SYMPOSIUM

on
PHYSIOLOGIC AND PATHOLOGIC
EFFECTS OF
,
~:
MICROWAVES
.l!
•'':.
,·,,

Mayo Clinic and Mayo Foundation

Held September 23 and 24, 1955

 IRE PROFESSIONAL GROUP ON MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
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ADMINISTRATIVE COMMITTEE

Chairman
. ./
V. K. ZWORYKIN
Vice-Chairman Secretary-Treasurer
LEE LUSTED WILSON GREATBATCH

LESLIE E. FLORY URNER LIDDEL HERMAN SCHWAN

JULIA F. HERRICK L. H. MONTGOMERY, JR. NEWBERN SMITH

JOHN K. HILLIARD A. J. MORRIS ARCHIE R. TuNTURI

OTTO H. SCHMITT

IRE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

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Copyright, 1956-THE INSTITUTE OF RA01p ENGINEERS, INc.

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1956 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword Page 2
Session·!
Problems Which Are Challenging Investigators
Address of Welcome F. H. Krusen
Problems Which Are Challenging Investigators in Industry B. L. Vosburgh
Military Aspects of the Biological Effects of Microwave Radiation S. I. Brody
Problems Which Are Challenging Investigators in Medicine · ]
J. F. Herrick and F. H. Krusen Page 10 V

Session II
✓ ·
P61
Field Intensities Generated by Microwave Radiating Systems
Energy Densities of Microwave Radiating Systems W. E. Tolles and W. J. Horvath
An Exploration of the Effects of Strong Radio-Frequency Fields on ./.._ ~ ·
Micro-Organisms in Aqueous Solutions G. H. Brown P ~ "
Protective Measures for Microwave Radiation Hazards: 750 to 30,000 Mc /., ]
H. R. Meahl Page 16 (V "

Session III
Effects of Microwaves on the Eye
Biologic Effects Studies on Microwave Radiation: Time 3:nd Power Thresholds
for the Production of Lens Opacities by 12.3 Cm Microwaves /
D. B. Williams, J.P. Monahan, W. J. Nicholson, and J. J. 4-ldrich Page 17 t/
The Use of Biological Simulants in Estimating The Dose of Microwave Energy
.
/
F. G. Hirsch Page 22
1
'.
· The Effects of Microwave Diathermy on the Eye ·./
L. Daily, K. G. Wakim, J. F. Herriclc, E. M. Parkhill, and W. L. Benedict Page 25]

Session IV
General Session on Biologic Effects
Microwave Energy in Food Procedures D. A. Copso/ Page 27 ] 1✓ '
Paramagnetic Resonance·Methods in Biological Research Scott Blofr/ Page 35 JV
Heat Exchange Characteristics of Animals Exposed to 10 Cm Microwaves ~]"-I•?.~ •
T. S. Ely and D. E. Goldmall Page 38 Y •.
Physical Evaluation of Personnel Exposed to Microwave Emanati_ons / c/. . ~ }
C. I. Barron, A. A. Love, and A. A. Bara. Page 44 ~
The Mechanism of Absorption of Ultrahigh Frequency Electromagnetic Energy ✓
in Tissues, as Related to the Problem of Tolerance Dosage /
H.P. Schwan and Kam Li Page "15
List of Attendees Page 50
 2 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

Foreword

The Symposium on the Physiologic and Pathologic Effects of Microwaves

was held for the purpose of determining whether or not there are problems
worthy of serious consideration. The program was arranged with this in mind.

The objective for the opening session was the presentation and discussion
of existing problems. The purpose of the second session was to establish basic
information on which to discuss so-called dosages during exposure to micro-
waves. This session included excellent papJs by experts in ultrahigh-frequency
measurements. The last two sessions per~ained to the results of prolonged
studies on the biologic effects of micro,yaves. One session was limited to
I
reports on the effects of microwaves on tfe eye since these effects seem, at
present, to be of major consideration. The final session included several
fundamentally important papers on the 1hore
I
general effects of microwaves
on animals and human beings. I

The IRE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL! ELECTRONICS seemed an appropri-

ate journal in which to publish the proc4edings of this Symposium. Unfor-
tunately, the intrinsically valuable inforrr}ation presented in the stimulating
discussions throughout the entire Symposi\lm is not available for publication.
Perhaps the reader may wish to contactI persons who participated in the
Symposium in order to learn about unpublished material. A list of those who
attended the Symposium may be found on the last page~ of this publication.
Addresses are a:so given.

-The Editor

\
 1956 IRE TRANSACTIONS -MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
Session I-Problems Which Are Challenging Investigators
Address of Welcome
F. H. KRUSENt ( ~~~
T is a real pleasure to welcome you to this symposium
I on the physiologic and pathologic effects of micro-
. waves. The members of the Section of Biophysics,
Dr. E. J. Baldes and Dr. J. F. Herrick, and the members
of the Section of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
my associates and I, have joined together in making
preparations for this conference. At this institution we
have long been interested in the employment of electric
currents or radiations of very high frequency as related
to medical and surgical practice, and more recently, we
A have concerned ourselves with the study of the medical
wapplications of microwaves.
For many years, high-frequency radiations have been
employed in medicine. In 1890, d'Arsonval demonstrated
that high-frequency electric currents of 10,000 cycles per
second produced no muscular contraction in the human
being, but caused only heating. Since then, physicians
have been employing increasingly higher frequencies for
heating of living tissues. By 1900, high-frequency currents
of 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 cycles per second (long-wave
diathermy) were in use, and by 1935 electric currents of
still higher frequency, 10,000,000 cycles per second at a
wavelength of 30 meters (short-wave diathermy), were
being employed.
Soon thereafter, application was made of radiations at
frequencies of 100,000,000 cycles per second and at a
wavelength of 3 meters (ultrashort-wave diathermy) and
we were beginning to run out of diminutives. Still more
recently, as you know, medical investigators and scientists
in general have been concerned with the employment of
radiations at a frequency of 3,000,000,000 cycles (3,000
megacycles) per second, at a wavelength of 10 cm. When
radiations which approximate this frequency and wave-
length have been employed medically, we physicians have
spoken of them as "microwave diathermy."
-
The word "microwave," as you know, is a popular term,
t Section of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Clinic purposes, it is necessary to have considerably higher
and Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minn. (Latter is a part of the
Graduate School of the University of Minnesota.)
3
)
designating a certain range of waves in the radio-frequency
spectrum. This range includes frequencies from approxi-
mately 1,000 me per second to 30,000 me per second or
higher. When expressed in wavelengths, this region of the
spectrum is from 30 cm to 1 cm. As you know, also, micro-
waves can be produced by means of specially constructed
tubes, such as the magnetron and the klystron. The
magnetron was invented by Albert Yf. Hull, of General
Electric Research Laboratories, in 1920; and the klystron
was developed by D. L. Webster, of Stanford University,
in 1938.
We physicians in the Section of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation at the Mayo Clinic first became interested
in microwaves in 1937. In that year, N. H. Williams re-
ported that electromagnetic radiations having wave-
lengths of a few centimeters could be focused, and G. C.
Southworth pointed out that such radiations could be
directed along tubes. These observations led Hemingway
and Stenstrom, in the department of physics at the
University of Minnesota in Minneapolis, to conclude that
these properties, which would permit the direction of a.
beam to a desired region of the body, might make such·
radiation particularly valuable in medicine. At that time
I reported my agreement with Hemingway and Stenstrom:
that we should study the medical applications of radiations'
having wavelengths ofless than a meter.
In 1937 also· I entered into correspondence with Lee
De Forest, the inventor of the triode valve, concerning
electromagnetic radiations of a wavelength of 3 cm. I told'.
him that if such radiations could be obtained in sufficient:
intensity "it would seem that the therapeutic possibilities
might be great." In 1938 I advised F. D. Jewett, of the·
Bell Telephone Laboratories, who was developing the
magnetron tube, that "if it ever becomes possible to
increase the wattage of such tubes, they should prove'
suitable for therapeutic purposes." He informed me that
a power of only 2 or 3 watts could be generated by the·
tubes then available, and I replied that "for therapeutic
wattage."
:
4 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February
By July, 1938, Dr. Albert W. Hull advised me: "I can American manufacturers had produced this multicavity
promise you at least a hundred watts at any wavelength, magnetron for use in microwave radar. The output of these
down to 20 centimeters." In March, 1939, I learned of the tubes could be as high as 1,000,000 watts and the micro- 1

