oxford
1992).
Sadeghi and Mohammad (2013) stated that younger learners used more LLSs compared to
adult learners.
Factors affecting LLSs: References

Ehrman, M. & Oxford, R. 1990. Adult language learning styles and strategies in an
intensive training setting. Modern Language Journal 74: 311–326.
Green, J.M. & Oxford, R. 1995. A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and
gender. TESOL Quarterly 29: 261–297.
Hashim, R.A. and S.A. Sahil. 1994. Examining learners’ language learning strategies.
RELC Journal 25: 1–20.
McIntyre, P.D. and K. Noels. 1996. Using social-psychological variables to predict the
use of language learning strategies. Foreign Language Annals 29: 373–386.
O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., Stewner-Manzanares, G.,Küpper, L. & Russo, R. P. 1985.
Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students.
Language Learning 35: 21–46.
Oxford, R. and M. Nyikos. 1989. Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies
by
university students. Modern Language Journal, 73, pp. 291–300.
Peacock, M. & Ho, B. 2003. Student language learning strategies across eight disciplines.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics 13: 179–200.
44
Sadeghi, K & Attar, M. T. 2013. The relationship between learning strategy use and starting
age of
learning EFL. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences 70: 387-396.
Scarcella, R. & Oxford, R. 1992. The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the
Communicative Classroom. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Tamada, Y. 1996. The relationship between Japanese learners’ personal factors and their
choices
of language learning strategies. Modern Language Journal 80: 120– 131.
5. LLS Research: Controversies

• First, historical research on language learning strategies has produced conflicting
results on the relationship between strategies and language learning success.
• A second problem associated with researching language learner strategies is the
definitional fuzziness of major concepts in the field. Researchers in field, such as Ernesto
Macaro (2008:Graham, Suzanne; Macaro, E (2008). "Strategy instruction in listening for
lower-intermediate learners of French" ) argue there is a lack of consensus of:
Whether strategies occur inside or outside of the brain;
Whether learner strategies consist of knowledge, intention, action or all three;
Whether to classify strategies in frameworks, hierarchies [or clusters];
Whether strategies survive across all learning situations, tasks and contexts;
Whether they are integral or additive to language processing.
Due to the definitional fuzziness of language learning strategies, critics have argued the
whole field should be replaced with the psychological concept of self-regulation.
• Interest in the potential of strategies to promote learning remains strong A particularly
important question for educators is whether learners can benefit from strategy instruction,
both in terms of improved linguistic outcomes and improved self-efficacy for learning. For
example, in a study within the context of England, Graham and Macaro (2008) found
improved listening skills and improved self-efficacy for listening among learners of French
who had received instruction in listening strategies. Another important question is also the
extent to which teachers have knowledge and understanding of how to incorporate language
learning strategies into their teaching, with research indicating that this is an area for
development .
6. Learning vs Language Use / Communication Strategies
Second language learning & use strategies are steps taken by the learners either to improve
the learning of a second language or the use of it.
Language learning strategies are used when learners do not have the purpose of
communication but have the purpose of learning.
Strategies of language use are used when learners do not have the purpose of learning but
have the purpose of communicating
Language Use Strategies

Language use strategies include
i) language performance strategies
ii) communication strategies.
45
• Language performance strategies include cognitive processing strategies,
strategies for solidifying newly acquired language & strategies for
determining the amount of cognitive energy to expand.
• Communication strategies focus on getting a message across.

Communication strategies (Dönyei)
7. LLS Instruction
• Implicit vs explicit instruction

• Instruction procedures
• Research issues on impact of Strategy-Based Instruction (SBI) on learning
outcomes.
Individual differences in second language acquisition:

Part II:
 Personality:
 Introvert vs extrovert
 Inhibition vs risk taking
 Anxiety
 Motivation
 Attitudes
 Beliefs
 Self-Efficacy
 Identity
 Age
Personality
 There are a number of personality characteristics that may affect L2 learning,
such as
 Extroversion vs. introversion
 Inhibition vs. risk-taking
 Anxiety
 Self-esteem
 Empathy
 Extroversion vs. Introversion
 Are you more extroverted or introverted?
 It is often argued that an extroverted person is well suited to language learning. However,
research does not always support this conclusion.
 Some studies have found that learners’ success in language learning is associated with
extroversion such as assertiveness and adventurousness, while others have found that
many successful language learners do not get high scores on measures of extroversion.
 Inhibition vs. risk-taking
46
 It has been suggested that inhibition discourages risk-taking, which is necessary
for progress in language learning.
 Inhibition is often considered to be a particular problem for adolescents, who are
more self-conscious than younger learners.
 Inhibition is a negative force, at least for second language pronunciation
performance.
 Be aware that inhibition may have more influence in language performance than
in language learning.
 Anxiety: Definition
 Foreign language anxiety: a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings,
and behaviors related to classroom learning arising from the uniqueness of the
language learning process (Horwitz; Horwitz & Cope, 1986:126).
 Anxiety is a complex psychological construct consisting of many variables. Three of
these variables are trait anxiety, state anxiety and situation-specific anxiety (Dornyei,
2005).
 Anxiety
 Trait Anxiety vs. State Anxiety:
• Trait anxiety: a more permanent predisposition to be anxious
• State anxiety: a type of anxiety experienced in relation to some particular event
or act; temporary and context-specific
 More recent research acknowledges that anxiety is more likely to be dynamic and
dependent on particular situations and circumstances.
 Anxiety can play an important role in L2 learning if it interferes with the learning
process.
 Anxiety
 Debilitative (harmful) Anxiety vs. Facilitative (helpful) Anxiety: Not all anxiety is bad
and a certain amount of tension can have a positive effect and facilitate learning.
 A learner’s willingness to communicate has also been related to anxiety. It is often
affected by the number of people present, the topic of conversation, and the formality of
the circumstances.
 Willingness to communicate or state anxiety can also be affected by learners’ prior
language learning & use experience, self-confidence, and communicative competence.
 Sources of Anxiety
 Speaking the target language in front of peers.

 Teacher-centered classroom.
 Fear of losing oneself.
 Making errors.
(MacIntyre, 1999)
 The Influence of Anxiety

 Severe language learning anxiety causes interlocking problems.
 Language anxiety is one of the best predictors of foreign language achievement.
 Research on language anxiety (Philips, 1999; MacIntyre, 1999; Arnold & Brown, 1999;
Dornyei, 2005; Woodrow, 2006) has repeatedly shown that it has a negative impact on L2
learners’ performance, especially during speaking practices.
 Research on Personality
47
 In general, the research does not show a single clearly-defined relationship between
personality traits and SLA.
 The major difficulty is that of identification and measurement of personality
characteristics.
 Personality variables may be a major factor only in the acquisition of conversational
skills, not in the acquisition of literacy or academic skills.
 Most research on personality traits has been carried out within a quantitative research
paradigm (i.e., an approach that relies on measuring learners’ scores on personality
surveys and relating these to language test performance). More qualitative research is
needed to adequately capture the depth and complexity of the relationship.
 Motivation & Attitudes
 Questions:
 Do positive attitudes and motivation produce successful learning or does
successful learning engender positive attitudes and motivation?
 Are there other factors that affect both attitudes/ motivation and the success
of learning?
 1. MOTIVATION: Definitions
 Ellis (1994)
- Definition: the efforts done by student in second language learning the need and
desire to learn it.
 Gardner (1985)
- “the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of
a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in the activity.”
3 main components:
- 1. the focus of effort
- 2. desire to learn
- 3. satisfaction with work
 Motivation: Types / Orientations
 According to Gardner (1985):
 Second language learning motivation is identified into two distinct orientations, namely
integrative orientation and instrumental orientation, both of which affect foreign language
learners in one way or another.
 In integrative orientation, learners acquire a foreign or second language to become

familiar with members of the language community or learn about their culture or values.
Motivation to learn a second language stems from positive feelings toward the
community that speaks that language (Gardner, 1985: 82-3). This type of motivation is
defined by Deci and Ryan (1985) as intrinsic motivation in which learners find enjoyment
and interest in learning a language with a positive attitude. The integrative oriented
learners have positive attitudes towards the community or people and their culture who
speak that foreign language. Integrative oriented learners show more persistent and
intense motivation than other learners (Gardner, 1985).
 An instrumental orientation or extrinsic motivation refers to the learning of a