development of the klystron tube at Stanford University, waves which they developed had optical properties so that-
and D. L. Webster of the department of physics wrote to they could be reflected, refracted or diffracted. They
me: "I am convinced that therapy is one of the important could be focused by a suitable type of. metal lens to as
lines to which we must start applying the klystron very sharp a beam as a searchlight. Microwaves could be
soon." I was also advised that "between 10 and 40 centi- selectively absorbed by certain media but at that time
meters, the klystron has outputs of several hundred watts." we did not know whether or not the various biologic
It seemed that at last a tube of large enough wattage to media would absorb microwaves selectively.
provide radiation of sufficient power for medical use had Studies on living animals were begun by Drs. Ursula
been found. Leden, Julia Herrick and Khalil Wakim. Thereafter
The idea of using radiations of a wavelength of a few various fellows in physical medicine worked with Dr.
centimeters in treatment was, of course, not an original Herrick, Dr. Wakim and me in the study of the employ-
one. About the same time (1938 and 1939) that I was ment of microwaves in medical practice. These fellows
investigating the possibilities, H. E. Hollmann, in Ger- included in addition to Dr. Leden, Dr. Ralph E. Worden,
many, was discussing the possible application of radiations now at Ohio State University, Dr. Jerome W. Gersten,
of a wavelength of 25 cm for medical purposes and pre- now at the University of Colorado, Dr. James W. Rae, Jr.,
dicted that these waves could be focused so as to cause now at the University of Michigan, Dr. Joseph P. Engle,
heating of the deep tissues without excessive heating of now in Minneapolis, Dr. Louis Daily, Jr., now at The
the skin. However, at that time, equipment which could Daily Eye Clinic and also associated with Baylor Univer-
generate such high-frequency waves at sufficient wattage sity in Houston, Texas, and Dr. R. Quentin Royer, ~ow
for suitable biologic investigation was not available to at the Mayo Clinic.
Hollmann. Since the publication of our first paper on microwaves
Just when I had finally found tubes that gave promise in the Proceedings of the Mayo Clinic, on May 28, 1947,
of being of sufficient wattage, suddenly all such tubes we have published many others dealing with this subject;
became mysteriously unavailable. It was not until the and other groups of investigators concerned with medical
secret of radar was finally revealed that it became evident research, such as the fine group of scientists at the U niver-
that the supply of such· tubes had been designated for sity of Iowa, under Dr. H. M. Hines, have contributed . .
military use, and the tubes were being employed only for much valuable information on medical uses of microwaves. w,
this secret wartime development. As soon as the war was I understand that nearly 20,000 microwave diathermy
over, I found in January, 1946, just what I had been machines are now being employed clinically by physicians
looking for. On a visit to the Massachusetts Institute of in various parts of the United States. Interest in this
Technology, I saw a large experimental model of a micro- method of heating bodily tissues continues unabated.
wave generator which contained a water-cooled multicavity There are still many problems to be solved if microwaves
magnetron with a maximal output of 400 watts and a are to be employed to best advantage in medical practice,
frequency of 3,000 me per second. and it is our hope that during this conference an exchange
Shortly thereafter, in June, 1946, I obtained one of of ideas will permit us to extend our knowledge of this
these devices through the courtesy of the Raytheon subject.
Manufacturing Company and with the aid of Drs. Her- Dr. Herrick will explain to you later some of our
rick, Wakim, and Martin we began our studies on micro- problems, but I should like to mention particularly the
wave diathermy. We also obtained a small portable need for new types of directors which will make it possible
experimental model of a microwave generator containing to heat larger regions of the human body and other new ·
an air-cooled multicavity magnetron which had a maximal types of directors which will make possible satisfactory
output of 125 watts and which operated either on a applications of heat in various bodily orifices. Also I
frequency of 3,000 me per second or on a frequency of think there is need to explore more fully the effects of
2,450 me per second, depending on the magnetron em- microwaves of somewhat short13r wavelength in the
ployed. heating of human tissues, and there is also need to explore
The multicavity air-cooled magnetron tube was devel- more completely the employment of impedance matching
oped through the genius · of a research group at the devices, which render possible more effective passage of
University of Birmingham and was of tremendous im- microwave energy through the human skin.
portance in perfecting radar, which it has been said "won It is our wish that all of you enjoy this conference, and
the battle of Britain." we expect that you will present to us many new angles of
Prior to 1940, suitable generators of microwaves for investigation so that an exchange of ideas will profit each
radar did not exist. In September, 1940, a British technical one of us. It is a real delight for us to serve as hosts during.
mission headed by Sir Henry Tizard brought the multi- this conference and we hope sincerely that each of you W
cavity magnetron to the United States and in a short time will enjoy your stay with us.
 1956 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDIC AL ELECTRONICS
Problems Which Are Challenging Investigators in Industry
- B. L. VOSBURGHt
HEN Dr. Krusen announced a Symposium on
W the Physiologic and Pathologic Effects of Micro-
waves, our interest was rekindled and we were
reminded of a meeting held at Sche11ectady dealing with
Microwave Radiation; Hazards and Safety Measures on
June 1, 1954. We had distributed the minutes of our
meeting to those having a common interest, which explains
my place on this program.
Possibly the best way for me to elaborate on the problems
which are challenging investigators in industry in respect
to microwaves is to interpret the discussion of the 35
General Electric people who attended our meeting.
Permit_ me then to present the following recorded minutes
as revised and supplemented:
PURPOSE
The meeting was held on the following bases:
1) Tests performed on animals indicate that damage
can be done to live tissue exposed to microwave radiation.
The amount of damage appears to depend primarily upon
the wavelength, the time of exposure, and the field
intensity. The available data are meager.
. . 2) There is no existing authoritative standard to define
Wthe limits of time, field intensity, and wavelength under
which exposure to microwaves could be injurious to the
human body.
3) There are no generally recognized safety practices
that will offer maximum protection from microwave
radiation to personnel.
4) The building and testing of microwave equipment is
rapidly increasing and spreading into different geographical
locations.
5) Several departments have expressed deep concern
about establishing appropriate safety measures to be used
in building and testing this equipment.
We might have added our concern about the possible
increase in the risk with an ever-increasing power factor.
AGENDA
1) Hazards of microwave radiation: Review of data
available, and unsolved problems.
2) Proposed tentative value of maximum allowable
level of exposure to microw~ve radiation at various
wavelengths.
3) Instruments for measuring field intensity.
4) Means for protecting persons f:rom overexposure.
5) Recommended medical ch.eeks .oI personnel wo~king
~ n mj~rowaye fields. · · - · '·
t Consultant, Health Services, General Electric Co., Schenectady,
N.Y.
5
·
6) Program for obtaining more data on the hazards of
microwave radiation, so as to permit the establishment of
adequate safety measures.
Mr. Vann, Chairman, said that he endorsed the objectives
of the meeting. He hoped it would help to make everyone
concerned more clearly aware of microwave hazards and
that it would lead to a common standard of safety practices
for the use of all personnel who are working with micro-
wave equipment in the various departments.
MI CROWAVE HAZARDS AND INFORMATION AVAILABLE
The author pointed out that the hazard considered
most serious at present is injury to the eye, by cataract
formation. This may have a delayed appearance after the
exposure to radiation and the cataract may even grow
without further exposure. The formation of cataracts
seems to be associated with heating of the lens tissue, and
the critical wavelengths appear to be within the range from
3-30cm.
Various other organs, such as the kidneys, the brain,
the male sex organs, certain muscle tissues, etc., when
exposed to microwave radiation in animal tests, havti. also
indicated tissue changes or even serious injury. Conclusive
quantitative information on these effects appears, how-
ever, to be lacking.
Although most of the effects so far observed seem to
be accompanied by increase of temperature of the organs
affected, some of the tissues, including the eye, may not
have the sensation of heat. It seems possible, therefore,
that injury may occur to an individual upon sufficient
exposure to radiation without his being aware of it.
While the data available at present indicate that the
chief concern is with the eye hazard, there is a possibility
of damage to other organs. Limits should be set for the
exposure of persons to mi.crowave radiation based qn th_e
effects of radiation on the eye.
There followed some discussion of the desirability of
expressi1Ig a definite relatio_n between. damage ,effect a_nd
the temperature rise resulting from specific values of
radiation intensity. However, it was agreed that there is
insufficient information available to establish such a
relation, considering .the ~umber of variables involved.
Mr. Meahl called attention to the long time-lag between
exposure to radiation and cataract formation in some of
the animal studies reported in the literature and the
rather low temperature rise aiisociated with some of the
damaging effects. He suggested therefore that factors
other than heating may also play a par_t in the format;ion
of tissue damage. Some of t,he medical authorities _have
not ruled out such a possibility.
6 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

References to the literature mentioned in the course value of radiation intensity. In order to derive from these
of the above discussions included studies by Brody1, meager data a tentative level of intensity not to be
Hines & Randa112, Herrick and Krusen3, Salisbury, Clark, exceeded in locations where persons are working, a very A
and Hines4, and a data folder by R. Zendle. Additional sizeable safety factor would need to be applied to theW
references are given in each of these publications. values shown in the curve.
10
MICROWAVE EQUIPMENT AND CONDITIONS OF UsE AT
G. E.
A review of data on microwave equipment and of the
conditions under which personnel are exposed to radiation
was then given by representatives from various activities
of the Company.
Mr. Vann suggested that any further data on microwave
equipment in use, operating arrangements and conditions
of exposure of General Electric personnel to radiation,
including field intensities and related data, be sent to
Mr. 0. R. Schurig, General Engineering Laboratory,
Building 5, Schenectady, New York, so that he will be in
a position to make the information available upon request.

lNTENSI'l'Y OF RADIA'l'ION AS A BASIS FOR SAFE'l'Y GUIDE

Mr. Meahl stated that 600 watts/square cm average 5

is the lower limit for breakdown of air. A very much
smaller value is reported in connection with a case of 10""
human cataract formation, namely 0.1 watt/square cm
average, to which a laboratory technician's eyes ·were
en
0:
:::,
0
:I'.
~
0
.
0:
w
.
en
"'w
>-
>-
exposed in daily work for approximately one year as "' ~

reported by F. G. Hirsch. 6 The range from 0.1 to 600 0.1 0.5 I 10 102
HOURS
103 104 105

watts/square cm might be suggested roughly as the range - PERIOD. OF EXPOSURE -

in which cataracts may be formed in the eye. It is realized
not only that the lower limit is based on meager knowledge
and lack of conclusive data on human cataract formation
due to microwave radiation, but also that a high safety
factor is desirable where eyes are concerned.
Mr. Schurig then presented the chart (Fig. 1) which
indicates radiation intensity versus period of exposure for
cataract formation. The chart relates to the 6 cases (5
animal and 1 human) for which data on intensity and
time of exposure are available. While the number of cases
shown is far too small for a statistical analysis, the line
drawn might possibly indicate a very rough order of
magnitude of the radiation intensities for the formation
of observable cataracts in animals. It would, of course,
be much more difficult, in the absence of further data, to
associate cataract formation in human eyes with specific
1 S. I. Brody, "The Operational Hazards of Microwave Radia-
tion," presented at the Aero Medical Association, Los Angeles -
Calif.; May, 1953.
2 H. M. Hines and J.E. Randall, "Possible Industrial Hazards in
Fig. 1-Data relative to cataract formation following exposure to
microwave radiation. Cataract formation. No clinically observ-
ab~e pathologic findings in t)-ie eyes of dogs. (a) Salisbury et al.,
ammal exposure. (b) Hernck and Krusen, animal exposure.
(c) Hirsch and Parker, human exposure.
Mr. Pester then suggested a level of 0.001 watts/square
cm, not to be exceeded where persons are at work. This is
one one-hundredth of intensity that is believed to have
caused cataracts in previously mentioned human case.
Mr. Glass, Counsel, upon request for his advice, sug-
gested that it would be helpful to have a value of radiation
intensity which can readily be measured and which should
not be exceeded, but cautioned against drawing conclu-
sions from inadequate data. The collection of all available
data and as much further data as can be secured in one
location for consultation and dissemination would seem
desirable.
RECOMMENDED SAFETY MEASURES
' Based on the above, the following safety measures

the Use of Microwave Radiation," presented at the ALEE Summer

relating to microwave radiation within the range from
General Meeting, Minneapolis, Minn.; June 23-27, 1952. 1-40 cm wavelength were proposed:
3 J. F. Herrick and F. H. Krusen, "Certain physiologic and patho-

logic effects of microwaves," Elect. Engrg., pp. 239-244; March, 1953. 1) Prevent exposure to a direct beam, especially of the
4 W. W. Salisbury, J. W. Clark, and H. M. Hines, "Physiological
eyes.
Damage clue to Microwaves," Collins Radio Co. Engrg. Rep.
CER-153, Cedar Rapids, Iowa; December 27, 1948. 2) Appropriate procedures shall be applied to limit the
• Based on a ratio of maximum to average value of 1000.
6 F. G. Hirsch, "Microwave Cataracts," presented at NSAE

.Conference on Industrial Health, Cincinnati, Ohio; April 25, 1952.

direct o~ reflected ~ntensity t? 0.001 watt/square
average m all locations to which people require access:
c4
 1956 Vosburgh: Problems Challenging Investigators in Industry
a) by the use of shielding or absorbing material, orb) by
remote viewing.
3) Authorized persons only shall have access to areas
- i n which the level of the radiation intensity is close to
0.001 watt/square cm average, and _they shall be subject
to medical examination on the follmving basis by arrange-
ment ,~ith the Works Physician: a) Pre-employment
vision test and exit vision test; b) Spot check of those who
have had radiation exposure; and c) Check after any
unusual exposure.
Attention is also called to the possibility of bodily
heating from exposure to high-intensity radiation at wave
lengths outside the 1-40 cm zone. While little quantitative
information appears to be available, caution is recom-
mended in all work with sources of high-frequency radia-
tion to avoid exposure to high intensities, especially when
the radiation causes fever or the feeling of heat locally.
Obviously this restriction does not apply to treatment by
high-frequency induction heating equipment under medical
direction.
INSTRUMENTS AND l\!IEASUREMEN'l'S
' human body.
Mr. Meahl said that one would want to know rather
accurately the frequency as well as the radiation intensity.
The following instruments and devices are available or
readily obtainable:
1) Detecting loop with tunable wavemeter and detect-
ing meter measure on the order of milliwatts/square cm.
A Mr. Meahl demonstrated for inspection a developmental
W sample operating in the 5-cm to 30-cm region, accurate
within 1 per cent for wavelength and approximately 50
per cent for power per square cm.
2) Sperry and Hewlett-Packard make wattmeters
selling at a price under $500, having an accuracy better
than 20 per cent. Battery operated units are available.
. 3) Neon tubes are erratic. Qualitatively they are useful
but quantitatively they may be quite misleading.
4) Modification of existing test equipment already
available was mentioned.
It was suggested that one measuring equipment might be
used to take measurements for various microwave opera-
tions in rotation within a limited area.
ABSORBING MEANS, SHIELDING, AND REMOTE VIEWING
A discussion of different ways of viewing energy chan-
nels, as for example with the aid of eye shields, telescopes, able to err on the safe side but not so far that it hurts;
movie film, periscopes, etc., led to the conclusion that
each situation will require a particular solution. Eye
shields of wire screen, Mr. Meahl said, could not be
depended on for protection because of the risk of energy '
penetrating and focusing on the eyes.
Absorbing materials were then discussed. Mr. Meahl
showed a material made of hair-like fiber with a conductive
A coating. It is understood to have reflection coefficient of
W approximately 2 per cent. Its characteristics have been microwaves," Tele-Tech & Elect. Ind., p. 7; July, 1953.
7
7
analyzed in a technical paper by Simmons and Emerson •
The material is made by Sponge Rubber Products, Shelton,
Connecticut. By placing a small cylinder (¼ to ½inch in
dia:neter) through such a sheet a usable shield may be
obtained.
It was suggested that a program be initiated by the
departments concerned to make measurements on absorb-
ing and shielding materials so as to determine their
performance and relative merits.
It was the consensus of those present that it is important
to obtain further information and new medical data from
every possible source.
CONCLUSION
I would like to summarize some of the purposes of the
meeting, the minutes of which are given above:
1) Animal tests iriclicate that damage can be done to
certain tissues. The available data are meager.
2) There is no existing authoritative standard to define
the limits of time, field intensity, or wavelength under
whiGh exposure to microwaves could be injurious to the
3) There are no generally recognized safety practices
that will offer maximum protection of personnel from
microwave.radiation.
4) The building and testing of microwave equipment is
rapidly increasing and greater power is being added.
5~ Appropriate safety measures should be established.
It seems to me that they present a significant commentary
regarding the lack of well defined knowledge about micro-
wave dangers and the standards of conduct that are needed
to safeguard any such dangers.
Our specifying and adopting a factor of safety of 100
in reference to eye exposure sounds like hysteria, but I
feel quite certain, since everyone was quite agreeable to
that figure, that everyone also appreciated the fact that
there is very little actual need jor eye exposure to micro-
waves. Our recommended safety measures seemed realistic
and so far as I know have imposed a hardship in only one
instance. Mr. Meahl will describe shortly General Elec-
tric's experience with instrumentation, microwave meas-
urements, and protective measures now in force.
Speaking for the health and safety interests of industry,
we regard this meeting as an opportunity to acquire a
better perspective of the microwave hazard. It is reason-
not so far that progress in the art becomes jeopardized;
not so far that we will one day laugh too loudly at our
present day fear.
I hope that these remarks will convey something of the
problems that are challenging investigators in industry in
the microwave field.
7 A. J. Simmons and W. H. Emerson, "Anechoic chambers of
8 IRE TRANSACTIO NS-MEDICA L ELECTRONIC S February

Military Aspects of the Biological Effects of Microwave

Radiation
S. I. BRODYt
I

-
.T HE MILITARY applications of microwave radia- tion of its materials have always been a major concern
tion have increased in scope in recent years and of the Navy Department." [1]
considerable activity has been devoted to the The requirements for safety precautions are often very
exploitation of this form of energy in order to increase our obvious, as with the handling of ordnance or the operation
military effectiveness. This expansion of effort in a field of aircraft. However, there are many areas in which
once dominated by physicists engaged in basic research is precautionary measures are not firmly established.
a reflection of the ready acceptance of scientific progress Usually the uncertainty stems from a lack of experimental
applied to defense of this country. And, as has often evidence involving human subjects or the scarcity of
been the case, this compelling requirement stimulated re- basic information relative to biologic effects incident
search and development to the point where military services to exposure. As an example, it is not fully known what
are now in possession of advanced types of microwave physiological changes may be anticipated when personnel
equipment with subsequent modifications being adapted are exposed to high intensity noise levels above 160
to civilian uses. Other examples of this technically pro- decibels. Prolonged exposures of this kind are unknown in
gressive trend may readily be seen within our defense human experience and it is not prudent to conduct studies
agencies whether we look to the land, sea, or air. Perhaps in the event that pathological changes might result. On
the most obvious application of accelerated research and the other hand, it is considered feasible to make careful
development is illustrated by the story of atomic energy, observations during operations involving very high noise
·probably the greatest technological achievement of all time. intensities with the view of removing anyone from the
The realization of the tremendous importance attached noise field who shows evidence of unfavorable reactions.
to the advancement of knowledge in the physical sciences This analogy is presented because it so well parallels the
has resulted in emphasizing the need for more direction present situation with regard to the effects of microwave
toward the military application of fundamental data. radiation on personnel. Little is known relative to human
t}
Thus, many known forms of energy are being actively exposures to high power outputs of this form of energy,
investigated in the hope that new concepts will aid us in and data extrapolations based on animal studies are
our national security. difficult to correlate with confidence when applied to man.
From a practical point of view we may regard power as The paucity of this information has tended, in the past,
the inseparable companion of energy, and it is the applica- to instill a natural anxiety among personnel engaged in the
tion of this power that contributes to military superiority. operation of microwave generators. Biologic changes have
The complexity of modern equipment is of such a mag- been adequately demonstrated in animals exposed to
nitude that high degrees of many skills are required for continuous power outputs of electromagnetic waves and,
effective utilization. For this reason, mechanization has considering the wide distribution of high-frequency
progressed to automation in those instances where human equipment, it is reasonable to expect that questions as to
performance capabilities are inadequate for a given task. potential latent or obvious clangers would arise in the
In spite of the advantages gained by the proper use of minds of those in contact with this equipment. Stimulated
powerful military devices, man has become well aware of by doubts and apprehensions, stories spread throughout
the dangers associated with the misdirection or misuse of. the military services following the introduction of radar
this equipment. Under operational conditions, it is the as a defensive measure. One heard tales concerning the
inadvertent or accidental exposure to potentially harmful sterilizing effects of radar beams or other equally serious
power sources that results in injuries or property damage. manifestations. Similar rumors were spread as aircraft
The interference ,vhich may be the result of these con- developed the capabilities of flying to high altitudes far
sequences upon military effectiveness has stimulated a into the stratosphere, and such rumors usually could be
deep interest in matters relating to safety among all the ' anticipated with the institution of new and little under-
military services. Within the Navy, safety is so funda- stood applications of the less common sources of energy.
mental that this consideration is stipulated in the U. S. To determine whether or not these suppositions might
Navy Regulations and Secretary Thomas emphasized this be based on factual grounds, a clinical study was con-
by stating, "The safety of its personnel and the preserva- ducted in 1943 by Daily [2] and in 1945 by Liclman and A
Cohn [3]. Certainly, the lack of clinical changes reported W
t Medical Liaison Officer, Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Dept., resulting from exposures to radar emanations may be
Washington, D. C. attributable to the low power outputs then available.
 1956 Brody: Milit,ary Aspects of Biological Effects of Microwave Radiation 9

Meanwhile, basic research utilizing .animals continued, produce many nonbiological manifestations. Mention has
notably by Clark, Hines, Salisbury, and Randall and by been made previously [4] of sparking among metal chips
the Mayo group, among others referred to in a previous and the burning of steel wool when placed in the beam
-paper [4]. These studies amply demonstrated the insidious of radar sets at considerable distances from the antenna ..
effects of high power microwaves on certain tissues and The possible repercussions, both figurative and literal~
pointed out the most significant changes associated with are quite obvious with an increase in power outputs. The:
the use of discrete frequencies. indirect consequences to personnel and material resulting
Despite the insufficient evidence found to indict micro- from the unexpected sparking of keys in a pocket or of the
wave radiation in the few individuals where pathological ignition of steel wool in' proximity to inflammable sub-
changes were believed attributed to exposure, the experi- stances can be appreciated. Of even more serious concern
mental data have been adequately convincing as to the is the relationship which exists between very high powered
potential dangers incident to operation of high powered radars and certain types of ordnance. The effect of micro-
equipment. Radar development has reached a point where wave radiation on fuel vapors is also deserving of further
the unfounded rumors of the past regarding the possible investigation.
effects on man begin to take a form molded on facts. Safety precautions for personnel have been disseminated
1

Perhaps we are now seeing the base of the fire responsible to all commands in the Navy having aircraft with high
for the hazy smoke which has heretofore enveloped this powered airborne radars. These measures are conceded to
entire problem. The military intends to keep this fire be very conservative. However, until more definite
under control, for to allow complacency to remain, information is forthcoming regarding the effects of expo-
induced by a lack of positive incriminating evidence sure, it is well-advised to be overly cautious in the face
against microwaves, would be to invite probable serious of the potential hazards involved. A density level based
consequences in the f~ture. · on the figure of 0.1 watt per square centimeter, was agreed
As has been demonstrated, the superficial absorption of upon as a damage risk criterion by those attending a
microwaves having a wavelength of 3 centimeters tends symposium at the Naval Medical Research Institute in
to produce an immediate subjective awareness of the April 1953. As a corollary, an accurate means of measur-
impingement of this radiation on the skin. Since this ing or indicating field densities for personnel working in
constitutes a warning, personnel need only be apprized of the vicinity of radar equipment is a distinct requirement.
the consequences qf exposure to reasonably insure against The well-established concern for health and safety
deliberate or inadvertent injuries. . maintained by the military in its personnel makes it
- Such is not the case, however, with respect to wave- essential that more knowledge be available relative to the
lengths of 10 centimeters, for the perception of heat physiological and pathological effects of microwave
may not be apparent with low power outputs and, in the · radiation. Increased research efforts must be pressed at
- case of higher powers, the subjective warning might be the earliest opportunity. In order to have an applicability
delayed. On this basis, safety precautions are deemed consistent with military operations of the future, studies
necessary to preclude adverse effects in those accidentally involving a wide variation in frequencies at much higher
exposed. It is conceded that the likelihood of undesirable · power outputs than those available in the past should be
changes is remote in terms of the operation of present day undertaken. On the basis of development trends and the
equipment. Some may allege that the military services electronic technical potential possessed by our industries,
are unduly alarmed in establishing safety precautions in marked advances in radar capabilities may be predicted.
view of the lack of proven cases of injury resulting from To realize the full advantages and usefulness of this
exposure to radar beams. It can only be maintained in equipment, it is incumbent upon scientific personnel
refuting this position that, in the face of experimental conversant with microwave radiation to provide data
evidence of tissue damage using power outputs comparable upon which to base a rational safety plan. In this way a
to the average powers of presently operational radars, it is significant contribution may be made to the future
potentially dangerous to accept the risk. New equipment security of this nation. Without doubt, the achievement
exists with peak pulsed power of 2.5 megawatts, and it is of an efficient military organization depends, in part,
likely that radars with much greater powers will be upon the maximum use and performance of radars without
available in the future. Furthermore; although much of endangering the well-being of those working with or in
our interest has been directed toward the 10,000- and the _vicinity of the equipment.
3,000-megacycle bands, future equipment may be pro- BIBLIOGRAPHY
duced using frequencies far removed from this relatively [11 U.S. Navy Safety Precautions, OPNAV 34Pl-1953.
limited zone. In the face of higher powers, biological [2] Daily, L. E., "Clinical Study of the Results of Exposure of
Laboratory Personnel to Radar and High Frequency Radio."
corrolations will be required once these new frequencies U.S. Naval Medical Bidletin, Vol. XLI (July, 1943), pp. 1052-
are determined. 1065.
B. I., and Cohn, C., "Effect of Radar Emanations on
A The interest of the military extends beyond the question [3] Lidman,the Hematopoietic System." Air Surgeon's Bulletir,, Vol. II
W of potential damage to personnel through induced bio- (December, 1945), pp. 448-449.
from equip- [4] Brody, S. I., "The Operational Hazard of Microwave Radia-
logical changes. Microwave radiation issuing tion." Journal of Aviation Medicine, Vol. 24 (June, 1953),
ment with very high power outputs has been known to pp. 516-525.
 10 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