foreign/second language for pragmatic gains such as passing examinations or university
requirements, obtaining a prospective career with lucrative income, or for further
education overseas. Gardner, et al. (1983) defines instrumental motivation as “learning a
language because of some more or less clearly perceived utility it might have for the
learner.”
48
 Motivation & Attitudes
 Types of motivation (in terms of communicative needs):
 Motivation
 Dörnyei (2001) – a process-oriented model of motivation that consists of 3 phases:
 choice motivation: getting started and setting goals
 executive motivation: carrying out the necessary tasks to maintain motivation
 motivation retrospection: appraisal of and reaction to learners’ performance
 Motivation in the Classroom
 Motivating students into the lesson. The content needs to be relevant to their age and level
of ability, and the learning goals need to be challenging yet manageable and clear.
 Varying the activities, tasks, and materials to increase students’ interest levels.
 Using cooperative rather than competitive goals to increase students’ self-confidence.
 Cultural and age differences will determine the most appropriate way for teachers to
motivate students.
 Motivation research
 Gardner Attitude/Motivation Test battery (AMTB)
 It is the material for measurement understanding L2 motivation in English
classroom.
 The test contains several items focusing on the learner’s evaluation of classroom
leaning situation
 Research on Motivation
 Research findings:
 Both integrative and instrumental types of motivation are related to success in
L2 learning. Most L2 learning situations involve a mixture of each type of
motivation. It may be hypothesized that the integrative motivation outperforms
the instrumental one in terms of language cognitive persistence and mastery.
However, foreign or second language acquisition both have an impact on
learners’ motivation one way or another. According to Dornyei (2001),
integrative and instrumental motivations are not found to be at the opposite
ends of a continuum. They are positively related and both are affectively
loaded goals and can produce learning.
 Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation, especially for long-term
retention. Intrinsically motivated learners are striving for excellence,
autonomy, and self-actualization.
 Attitudes: Definitions
 As Brown (2000) points out, attitudes are both cognitive and affective; that is, they
are related to thoughts as well as to feelings and emotions.
 Attitudes begin developing early and are influenced by many things, including
parents, peers, and interactions with people who have social and cultural differences.
Attitudes “form a part of one’s perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one
is living” (Brown 2000).
 According to Gardner (1985) attitudes are a component of motivation, which “refers
to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning plus favorable
attitudes towards learning the language.”
 Positive Attitudes
49
 Brown (2000)concludes that “positive attitudes towards the self, the native language
group,
and the target language group enhanced proficiency”.
 Positive language attitudes let learner have positive orientation towards learning
English. (Karahan, 2007
 Negative Attitudes
Negative attitudes towards the foreign language and group, which often comes from
stereotypes, can impede the learning of that language.
 Learner Beliefs
 What is your learner belief? How should language be learned?
 Virtually all learners, particularly older learners, have strong beliefs about how their
language instruction should be delivered.
 Learner beliefs are usually based on previous learning experiences and the assumption
that a particular type of instruction is better than others.
 Learner beliefs can be strong mediating factors in learners’ experience in the classroom.
 Learner Beliefs
 Conclusions:
 Learners’ preference for learning, whether due to their learning styles or to
their beliefs about how language are learned, will influence the kinds of
strategies they choose to learn new material.
 Teachers can use this information to help learners expand their repertoire of
learning strategies and thus develop greater flexibility in their second language
learning.
 Learner’s Self-efficacy: Definition
 Self efficacy is a notion proposed by Bandura (1977) as a part of social-cognitive
framework, and perceived self-efficacy can be defined as the belief in individuals’
own potential to accomplish a specific task (Bandura, 1993).
 Individuals with same abilities may do the required task distinctively because of
their efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997).
 The relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and the behavior is bidirectional.

 While self-efficacy beliefs influence individuals’ behavior, their performance
(behavior) can affect their future efficacy beliefs, as well (Chapman & Tunmer,
2003; Williams & Williams, 2010, as cited in Prat-Sala & Redford, 2012).
 Self-efficacy can play role while performing learning tasks .