Problems Which Are Challenging Investigators

in Medicine
J. F. HERRICKt AND FRANK H. KRUSENt

H EAT THERAPY in its various forms has been a

fundamentally important procedure throughout
the history of medical practice. In spite of the
prolonged clinical use of heat, data for the quantitative
43
42
41
iZ;zJ Meat alone
~ Meat und laPd
40 Meut lu1:1er = 3.5 cm.
understanding of the benefits of heat are inadequate and 39 LuPd lu1:1er =3.5 cm.
controversial. When it was learned that alternating cur- 35
rents having frequencies above those which cause stimula-
37
tion of nerves and muscles could increase temperatures
36
of bodily tissues, a new heating agent became available
35
to the physician. The term, "diathermy," refers to clinical
0 34
heating by means of alternating electric currents. z.
~- The problems encountered by an investigator using (),) 33
',
high-frequency currents for heating industrial materials ::J 32
i-J
are, perhaps, less frustrating than those which arise when (j 31
Jiving tissues are to be heated. The physical properties ~ 30
15.3

necessary for a quantitative understanding of the heating ~ 29

of industrial materials may be more easily evaluated. ~ 25
Living organisms possess interesting mechanisms which 27
tend automatically to balance heat loss with heat produc- 26
tion. These mechanisms, which may function differently 25
under certain pathologic conditions, present provocative 2.4
but baffling problems to those investigating heat therapy.
23
First of all, the living animal does not tolerate hyper-
22
thermia very well. Hyperthermia may prove fatal if the
21
nervous centers are seriously damaged. The familiar terms
which describe serious conditions arising from overheating 2 0Just
~- -------------------
under 0.5 cm. 1,0 cm.
are "heat stroke" and "heat exhaustion." the surfoce deep in deep in
of meut meut meat
Microwave diathermy was introduced to American
physicians about 1947. Although it has proved to be an Fig. I-Changes in temperature at different sites in the meat during
exposure to microwaves. Single-hatched columns indicate changes
effective and convenient form of heating bodily tissues, a when meat alone was exposed. Cross-hatched columns indicate
completely satisfactory type of microwave diathermy the changes when a layer of lard, 3.5 cm thick, was placed on
top of the meat, The higher initial temperatures shown in the
awaits further research and development_. Many problems crosshatched columns result from the fact that we did not wish
confront the medical investigators who hope to put to wait until the meat had cooled to its original temperatures
before undertaking these particular measurements,
microwave diathermy on a firm physiologic basis. Some
of these problems will be described presently.
meat than when meat alone is exposed to the microwaves
IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMERS MAY ExrsT WITHIN THE Fig. 1. These observations obviously raise the question
LIVING ORGANISM of the possible role that a layer of fat may play when
living animals are exposed to microwaves. Should micro-
Preliminary experimental observations of an academic waves be used with caution when layers of fat are inter-
nature indicate that a given layer of fat may function like posed between skin and muscle? Before definite and
an impedance transformer between air and meat. It is objective conclusions can be made, the living fat animal
regretted that at this time our studies do not include the must be studied. In our opinion, the pig is a suitable
living tissues. When a layer of lard is placed on top of a animal for such experimental investigations.
layer of meat, higher temperatures are produced in the
OPTIMAL FREQUENCY
t Section of Biophysics and Biophysical Research, Mayo Clinic Microwave diathermy has been limited to those fre-
and Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minn.
t Section of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Clinic quencies generated by available equipments. Actually only -
and Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minn. two frequencies, namely, 2,450 me and 3,000 me, have
 1956. Herrick and Krusen: Problems Challenging Investigators in Medicine 11
been used in our investigations. The former frequency therm." Three types of directors are available for general
(2,450 me) has now been allocated by the Federal Com- use with the microtherm. The director shown in Fig. 2 is
A munications Commission for use in medical diathermy. called the B-director. Fig. 3 shows the heating pattern of
• Although this frequency has proved to be quite satisfactory this director fairly clearly. Maximal heating occurred in .
for medical diathermy, the question naturally arises: is an annular region having a radius of approximately 2
another frequency more effective? Theoretical considera- inches when the distance from the meat was 2 inches. The
tions have led Dr. Schwan1 to state that the optimal do~nelike area of unmelted lard was caused by the lower
frequency for medical diathermy is considerably lower. energy within the central region under the B-director.

Fig. 2-A demonstration of the melting of lard at the lard-meat

interface during heating by microwaves. Note that the surface
of the lard remains unchanged.
- Since the use of microwaves has become a routine
clinical procedure in departments of physical medicine,
the advantage of this type of therapy over the well-known
infrared irradiation has been questioned. To demonstrate
the difference between heating by infrared and heating
by microwaves (at 2,450 me), a motion picture was pre-
pared and shown at the present symposium. A significant
characteristic of heating by microwaves is shown in
Fig. 2, in which meat with a superimposed layer of lard was
used. The significant characteristic of heating by micro-
waves is the melting of the lard at the interface between
the lard and meat. When infrared irradiation was used
for heating the same substances, the melting occurred at
the top surface of the lard. During exposure to infrared
irradiation, the top surface of the lard began to melt
within approximately 4 minutes. During exposure to
microwaves the top surface of the lard showed no evidence
of melting at the end of more than 20 minutes, at which
time the undernurface (proximal to the meat) began to
melt.
RADIATION PA'l"l'ERNS OF DIRECTORS OF l\1ICROWAVE
ENERGY
The microwave equipment which has been manufactured
in this country for therapeutic use is called the "micro-
1 H. P. Schwan,
"Application of uhf impedance measuring tech- ture while the microwave generator is in operation.
niques in biophysics," TRANS. IRE, PGI-4, pp. 75-83; October, 1955. Conferences with experts in the field of temperature
Fig . 3-A demonstration of the relative heating pattern of director B
of the microtherm. The central domelike region of unmelted lard
indicates the area of lesser energy in the heating pattern. The
annular area of melted lard indicates the site of maximal heating.
The unmelted surface layer of lard that has slipped com-
pletely off the layer of meat may be seen. The unmelted
surface layer broke away from the central dome-shaped
region when the melting in the annular region at the lard-
meat interface caused an indentation of the surface of
the lard.
Such nonuniform distribution of microwave energy is
undesirable. Another challenge to investigators in micro-
wave diathermy is the design and development of directors
which will have a more uniform heating pattern. One of
the available directors, known as director C, has the
region of maximal heating at the center of the heating
pattern.
TEMPERATURE l\1EASUREMENT DURING EXPOSURE
To MrcRowAYES
Under our experimental conditions, reliable measure-
ments of temperature have not been possible in living
tissues while microwaves are being generated. Considerable
cooling can take place within the time interval between
turning off the microwave generator and the accurate·
measurement of tissue temperature. We have failed to
develop a method for reliable measurements of tempera-
12 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDIC AL ELECTRONICS February
measurement have not resulted in a method which we nerves or muscles. Perhaps we may hear something during
could adapt to the living organism. It is interesting to
note that other papers presented at this symposium
contain data of temperatures measured during exposure
th~s conference concerning the biologic effects of pulsed
microwave energy. e I

to microwaves.
We do know that temperatures in muscles may exceed
those in skin. This is a disturbing situation because the
subjective sensation of heat from skin receptors may not
occur until after deeper tissues have been impaired. In
other words, the patient may not be able to warn the
physician in time to prevent the development of unde-
sirable temperatures.
The accurate measurement of temperatures during
microwave diathermy also is a challenge to the investigator
in the field of microwave diathermy.
PULSED MICROWAVE ENERGY
Microwave diathermy has been limited, so far as we
know, to continuous microwave energy, and little informa-
tion seems to be available on the biologic effects of pulsed
energy. By conjecture, it might be imagined that a type
of pulsed microwave energy could be capable of stimulating
SHIELDING
Microwaves can produce cataracts. Obviously, the use
of some protective devices for eyes must be seriously
considered. Other regions of the living organism also may
require shielding from microwaves. To design a practical
shield for protecting given regions of the body while
other regions are exposed to microwaves is not so simple
as would appear from a nonexperimental point of view.
Unless the spacing between a metal shield and the living
tissues is adequate, considerable discomfort may be
experienced through leakage of induced voltages across the
insulating gap. We will have the privilege during this
symposium of hearing the reports by investigators who
have been working on the problem of shielding devices.
In conclusion, we wish to emphasize the importance of
further intensive investigations in order that microwave
diathermy may become firmly established on a truly
scientific basis.

Correction
In a previous issue of IRE TRANSACTIONS on Medical
Electronics (PGME-3, November 1955) Dr. Henry P.
Kalmus was incorrectly identified as being at the Uni-
versity of Buffalo. Dr. Kalmus is with the Diamond
Ordnance Fuze Laboratory in Washington, D.C.
 1956 IRE TRANSACTIO NS-MEDICA L ELECTRONICS
- Session II-Field Intensities Generated by Microwave Radiating Systems
Energy Densities of Micro-vvave Radiating Systems
w. E. TOLLESt
~
HE development during World War II of powerful
1 microwave generators has caused some concern as to
whether the power radiated from devices using such
generators reaches levels that may be harmful to persons
located in the vicinity of the apparatus. It would be
helpful therefore to review the types of equipment using
high power microwave oscillators, and estimate in each
case the power density radiated as well as possible future
trends in total radiated power.
High power generators of electromagnetic waves are
not new. In .the 1920's, AT&T installed a 150 kilowatt
transmitter at Rocky Point, Long Island, for transatlantic
A communication. However this transmitter operated at 57
W kilocycles and the energy was fed into a mile-long antenna;
thus the energy density even near the antenna was not
too great, so that although the field strength near the
antenna (of ~he order of 10 volts/meter) was enough to
require precautions about grounding metal objects like
automobiles approaching the transmitter, the power
density in the field was small (about 10-s watts/cm2 ).
The essential difference between microwaves and the
broadcast band is not that we generate more power in
the microwave region (in fact the opposite is true) but
that we can concentrate the electromagnetic energy in the
relatively small volume of a waveguide or coaxial cable
and radiate it from extremely high gain antennas.
vVe can, of course, generate waves even shorter than
the microwave region by going into the visible and infrared
part of the spectrum. A very powerful source of these
waves is the sun. The energy of sunlight reaching the
earth is enough to produce a heat energy of 2 calories per
cm2 per minute on a perfect absorber at normal incidence.
This is equal to a power density of 0.14 watts/cm2 • Fur-
thermore it is possible to concentrate this energy by
suitably designed mirrors and lenses and produce a
considerably greater heat energy at the focal point. The
physiological effects of solar radiation are, however,
limited by the fact that the ultraviolet and, to so~e
xtent, the infrared radiation of the sun is absorbed in a
thin layer of the skin. Microwaves, on the other hand,
penetrate the tissues and release their heat inside the
body, some of it in areas which are not sufficiently cooled
t Airborne Instruments Laboratory, Mineola, N. Y.
13
AND w. J. HORVATHt
by body fluids. Generally this type of radiation is produced
in narrow bands of the spectrum, and our discussion will
be confined to equipment operating at frequencies of
from 200 to 10,000 megacycles.
·we can divide microwave equipment into two cate-
gories, pulsed equipment such as radar and continuous
wave generators such as communication and TV trans-
mitters. Alt~ough radar equipment may be designed to
produce extremely high peak powers, since the energy
comes in short bursts spaced by long intervals of zero
energy, the average power, which is the important con-
sideration for tissue heating, is not too great. Table I
lists the properties of representative high power radars
used by the U.S. Navy. 1
It can be seen that, although the peak power of one of
the sets is as high as one million watts, the average power
is only about 400 watts. However, this is not a negligible
amount of energy. Since S-Band waveguide has a cross
section of about 25 cm2 , the energy density of radiation
leaving an open ended wave guide (assuming no losses)
averages about 16 watts/cm2 or about 100 times the
energy density of solar radiation striking the earth.
The average power may be increased by increasing any
one of the three factors: peak power, pulse width, or pulse
repetition rate. The pulse repetition rate in radar applica-
tions is generally set by the maximum range at which
targets are expected to be detected. Since it takes 0.002
second for a pulse to travel out and return from a target
at 300 miles, in long range search applications pulse
repetition frequencies are kept below 500 pps. Although a
greater amount of average power can be radiated by
increasing the duration of the pulse, there are many
. practical considerations to limit this. Among these are
reduced range resolution between targets, increased signal
from nonaircraft targets, less reliable operation of the
magnetron, and difficulty in lining up the narrow band
receivers which are ~eeded for best sensitivity with a
long pulse. For these re:ltsons,.attempts to increase average
·radiated power and h~Iice radar range have been directed
mainly toward in.creasirtg the peak power.
Raising the peak po,ie; and hence the average power
of microwave generators introduces a number of problems.
1 Supplementary Readings in Fundamental
Naval Electronics,
NAVPERS 10809; March, 1949.

14 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDIC AL ELECTRONICS
TABLE I-CHARACTERISTICS
Set Use Frequency
SR-3 Long Range Search 1300 me
sx Fighter Director 2900 me
SP Fighter Director 2800 me
Since less than 50 per cent of the power is converted to
electromagnetic waves, considerable heat is also generated
and must be removed by suitable coolants. The magnetrons
used in the radars of Table I are all air cooled. Water
cooling must be used for generators of higher average
power. Klystrons lend themselves more easily to high
power designs and water cooling has been provided for
all recent tubes of this type. This is not a limitation at
present, but cooling becomes more and more important
as power is increased.
Probably the most serious limitation to high power in
the radar field comes from the fact that dry air at room
temperatures and pressures cannot sustain voltage
gradients in excess of 30,000 volts per cm. Since wave
guides are normally filled with dry air at reJom pressure
this is a serious limitation. Table II shows the maximum
power (peak) theoretically possible in various sized
waveguides subject to this limitation.
TABLE II-Peak Power Capacity of Standard vVaveguides 2
Size Wavelength Maximum Peak
(Inside) Cm Power Megawatts
3.40 x 7.25cm 10.0 10.5
1.02 x 2.29cm 3.2 0.99
0 .43 x 1. 07cm 1. 25 0.22
These maximum power values are attainable only under
ideal conditions of smooth surfaces, dust free air, etc.
Allowance for the usual safety factors in engineering
design will result in values which are only one-third to
one-fourth as great. Thus, if we took a practical limit of
3 megawatts for S-Band waveguide and the previously
stated parameters of 1 µsec pulse duration and 500 pulses
per second we would have about 1,500 ,:vatts of average
power at this wavelength.
The dimensions of the waveguides shown in Table II
are governed by certain design considerations which keep
the narrow dimension less than half a free space wave-
length to avoid propagating undesirable modes. Thus it
is not possible to arbitrarily increase the waveguide
dimensions in order to reduce the electric field strength
and thereby increase the power transmitted. As Table II
indicates, the power density (watts per square cm) that
can be transmitted for a given breakdown field is sub-
stantially constant. Since smaller guides are used for the
higher frequencies, the total power transmitted decreases
roughly as the square of the wavelength.
L. Ridenour, "Radar System Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book
2 "Design and Performance of a High-Power Pulsed Klystron," PROC.
Co., Inc., New Yoi·k, N. Y., p. 394; 1947.
February
.,
I
OF OPERATIONAL NAVY RADAR SETS !
Peak Power Pulse Width Representative Average
Rate Power I
500 kw 1 µsec 600 pps 300 watts
lO00kw 1 µsec 390 pps 390 watts
700 kw 1 µsec 635 pps 445 watts
Other possible methods of overcoming this limitation
on transmitted power are either to pressurize the wave-
guide or to remove all the air by high vacuum pumps.
The latter alternative has been used · in the design of
linear accelerators where high power requirements and
high vacuum are both needed. The feasibility of this
solution in the radar field remains to be demonstrated,
but pressurization is not difficult and we know that wave-
guides with twice atmospheric pressure could carry four
times as much power and with four atmospheres pressure
about ten times the power of unpressurized waveguides.
Some idea of the magnitude of the power available from
microwave generat•ors can be obtained by listing some
recently published data on the use of klystron power
amplifiers for linear accelerators. An electron accelerator
3
designed at Stanford University for x-ray therapy
operates at 2,836 megacycles (10.5 cm) and has a peak
power of 1 megawatt, pulse duration of 1.8 µsec, and
pulse frequency of 480 pps. This produces an average
power of 865 watts. An even more powerful tube for -
4
linear accelerator use has been described by M. Chodorow,
et al. Operating at 10.5 cm this tube produces 2 µsec pulses
at 30 megawatts peak power and pulse repetition rate of
60 pps or an average power of 3,600 watts. Efficiencies of
generating this energy are about 40 per cent, so over
5,000 watts of heat must be dissipated. This is done by
circulating 2½ gallons of water per minute in jackets
around the tube. Since these tubes operate at 400 kilo-
volts, the x-ray production (up to 1,lOOR per hour) is a
more serious hazard than the microwaves produced, inas-
much as the microwave energy is all confined to guides
and accelerating tube. However, it should be possible to
adapt these tubes to radar usage, in which case we would
be dealing with radiated powers thirty to fifty times
those shown in Table II (up to 20 kw average power).
Let us consider next the problem of determining the
energy density of microwave radiation in the space sur-
rounding the antenna. In the immediate vicinity of the
antenna a rather complicated situation exists in which
part of the energy is stored in the field (the so-called
"induction field") and part of it is radiated. The stored
energy usually exceeds the radiated energy but the
determination of the exact value of each in space and time
is a very complicated problem. At large distances from
the antenna, the radiation field predominates and the
problem becomes much easier. For this case, the power
3 N. C. Chang, "Design of Linear Accelerators," Stanford Micro-
wave Laboratory, Rep. No. 203; July, 1953.
4
M. Chodorow, E. L. Ginzton, I. R. Neilsen, and S. Sonkin,
IRE, vol. 41, p. 1584; 1953.
 1956 Tolles and Horvath: Energy Densities of Microwave Radiating Systems
density, PR , at a point in space on the axis of the antenna
•
a distance R from the surface of the antenna, is given by
(1)
where P O is the power density at the antenna and G is
the power gain over an isotropic radiator due to the
focusing action of the antenna. This formula is valid only
if the distance R is greater than D 2 />-. where Dis the diam-
eter of the antenna aperture and ;\ is the wavelength. In
the S-Band region gains of the order of 1,000-2,000 may
be expected. In fact, the gain of a parabolic mirror is
given by
(2)
where A is the area of the aperture and f is a correction
factor depending on the actual phase and intensity
relationships over the aperture. For ;\ = 10 cm and
D = 100 cm the theoretical gain should be 986 for f = 1.
In practice, antennas of this size seldom exceed gains of
about 600.
If we were to supply this particular antenna with a
power output of 1,000 watts, then the power density
just outside the antenna will be about 0.13 watts/cm2,
or about equal to that of the noonday sun at the equator.
This, of course, is an approximate calculation assuming a
plane wave right at the antenna aperture. However, this
A assumption is not far from correct and can be used to
W obtain an estimate of the power density. A man placing
his hand (about 100 cm2 ) right in front of this antenna
will receive about 13 watts of microwave power through
the tissues and feel the heat in a very short time. The
decrease in power density close to the antenna is, as we
have indicated, very difficult to calculate. Each antenna
will be a special case, and the best approach to the problem
is to undertake a program of measurements to determine
representative values for each configuration.
We can, however, use formula (1) to estimate the power
density in the above example at 33 feet where the formula
holds reasonably well. At this distance the power density
has dropped to 6.2 microwatts/cm2 or about one twenty-
thousandth of the power density at the antenna. Thus,
even with a relatively high gain antenna (600) the power
level drops very rapidly with distance from the antenna.
Increasing the average .power by twenty times (i.e., a
20 kw transmitter) will still result in a power density at
33 feet from the antenna only one-thousandth of that
due to solar radiation. It is obvious therefore that high
power densities will occur only within a few feet of th_e
antenna and that the determination of the exact contours
of power level will have to be obtained by a special
measurement program.
Before closing this subject, a brief mention should be
made of continuous power generators in the microwave
region, since some of the limitations of pulsed generators
will not apply to them. Breakdown in the waveguide is
no longer a limitation here since the peak power is also
the average power and average powers are unlikely ever
to approach values needed to reach breakdown potential.
15
The chief uses of continuous microwave generators will
be as communication transmitters and TV transmitters.
At the moment, effort in this field is confined to the vhf
band (300mc-1,000mc) or about 1 meter to 30 cm wave-
length. At present RCA 5 has a forced air-cooled tetrode
(6181) for TV transmitters which generates 1,200 watfa
at frequencies up to 900 me. Eimac 6 has developed a
3-cavity klystron capable of furnishing 5 kw of continuous
power at 1,000 me. But the most powerful generators
mentioned in the literature in this frequency range are
the resnatrons, 7 which are high power tetrode cavity
resonators. These tubes have a high inherent efficiency
and considerable effort has gone into the development of
extremely high powers for good TV broadcast coverage.
Some estimates place the ultimate power at 200 kw for
adequate coverage of the average service area. The
published literature indicates that under laboratory
conditions as much as 75 kw has been generated by these
tubes. Conventional resnatron designs are limited to the
350-650 me range. The attainment of higher frequencies
at usable efficiencies appears to be limited by electron
transit times. An axial· flow resnatron8 has recently been
perfected which may have a _higher frequency limit,
although the experimental tube is confined to the 300-600
me range where it has generated about 30 kw.
The use of these tubes in TV broadcast and other
communication applications will _mean the use of omni-
directional or at best very low gain antennas. However,
even if the power is spread over a fairly large radiating
surface, the energy density right next to the antenna will
be greater than in any of the current radars due to the
projected hundredfold increase in radiated power. A rough
calculation, whose validity should be judged from our
previous remarks about the problems of calculating the
field in the near zone, shows that the radiation density one
foot from the axis of a cylindrical antenna with 6 bays
operating at 1,000 me and 200 kw would be about one
hundred times the density of solar energy.
9
Salisbury and his co-workers have indicated that
expo.sure to a power density of 3 watts per cm2 for as
little as 10 minutes could lead to cataract formation. For
longer exposures, much smaller levels of radiation may
be harmful. The smallest harmful dose for extremely long
exposure seems to be about 100 milliwatts per cm2 or
about the mean power density in sunlight reaching the
earth.
Thus, although the realization of some of these develop-
ments is still in the distant future, some thought should
be given now to the problem of setting up a measurement
program to determine the energy density in the near·
zone of microwave antennas and determining appropriate
safety requirements.
5 W. P.
Bennett and H. F. Kazanowski, "One Kilowatt Tetrode
for vhf Transmitters," PROC. IRE, vol. 41, p. 13; 1953.
6
D. H. Priest, C. E. Murdock, and J. J. Woerner, "High Power
Klystrons at uhf," PROC. IRE, vol. 41, p. 20; 1953.
7
D. B. Harris, "New vhf Resnatron Designs and Applications,"
Electronics, vol. 24, p. 86; October, 1951.
8 R. L. McCreary, vV. J. Armstrong, and S. G. McNees,
"An,
Axial :Flow Resnatron for vhf," PRoc. IRE, vol. 41, p. 42; 1953.
9 W. W. Salisbury, J.
W. Clark, and H. M. Hines, "Exposure to
Microwaves," Electronics, vol. 22, p. 66; May, 1949.
16 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

An E~ploration ?f the Eff~cts o~ Strong Radio-F~equ;ncy •

Fields on M1cro-Organ1sms 1n Aqueous Solutions·
G. H. BROWNt AND W. C. MORRISONt

The authors of this paper prepared the following comments

and summary for publication. The complete paper which Dr.
Brown presented at the Symposium is not available for pub-
lication.-the Editor. ·

Summary-Radio-frequency power generators have been
widely used in many industrial heating operations. Limited
applications have been made in the treatment of food,
where internally induced heat has been used to inactivate
enzymes, as well as to pasteurize or sterilize the material.
* Reprinted from Food 1'echnology, vol. 8, pp. 361-366; August,
1954. (Copies of the full paper are available on request from the
authors.)
t Radio Corp. of America, RCA Labs. Div., Princeton, N. J.
Many writers have speculated concerning specific effects of
electric fields on micro-organisms other than the heating
effect. A series of experiments, using a wide range of
frequencies to treat specimens which varied widely in
conductivity, were designed to learn if the elect,ric field
per se contributed to the destruction of bacteria. The paper
describes the methods developed for estimating field
intensities and temperature rise and in addition displays
typical test results.

Protective Measures for Microwave Radiation Hazards:

750 to 30,000 Mc
-
H. R. MEAHLt

The author of this paper prepared the following comments

and s'Ummary for publication. The complete paper which Mr.
Meahl presented at the Symposium is not available for pub-
lication.-the Editor.