 Identity & Ethnic Affiliation
 The social dynamic or power relationship between L1 and L2:
 Minority group members learning the language of a majority groups may have
different attitudes and motivation from those of majority group members
learning a minority language.
 Think of why an ESL learner’s and an EFL learner’s attitude may differ in
motivation and attitudes.
 An imbalanced power relationship between L1 and L2 may limit the opportunities
learners have to practice and to continue to develop the L2.
50
 Identities are not static and can change over time. Learners’ identities will impact on
what they can do and how they can participate in classrooms, which affects how
much they can learn.
 The relationship between feelings of ethnic affiliation and L2 learners’ mastery of
pronunciation can be complex. Learners may want to speak with a strong “foreign
accent” to maintain their L1 identity.
 Age of Acquisition
 The relationship between a learner’s age and his/her potential for success in second
language learning is complex or controversial.
 The relationship needs to take into account
1) the learner’s cognitive development
2) the learner’s motivation
3) the learner’s goal for learning L2 (i.e., in what aspects of the L2 the learner has
achieved)
4) the contexts in which the learner learns L2 (including quantity & quality of
language input, learning environment, learning time, and socio-cultural contexts)
1) L2 development in informal language learning environments where the L2 is used
primarily:
 Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like fluency, but their
parents and older learners (i.e., post-puberty learners) are hard to achieve such
high levels of mastery of the spoken language, especially in
pronunciation/accent.
 Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress toward mastery of an L2
in contexts where they can make use of the language on a daily basis in social,
personal, professional, or academic interaction.
2) L2 development in formal language learning conditions (i.e., classrooms) where
the L1 is used primarily:
 In the early stages of the L2 development, older learners (adolescents and
adults) are more efficient than younger learners (children).
 Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school level did not
necessarily do better in the long run than those who began in early adolescent.
 It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-like mastery of the
spoken language, including pronunciation, word choice, and some
grammatical features.
 Conclusions (I):
- At what age should L2 instruction begin?
 Those who support critical period hypothesis (CPH):
Younger is better (particularly in the phonological achievement)
 Those who consider that the age factor cannot be separated from factors such
as motivation, social identity, and the conditions for learning:
Older learners may well speak with an accent because they want to keep their
L1 identity, and the language input for adults is different from that for children
because they rarely get access to the same quantity and quality of language
input that children receive in play setting.
51
 Conclusions (II):
 When the goal is basic communicative ability of the TL, rather than native-
like mastery, and when children’s native language remains the primary
language, it may be more efficient to begin L2 or FL learning later (e.g., in
early adolescence – at age 10, 11, or 12).
 When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per week, those who
start later often catch up with those who began earlier.
 One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers, no
matter how young they were when they began learning. Older learners may be
able to make better use of the limited leaning time.
 Conclusions (III):
 Age is only one of the characteristics which affects L2 learning.
 The opportunities for learning (both inside and outside the classroom), the
motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence, aptitude,
personality, and learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors that affect both rate of learning and eventual success in
learning the L2.
 Summary
 The research on individual differences is complex and the results of the research are not
easy to interpret.
This is because of
• the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring individual
characteristics
• The fact that the characteristics are not independent of one another: learner
variables interact in complex ways.
 It remains difficult to predict how a particular individual’s characteristics will influence
his or her success as a language learner.
 Teachers should take learners’ individual differences into account and to create a
learning environment in which more learners can be successful in learning an L2.
52

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01.

LLT - Lecturer: Nguyen Duc Hoat

Learning is complex, but not entirely unpredictable

Definition: Theories are…

Theories and Models

Psychology-based Learning Theory

Classification of Learning Outcomes

■ Definition of “target language” (TL)

■ Around 12 months (“one-word” stage):

■ By the age of 2 (“two-word” stage):

Roger Brown’s study (1973):

- approximate order of acquiring grammatical morphemes

■ Present progressive –ing (running)

Lois Bloom’s study (1991) – four stages

■ Stage 1: ‘no’ – e.g., “No go”. “No cookie.”

■ Stage 2: subject + no – e.g., “Daddy no comb hair.”

■ Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not

■ Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesn’t/is/are) + not

Lois Bloom’s study (1991):

• “What” - Whatsat? Whatsit?

Lois Bloom’s study (1991):

■ Stage 3: “fronting” - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence

■ Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative wh-

■ Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions

Development of Metalinguistic Awareness

1. Behaviorism: Say what I say

Behaviorism: Say what I say

Behaviorism: Critical comments

2. Innatism: It’s all in your mind

Innatism: It’s all in your mind

Innatism: It’s all in your mind

• Victor – a boy of about 12 years old (1799)

The Interactionist Position

The Interactionist Position

▪ It can have negative consequences for children’s self-esteem.

Part 2: Second Language Learning

Contexts for Language Learning

I. What is learner language?

Interlanguage has the following characteristics:

II. Purpose of studying learner language

III. Learner language and errors

Why is CAH problematic? (continued)

Learner errors and Error Analysis

4. Explaining Second Language Learning (Chapter 4: pp103-122): Main Perspectives /

 Behaviorist Perspective / CAH

 II) The Innatist Perspective

"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication

 2. Affective Filter Hypothesis

 2. Affective Filter Hypothesis

 5. Natural Order Hypothesis

 3.3. The Competition Model

Learner Differences: Introduction

The psychology of individual differences is concerned with the systematic study of

A teacher should be sensitive to individual differences.

The “Good Language Learner”

Factors affecting learning

Individual Learner Differences

Objections to Gardner’s Intelligence Theory

Types of learning styles related to L2 learning

Where do learning styles come from?

Why should teachers know about learning styles?

Here are some guidelines for each step.

What types of learning styles are there?