Summary-Continuous exposure to a field intensity of
0.001 watt per square centimeter appears to cause no
harmful effects to either animals or men.
It is neither difficult nor expensive to make and use
monitoring instruments to find out whether or not fields
in excess of 0.001 watt per square cm exist in an area.
' It is well to remember that microwaves may be greatly
intensified by reflections from objects which do not
reflect light well. Consequently, it is necessary to use
instruments sensitive to the microwaves in inspecting an
area and to move them about the whole area to find out
whether or not it is safe.
t General Engrg. Lab., General Elec. Co., Schenectady, N. Y.
Much experimental work remains to be done before
reasonably complete evaluation of microwave radiation
hazards can be made.
CONCLUSION
Attention is called to the need for monitoring microwave
radiation in the frequency range of 750 to 30,000 me and
for limiting th~ intensity to which one exposes his body.
Two inexpeijsive and easy to use devices which may be
used as moriltors of field intensity are described briefly.
The materitt,ls and techniques which may be used to
limit the field 'strength to which one exposes himself are
indicated.
 1956 IRE TRANSACTIONS -MEDICAL ELECTRONICS 17

Session 111-_Effects of Microwaves on the Eye

Biologic Effects Studies on Microwave Radiation:

Time and Power Threshold s for the Productio n
of Lens Opacities by 12.3-Crn Microwaves*
D. B. WILLIAMS,t J. P. MONAHAN,t W. J. NICHOLSON,§ AND J. J. ALDRICHt
Summary-This study is essentially an extension of the work of
Daily, et al. (1, 2] and Richard, et al. (3], who demonstrated that
cm2 ) and the power measuring equipment. The method
12.3-cm radiation could produce lens opacities in the eyes of animals. of measurement and calibration data are described in
Because of the broader implication of their findings in terms of greater detail elsewhere [4].
human analogy, this present investigation was designed to gain some
idea of what microwave power densities should be considered dan- DIPO /.,,.E RN71INNR
gerous for human exposure. Both wavelength and power densities
used for this purpose are of interest in the applied fields of microwave
diathermy, radar communications, and microwave research.

D1PoL£ ceossovc.e

-THE lNSTRUMEN'rATION

SOURCE of high-frequency radiation (12.3 cm

wavelength) was~~~ ~a!theon Mic~otherm-director
MEn;1t DEFLECTOR.-✓ I---""

-PLR5TJC HOl,J-,11vG,

C, Model CDM4. Ih1s mstrument 1s rated at about Otl!ECTO/e "c" RNTENNR

100 watts of continuous wave power output, and pro- li!RY7HEON MICR07HE/f!M'
MODE'- CDM-,.
duces a microwave beam of previously undefined density.
The Microtherm is approved by the American Medical
Association for use in diathermy and operates at a fre-
quency of 2,450 megacycles per second as authorized by
the Federal Communications Commission.
Power output of the Microtherm was measured by
means of a Hewlett-Packard Microwave Power Meter,
Model 430B, employed in conjunction with a Hewlett-
Packard tunable bolometer, Mount Model 475B, and a
section of attenuation cable RG-21/4 (55.00 decibels).
Beam densities from director C were obtained with the of Fig. 1-Power distribution in beam at 2- and 3-inch distances from C
the Raytheon Microtherm at 100 per cent power output (95 w).
same equipment except that 26.34 db of attenuation were
used between a dipole pickup antenna (effective area-21.3 Beam power densities at the 2- and 3-inch exposure
position are shown in Fig. 1. The power density in each
* This work was accomplished at the Radiobiology Laboratory, square inch of the 3 X 4-inch cross section is shown to
Atomic Warfare Directorate, AF Cambridge Res. Center, Air Res. 2
and Dev. Command, Cambridge, Mass. This report is a condensed the nearest tenth of a watt/cm • Calibration of the beam
version of the complete study (in press); A.M.A. Archives of Oph- opposite the dipole crossover at these and other distances
thalmology and School of Aviation Medicine, USAF, Rep. No.
55-94. shown in Fig. 2 enabled an estimate to be made of the
t Dept. of Radiobiology, School of Aviation Medicine, USAF, previously unknown power densities which had been
Randolph Field, Tex. .
t St. John's Hospital, Lisle Street, Leicester Square, London, employed in other studies. For example, Daily et al. [2]
W.C. 2, Eng., . worked at 2- to 5-inch positions approximating 0.53 to
§ Biophysics Division, AF Special Weapons Center, Kirtland AF
Base, N. Mex. 0.16 watt/cm2, while Richardson et al. [3] used about
1 Obtained
on loan from the Raytheon Mfg. Co., Waltham, Mass. 0.5 to 0.6 watt/ cm2 at the 2-inch position.
18 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

06

Q.S

0.'r
POWER
0£NSITY ffLL POINTS ON CU£VE RT /00 % POW£,£' OUTPUT
WRTT..S)
( CM"-
(l.3'

az
04.5%

030 0/4
a,, I
Ozo¼

0.0----_.__ _ __.__ _ _....1...._ _ _J.__ _ _..J..__ _ _..J..__ _ _..,L__ __

·I 3 4 .s 1
0/STRNCE' {INCH€S)

Fig. 2-Power density as a function of distance from Director C of the Raytheon Microtherm.

100

90
OCULAR EXPOSURES

Fifty-eight anesthetized2 male New Zealand white

rabbits of the same generic strain and about 10 to 15
-
::!: weeks of age were used to establish the minimum exposure
0::
w time and power requirements for opacities produced by
80 J:
I-
0 a single dose of radiation. Duration of irradiation and
0::
Q power levels were varied between the limits of 3.5 to 8
70 ::!: 2
minutes at 100 per cent output (0.59 watt/ cm ) and 90

-
e,1.\1::!:
;

•!::
<fl
z
w
0
0
60

50
::!:
0
0::
IL

I-
::::,
Q.
I-
::::,
0
2
minutes at 35 per cent output (0.24 watt/cm ). The left
eye served as a control for the right eye which was exposed
directly opposite the dipole crossover in the beam 2 inches
from director C. Distance was measured from the cornea of
·o:: 0:: the eye to the anterior surface of the plastic housing over
w
w
0 40 3: the dipole. The results of the exposure series 3 are resolved
~ 0
Q. Q.
into a threshold for opacity production in Fig. 3.
0
w 30 z I- The trend of the opacity threshold beyond 90 minutes
~ 0.2 w
Q.
Q.
0
0::
was determined by exposure of 4 animals, 2 at each power
<( w density, 0.12 and 0.22 watt/cm2, respectively (Fig. 4).
Q.
20
Finally 17 animals were used to determine ocular and
whole temperature characteristics of threshold exposures.
0.1 10
The method of temperature measurement is described
elsewhere [4]. After a single exposure was made to the
open eye, each animal was periodically observed for 90
0.0 ,.___,___.L.---L----'---'----'--.L.----'--.__-'-_..J days and in some cases for 6 months. Examination of
0 20 40 60 80 100
2 Sodium pentobarbital, about 35 mg per kilogram of body weight,
DURATION OF EXPOSURE (MINUTES)
injected into marginal vein of ear as needed to maintain anesthesia.
3 Parameters of exposures and results are reported in tabular form
Fig. 3-Exposure time and power density thresholds for opacity
production by 12.3-cm microwaves. in the original study [4].
1956 Williams et al.: Production of Lens Opacities by Microwaves 19
0.6

0
•
ANIMAL EXPOSURES

HUMAN EXPOSURES
0.5. (NON-INJURIOUS)
TOTAL NO. OF EXPOSURES
SHOWN INSIDE SYMBOLS
RATIO OF NO. OF ANIMALS

-
•I-
THRESHOLD OF EXPERIMENTAL OPACITY
~MATION BY SINGLE DOSES OF 12.3cm.
RADIATION.
DEVELDPING OPACITIES TO
NO. OF ANIMALS EXPOSED
SHONN OUTSIDE SYMBOLS.

enz
~ 0.3
a:
~
i
o0.2

~ @)2,6
&LI
:J
~
~
<t J;'1 --- .. DOSAGES EMPLDYED IN OCULAR DIATHERMY
-L:.J - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SUSPECT POWER LEVEL -- -00,2
O.f
~

o.oa.......L..-...a.-...1-... i.......,_...,_~~--:1----..........._--.a..-..,__..........................i.......,_...&...__._....J.__,___..__._a......a.......1.-..L.-

-
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 IO 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
DURATION OF EXPOSURE (MINUTES)
Fig. 4-Time and power densities significant in ocular irradiation by 12.3-cm microwaves.

both eyes before and after irradiation was made with the
May ophthalmoscope. None of the control eyes developed
opacities during the period of observation.
GROSS PATHOLOGY
Opacities occurred in 32 of the 58 rabbits subjected to
12.3-cm radiation. An arbitrary classification into three
groups was used for typing the damage observed. Clinico-
histopathologic studies on the cataractous lenses will be
reported upon separately and are but briefly described here.
Minimal Opacities
These lesions appeared as clusters of small black dots
in the region of the posterior suture of the lens and were
probably not detrimental to vision. Eleven animals
had lens damage of this type, described by Daily et al. [2].
Circumscribed Opacities
These lesions were roughly round or' oval with sharp,
<lark, borders which often had a ray-like appearance, in
contrast to the core which was diffuse and less dense.
These opacities were located in the region of the posterior
horizontal· suture; in two of the severe cases, the suture
line separated the damage into upper and lower regions.
Daily et al. [2] also reported similar observations. Some of
the seven examples of this group appeared dense enough
to interfere with vision.
Diffuse, Irregular, Opacities
This variable group of cataracts, obstructing vis10n 1
was comprised of large, opaque areas with peripheral
crescents, dense linear projections, and vacuoles. In some
cases the cataract involved the lens sufficiently to obscure
the retina. Some changed their shape during the 90-day
observation period. Fourteen cataracts were included in
this miscellaneous grouping.
All of the lens opacities produced in this study developed
within 14 days after irradiation. The minimal opacity
required the longest time for development; the diffuse,
the shortest; and the circumscribed, between the two
extremes. Thus, the degree of damage is inversely pro-
portional to time of appearance. In three cases minimal
opacities regressed to the point of disappearance but
exposures producing these lesions were considered as
having produced opacities.
Although attention was focused primarily on the pro-
duction of opacities, other radiation effects were observed.
High power levels produced edema of the lid and con-
junctiva. Enophthalmos, miosis, and injection of the
conjunctiva occurred commonly. A few cases of retinal
damage were noted but in most cases lens opacities repre-
sented the most severe damage which was grossly dis-
cernible. Exposures causing prominent and persisting
edema in the periorbital region resulted in cataracts of
20 IRE TRANSACTIO NS-MEDICA L ELECTRONIC S February

greatest severity. Other secondary effects could not be lower power densities caused a 3 ° to 5 ° C increase in body
correlated to subsequent occurrence of opacities temperature. In general it appears that the rise in body
temperature is a direct function of the duration of thresh- 1

POWER AND TIME THRESHOLDS OF OPACITY FORMATION old irradiation despite the higher power levels character- - ·
In Fig. 3, exposures which produced opacities or istic of brief exposures. ffhese observations are in contrast
2
cataracts are shown as crosses; ineffective episodes of to the results of sub-threshold exposures at 0.12 watt/cm
exposure are indicated by circles. The solid line dr_awn where a protracted period of exposure of 270 minutes
through the experimental points represents an empirical produced a negligible body temperature elevation.
limit above which production of lens opacities is a near Evidently at this latter power level the rate at which the
certainty. The nature of this limit as a threshold is sug- irradiated animal is able to dissipate heat is about equal
gested by its passage through and proximity to experi- to the energy flux on the head and eye.
mental points which represent mixed results obtained by Heating effects such as solar radiation, restricted air
the same conditions of exposure. The significance of the circulation, high relative humidity, high environmental
threshold is not precisely known in terms of probability. temperatures and,· in general, any effects which tax the
It is of interest, however, that the empirical limit selected ability of the body to dissipate heat, are indicated as
passes through approximately 25 per cent of the total factors which would tend to lower the threshold require-
number of experimental points and effectively separates ments of opacity production. This effect would be par-
all of the remaining exposures except in one case. ticularly critical at lower power densities which might
The threshold ranges from 5 minutes at 0.59 watt/cm not otherwise be capable of causing lens injury. Conversely,
2

to 90 minutes at 0.29 watt/cm • One watt/cm equals other conditions such as low circumambient temperature
2 2

14.3 cal/cnl/min. The threshold power densities thus are and low relative humidity, which would augment the
equivalent to a thermal flux of 8.4 to 4.1 cal/cm /min or ability of the body to dissipate heat, might well raise the
2

doses of 42 to 369 calf cm delivered during 5 to 90 minutes threshold requirements of opacity production.
2

of exposure, respectively.
COMMENTS
Compared at 10 minutes of exposure, the threshold
2
power requirement of 0.48 watt/ cm is only one-sixth of It appears worth while to mention that the minimal
the 3 watts/ cm which was regarded as hazardous by opacities observed in this study have salient features in
2

Salisbury et al. [5]. The extreme susceptibility of the eye ·common with opacities described in rabbits subjected to
to power densities greater than 0.4 watt/ cm is indicated ocular irradiation by x-, neutron- and beta-radiation
2

by the precipitous slope in this region. Below 0.4 watt/ cm2, [7, 8, 9]. This is particularly true in that vacuolar opacities -
the rapidly decreasing slope of the threshold reflects the induced by both 12.3-cm microwaves and ionizing radia-
gross increase in the exposure time required for opacity tion show: 1) a marked predilection for development in
production at only slightly lower power densities. the region of the posterior horizontal suture, 2) a compa-
Little is known of the threshold below 0.29 watt/ cm 2
rable latent period of onset (several days to several weeks)
-except for exploratory exposures of 4.5 hours duration at in the case of microwaves and high doses of neutrons
2
0.22 and 0.12 watt/cm , respectively. The production of (14 mev) and beta-radiation, and 3) in some instances
2
:severe ocular damage at 0.22 watt/ cm is not typical of regression to the point of disappearance.
5
opacity production as previously described. The extremely The photon energy of 12.3-cm radiation at 10~ electron
prolonged episode of ocular hyperthermia at 0.22 watt/ cm volts (thermal effects range) possesses only 1/3,000,000 of
2

i{)ermits time for the development of thermally induced, the 30 electron volts (ionizing effects range) required for
:physiologic changes in the eye during the course of expo- the production of a single ion pair. Thus despite the fact
:sure. It is probable that these changes are not representa- that opacities induced by microwave and ionizing irradia-
tive of the ocular system in which lens opacities are tion are undoubtedly initiated by entirely different
produced by relatively shorter periods of exposure at primary reactions (thermal vs ionization, respectively),
higher power densities. The failure of the 4.5 hour exposure it may well be that these lesions, regardless of radiation
.at 0.12 watt/cm to elicit any discernible response suggests type, become visible through a similar course of secondary
2

-the proximity of a practical limit to power densities which events. A comprehensive study of lens changes produced
.can produce lesions of the lens by a single exposure under by microwave vs ionizing radiation might elucidate the
;the conditions of the experiment. controversial features of radiation cataract mechanism.

'TEMPERATURE S ASSOCIATED WITH THRESHOLD EXPOSURES Human Irradiation

'Vitreous temperatures between 53° to 49° C, respectively,
were characteristic of threshold exposures between 5 to
25 minutes in duration. This level represents a 10° to 14° C
elevation of vitreous temperature above normal and agrees
well with the range of 51 ° to 55° C which was found
significant in opacity production by Richardson et al. (3].
Threshold exposures shorter than 25 minutes in length
produced less than a 2° rise in body temperature, whereas
:50- to 70-minute threshold exposures at considerably
Although sufficiently high power levels may cause human
<;>Cular injury, lens damage has not been established as a
radiation effect in humans. On the contrary, the thermo-
genie quality of 12.3-cm radiation has been used to
advantage in ocular diathermy for treatment of the
diseases of the posterior lens segment of the eye [6]. In
this connection it should be noted that the production of
opacities in the present study is in no way intended to
depreciate or discourage use of the Microtherm where its
 1956 Williams et al.: Production of Lens Opacities by Microwaves 21
application has been found desirable, but to indicate contingency is of considerable importance with respect
limits which can guide its successful application. to its connotations in human exposure to low power

-
Although the threshold of experimental opacity pi:o- levels of radiation over long periods of time. With the
duction affords an estimate of power density to be con- development of a threshold for experimental opacity
sidered dangerous, its meaning in terms of human analogy production by a single exposure, it is expedient to examine
has not yet been established. A better appraisal is obtained the results of previous investigators for evidence of opacity
from consideration of time and power parameters of ex- formation as a cumulative effect of repeated exposures.
posures used in microwave diathermy of the human eye. Irradiation parameters reported by Richardson et al.
A standard ocular treatment reported by Clark [6] [3] and Daily et al. [2] are shown as circles in Fig. 4. The
consisted of a 15-minute exposure of the open eye to total number of exposures per rabbit eye are indicated
20 per cent of the power output of the Raytheon Micro- inside the symbol. The ratio of the number of animals
therm at a distance of 3 inches from director C. In an developing opacities to the total number of exposed
unusual case it was possible to administer a number of animals is noted as a fraction outside the circle.
exploratory exposures without fear of damaging an The 15- to 20-minute single exposure requirement for
already irretrievably lost eyesight. Although 2$ of these opacity production as observed by Richardson et al. [3] at
exposures were at power levels considerably higher than 100 per cent power output corresponds to a power density
the standard treatment, none of these exposures were of about 0.46 watt/cm2 • Reference to Fig. 1 confirms that
deleterious. The approximate power densities employed thiE power density is within the power distribution at
in these treatments are shown as boxes in Fig. 4. 2 inches from director C of the Microtherm. The proximity
It is notable that all of these exposures are at power of the multiple 10- to 12-minute exposures to the threshold
levels well below the threshold for experimental opacity suggests that any single exposure within this latter series
production. The standard clinical treatment employs only may have produced lens damage without the need for
one-fourth the power density dosage and dose rate which additional exposures. Similarly the results of Daily et al.
produces lens damage in the rabbit. Despite the production [2] at 0.53 and 0.36 watt/cm2 are inconclusive with the
of severe ocular damage in the rabbit by 4.5 hours of exception of ten 10-minute exposures at the lower density
exposure to 0.22 watt/cm2, it is of interest that three where 1 of 6 exposed animals sustained an opacity. An
15-minute exposures at this level were not injurious to example more suggestive of opacity production as a
the human eye. Human exposures at 0.24 watt/cm2 ,vere cumulative effect is found in the ten 30-minute exposures
discontinued bec~use of pain or discomfort. Possible at 0.16 and 0.24 watt/cm2 • It is remarkable, however,
A effects from protracted exposure at this power level are that each of these latter densities are well below the
W suggested by the massive ocular damage sustained by the threshold requirements for single exposures.
rabbit from 4.5 hours of exposure to 0.22 watt/cm2 • The
production of sensible discomfort before injury to the CONCLUSIO N
human eye at 0.24 watt/ cm2 is of interest in the light of a
Time and power threshold for experimental opacity
suggestion [5] that injury without warning may be causedproduction ranged between 5 minutes at 0.59 watt/cm2 to
by 12.3-cm radiation in a region such as the lens which 90 minutes at 0.29 watt/ cm2 • These power levels correspond
is poorly supplied with heat sensory receptors. to a thermal flux of 8.4 to 4.1 caljcm2/min. The trend of
Hirsch and Parker [10] described a case in which expo-
the threshold beyond 90 minutes was bracketed between
sure to microwaves is circumstantially linked to the 0.22 and 0.12 watt/cm2 for 4.5 hours of sustained irradia-
occurrence of bilateral lenticular opacities in a microwave
tion. Failure of latter density to cause opacities suggests
generator operator. An etiologic relationship. was not proximity of a power level below which experimental
established in this case. The radiation source involved a
opacity production by this method is impractical.
9- to 18-cm wave generator with an average power output The quantity of irradiation reflected and transmitte d
of about 100 watts on a 50 per cent duty cycle. The by the eye is unknown, but sufficient energy is absorbed
average daily level of exposure was believed to approxi- to produce temperatures of 49° to 53° C at the site of
mate 0.005 watt/cm2 • It was estimated, however, that subsequent lesion formation in the lens. The temperatures
the operator's head was intermitte ntly exposed to a appear adequate to account for thermal denaturati on and
power density of 0.12 watt/cm2 for a total of 2 hours coagulation of lens protein or cellular injury in the capsule.
during the 3 days preceding difficulty with vision. There is a need for basic information on the reflectance,
The same power level of 0.12 watt/cm 2 was ineffective
absorption, and transmission of microwaves in tissues,
in rabbits -receiving a single exposure for 270 minutes in
and on opacity thresholds at other wavelengths.
duration. It is notable that suspect power level shown in Lens opacities and cataracts have not been established'.
Fig. 4 is only slightly higher than clinical level and is
as a microwave irradiation effect in humans. Moreover,.
directly comparable to or lower than the power densitiesthe equivalent of the experimental threshold is not known,
of 23 exploratory exposures which Clark gave without in terms of human analogy. Consideration is being givelli
erceptible ill effect upon the lens. the development of an opacity threshold in the monkey·
Cumulative Effects
as an approach to the problem of extrapolation to man.
It is suggested in the interim, however, that the present;
There is a possibility that opacities may be produced threshold should be regarded as dangerous for
human:
as a cumulative radiation effect. Exploration of this eyes until more definitive information
is available..
22 IRE TRANSACTIO NS-MEDICA L ELECTRONIC S
Limited evidence of opacity production as a cumulative
effect from multiple, subthreshold, exposures emphasizes
the need to further explore this aspect of ocular irradiation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ill Daily, L., Jr., Wakim, K. G., Herrick, J. F., Parkhill, E. M., and
Benedict, W. L., "The Effects of Microwave Diathermy on
the Eye." American Jmirnal of Ophthalmology, Vol. 33 (Au-
gust, 1950), pp. 1241-1254.
[2] Daily, L., Jr., Wakim, K. G., Herrick, J. F., Parkhill, E. M.,
and Benedict, W. L., "The Effects of Microwave Diathermy
on the Eye of the Rabbit." American Journal of Ophthal-
mology, Vol. 35 (July, 1952), pp. 1001-1017.
{3] Richardson, A. W., Duane, T. D., and Hines, H. M., "Experi-
mental Lenticular Opacities Produced by Microwave Irradia-
tions." Archives of Physical il1eclicine, Vol. 29 (September,
1948), pp. 765-769.
[4] Williams, D. B., Monahan, J. P., Nicholson, W. J., Aldrich,
J. J., "Biologic Effects Studies on Microwaves. Time and
Power Thresholds for the Production of Lens Opacities by
The Use of Biological Simulants in Estimating the
Dose of Microwave Energy
F. G. HIRSCHt
BOUT four years ago, an electronic technician
A employed at the Sandia Laboratory, while con-
ducting research on antenna systems, developed
bilateral cataracts. There was a considerable amount of
circumstantial evidence which suggested that the micro-
wave radiation he had received was causative of these
lesions. As a result, a number of us, who had previously
dismissed this form of radiant energy as being not par-
ticularly hazardous to people, felt required to re-evaluate
the• state of our knowledge concerning the physiological
and pathological effects of microwave radiations.
1
As the data, which was contained in various published
reports, was reviewed and correlated, a number of things
became apparent. The first was that tissue damage, which
seems to be related to the amount of heat produced, can
be occasioned by heavy single exposures. The second
thing was that tissue damage can be produced by multiple,
less intensive exposures where there was an insufficient
amount of heat produced by any one of the exposures to
produce immediate damage; that is to say, there was an
.apparent cumulative effect. The third point was that a
.difference in susceptibility to damage by radiant energy
,exists between various types of tissue and various organs.
The amount of radiation any organ or tissue mass
receives depends, of course, on the relative power density
of the field in the free space occupied by the organism; on
the degree of absorption of the energy by the various
t Medical Director, Sandia Corp., Sandia Base, Albuquerque, factor is the varying ability of a biological system to
N.M.
1 F. G. Hirsch and J. T. Parker, "Bilateral lenticular opacities repair itself, or to restore a degree of its disturbed function
occurring in a technician operating a microwave generator," Arch.
Ind. Hyg. 0cc. Med., vol. 6, pp. 512-517; December, 1952.
February
12.3 Cm Microwaves." School of Aviation Medicine, United
States Air Force, Randolph Field, Texas, Report No. 55-94
(August, 1955). American Medical Association Archives of
. Ophthalmology, Vol. 54 (December, 1955), pp. 863-874.
[5] Salisbury, W. A., Clark, J. W., and Hines, H. M., "Exposure to
Microwaves." Electronics, Vol. 22 (1949), pp. 66-67. A
[6] Clark, W. B., "Microwave Diathermy in Ophthalmology: Clin- 'W'
ical Evaluation." Transactions of the American Academy of
Ophthalmology, Vol. 56 (October, 1952), pp. 600-607.
[7] Cogan, D. G., and Donaldson, D. D., "Experimental Radiation
Cataracts: I. Cataracts in the Rabbit Following Single X-Ray
Exposure." Archives of Ophthalmology, Vol. 45 (May, 1951),
pp. 508-522.
[8] Cogan, D. G., Goff, J. L., and Graves, E., "Experimental Radia-
tion Cataracts: II. Cataracts in the Rabbit Following Single
Exposure to Fast Neutrons." Archives of Ophthalmology,
Vol. 47 (May, 1952), pp. 584-592.
[9] McDonald, J. E., Hughes, W. F., Jr., and Peiffer, V. G., "Beta
Radiation Cataracts." Archives of Ophthalmology, Vol. 53
(1955), pp. 248-259.
[10] Hirsch, F. G., and Parker, J. T., "Bilateral Lenticular Opacities
Occurring in a Technician Operating a Microwave Gener-
ator." Archives of Industrial Hygiene, Vol. 6 (December,
1952), pp. 512-517.
tissues composing the organism; on the depth of the
tissue beneath the surface of the organism; and on the A
duration of the exposure. All of these parameters combine W
to c·onstitute what, for the sake of comparison with other
modalities of producing tissue damage, we should like
to call the dose. All who have an intei'est in protecting
biological systems from harmful doses of radiant energy
would like to quantitate exposures in terms of their
biological significance in order to have for our guidance,
number indexes signifying safe and hazardous situations.
We find ourselves unable to assign meaningful values to
these indexes, with our present knowledge.
When we consider chemical poisons, thermal hazards,
or the damage to biological systems resulting from ionizing
radiations, we employ a relationship of time proven
utility. This is stated by a simple equation, which is:
C X t = le,
where C is the concentration, t is time, 7c is a number
which when it exceeds a certain characteristic value for
any particular agent always means damage to the organ-
ism. Conversely, there is no damage when it is lower than
this characteristic value. The value above which damage
is always seen, and below which damage is not to be ex-
pected, is often called the threshold dose for toxicity.
This relationship is not the mathematical truism it
appears to be due to the fact that in addition to concen-
tration and time, other things are found to influence
whether or not tissue damage occurs. The most important
towards normality while still under the influence of the
 1956 Hirsch: Use of Biological Simulants in Estimating Dose of Microwave Energy
toxic agent or damaging force. Not only do various tissues
have different capacities in this regard, but the same
tissue in different individuals will vary in its recovery
-
capacity. Further, the same tissue in the same organism
will have a different response at different times.
With all of these defects, however, this relationship of
concentration of agent and time will always apply,
although with varying degrees of accuracy, and will be
found to be a useful concept. There is no reason to expect
the dosage considerations in the case of microwave
radiations are fundamentally different from those in the
cases of chemical toxicity, thermal damage, or the adverse
I
effects on tissue of ionizing radiation. This being so, we
l have sought to find, if possible, the various values for
Jc in the special case constituted by microwave radiations.
In order to do so we had first to consider the nature of
the parameter C in the equation. The following is a brief
account of our tussle with this matter, and of the state
of the struggle at the moment. Thus, I wish it understood
that this communication is not a report on a finished
research, but is only a preliminary report of progress.
As mentioned earlier, several parameters combine to
constitute the amount or concentration of radiant energy
to which a biological system is exposed. In the first place,
there is the relative power density in the free space
occupied by the organism. Then there is the ability of the
various tissues to absorb the energy, and finally, the
matter of the depth of the tissue beneath the surface of
the organism. There are many problems associated with
A the measurement of these parameters.
W The difficulties encountered in making power measure-
ments in free space are widely appreciated. Any pick-up
device introduced into a field constitutes a discontinuity
which interjects artifacts and errors into such measure-
ments. The precise nature of these errors is inherent in the
particular method of measurement, be it a dipole antenna,
black body, or what-not. Directional effects, focusing
effects, the setting up of spurious frequency modes, and
other things all combine to make free space measurements
unsatisfactory and unreliable.
The ability of any tissue mass to absorb radiant energy
is also a complicated thing. Clark has considered this
matter in his paper published in 1950. 2 One finds upon
studying his presentation that a great many physical
properties of tissue play a role; that absorption is a fre-
quency sensitive phenomenon; and that the degree of
homogeneity of the tissue is of importance. He has pre-
sented a formidable equation for the calculation of the
energy absorption of tissue. The solution of this equation
requires a knowledge of the numerical values for a number
of physical constants for any particular tissue or organ
system. For many of these, no values have been worked
out, and may not be, since they would only be accessible
through complicated and difficult experimentation.
It seemed necessary to us, in the face of these difficulties,
- to provide a substitute measurement which would enable
us to approximate C in the relationship mentioned earlier.
2 J. W. Clark, "Effects of intense microwave radiation on living
organisms," PROC. IRE, vol. 38, pp. 1028-1032; September, 1950.
23
If one such were available, we could by interpolation
arrive at a position where we could say that a tissue in a
given field intensity could be tolerated for a calculated
period of time with safety. Amount of heat produced in
tissue upon radiation is easily measured, suggesting itself
to a biologist as an appropriate substitute measurement.
The amount of heat produced in a tissue mass on
radiation is assumed to be proportional to the amount of
the absorbed radiant energy. It is the absorbed energy
which has biological significance, not that which is
:wailable. A man drinking in a tavern becomes intoxicated
by the brandy he absorbs into his body, not by that which
remains in bottles on the shelves of the back bar.
In deciding to utilize the production of heat as an index
of biological energy absorption, there is no intended
implication that the only.response of tissue upon absorp-
tion of radiant energy is the conversion of a portion of
that energy to heat, because this is almost certainly not
the case. There are effects on enzyme systems and other
aspects of cellular metabolism which are probably of
greater importance than is the heat which is produced.
The causal relationship between heat production and
altered cellular function is something about which we
know very little, but hope to learn more. However,
whatever else may happen, heat is always produced in
tissue as radiant energy is absorbed. Further, we feel
s2Je in speculating that profundity of metaboliG changes
and amount of heat production are directly proportional.
We speculated that if we could determine at what
temperature any particular event occurred as a tissue was
irradiated, we could use the temperature thereafter as an
index that the event would take place in any subsequent
experiment. We began with an easy and obvious phe-
homenon in order to test the validity of our speculation.
We used the temperature at which the tissue of the
crystalline lens of an eye coagulated; or, to be more specific,
. the temperature at which coagulative opacities appeared
in the lens of the eye of the cow.
We found that when the lens tissue reached a tempera-
ture of 46 degrees C., coagulative opacities appeared. This
is in contrast to temperature at which the phenomenon
takes place in case of rabbit's eye; i. e., 55 degrees C. 3
Excised eyes from slaughtered cattle were obtained as
soon as the animal was killed. They were immediately
pla,ced in a thermos jug containing warm Ringer's solution,
and taken to the laboratory. Here they were placed in a
perfusion apparatus where Ringer's solution was pumped
through them at a temperature of 37 degrees C. plus or
minus one degree. We found that such preparations
remained in excellent condition for as long as ten hours.
We have demonstrated the continuance of active cell
division in the corneal epithelium of these perfused eyes
for an equally long period.
Several bead thermistors were placed within the eye
along the optical axis from front to back so that data
could be obtained which indicated the temperature
gradient within the eye. The microwave beam had a wave
3 A. 'vV. Richardson, T. D. Duane,
and H. M. Hines, "Experi-
mental lenticular opacities produced by microwave irradiations,"
Arch. Phys. Med., vol. 29, p. 765; December, 1948.
24 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

48

40
48

40
-
1:
Cl)
u 1:
Cl)
vi
bl) ~
Cl)
0 32
Cl)
IJ)
32
'i:
Cl)
IJ) Q. GELATINE ...
~
COW EYE
s SPHERE
2
Q. I
s
Cl)
24
IJ)
Cl)
Cl)
24
f,< 3. 0 'cm wave length I'.., 3. 0 cm wave length

l
bl)
IJ) Power density 15/Wcm2 Cl) Power density 15 W / cm 2
Cl)
Cl) Duration - 10 minutes 0 Duration of radiation - 10 min.
Qi Distance = 30 ems.
Cl)
0 16
!\ 16
Distance - 30 ems

8
\ ~ 8
~~
~
I I

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Depth in Cms.
Fig. 1-A typical temperature gradient curve measured inside as
cow's eye on irradiation.
length of 3.0 centimeters. The relative power density was
15 watts per square cm at a plane coinciding with the
rim of the antenna horn. Distance between eye and this
plane was 30 cm. A typical gradient curve is in Fig. 1.
After several of these curves had been obtained and
were found to be virtually identical, we then tried other.
materials in place of the excised eye. Since gelatin mixtures
are known to respond in a fashion closely approximating
the response of tissue when other physical phenomena are
compared, this was our first choice.
Spheres of gelatin of the same size as the cow's eye were
cast in molds. A concentration of 30 per cent was selected
since most mammalian eyes have this concentration of
protein. Again bead thermistors were placed within the
gelatin spheres and radiation was performed in the Saine
manner as was the case with the eyes. In Fig. 2 a typical
temperature gradient curve is presented. It can be seen
that curves are sufficiently alike serve our purpose.
We felt safe in assuming that a gelatin sphere would
yield the same temperature information that an eye
would, if one had been used in the experiment. We were
then able to place the gelatin spheres at various places in
a radiation field and to determine how long would be
required for a temperature to be reached which would
have produced coagulative opacities.
We soon found that there were a number of technical
difficulties associated with the use of gelatin which made
it desirable to find some other material, or combination of
materials, which when irradiated would result in a tempera-
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 '-
Depth in Cms.
Fig. 2-A typical gradient cu~ve measured inside a 30 per cent A
gelatm sphere. W
ture gradient through the geometry which would be as
good as that of gelatin. At the present time a ball made of
hair, latex, and lampblack looks promising. -
When the optimum simulant has been devised, we will
then have a technique which will give us information
concerning the biological significance of that field. By
correlating the amount of damage or the degree of dis-
turbed function in any organ or tissue of interest with the
temperature at which such damage or disturbance occurs,
we hope to be able to advise the engineer or safety man
intelligently concerning the relative safety or hazard
associated with any radiation field of interest. Such a
device will, we hope, permit us to monitor microwave
fields much as we do with Geiger counters in ionizing
radiation, or with our air samplers in chemical hazards.
I wish to make it clear that in using lens coagulation as
an end point we ha-;e begun with an extreme case. Clinical
lesions, that is to say cataracts, do not occur as a rule
from single exposures intense enough to "cook" an eye.
We see such lesions in experimental animals only after a
lapse of time, and where there was no single temperature
reEtched which was high enough to be coagulative.
We wiU have to run parallel radiations on animals and
simulants to a point where we have enough data to cali- .a
bra~e simulant for various types of tissue and lesions. W
This phase has only begun. Perhaps, later, we will have
a device which can be taken into the field, and used there
to evaluate relative danger or safety of any microwave
generator and field of radiant energy associated with it.
 /

1956 IRE TRANSA CTIONS -MEDIC AL ELECTRONICS 25

The Effects of Microwave Diathermy On the Eye

- L. DAILY, t K. G. WAKIM ,t J. F .. HERRIC K,t E. M. PARKH ILL,t AND W. L. BENED ICTt

I
N ORDER to determine the changes in temperature the original level. This might
be explained by the observa-
of the orbital tissues, and of the aqueous and vitreous tion that in these animal$ there
was a general rise in the
humors after exposure of the eye of the dog and the temperature of the. body after exposure
to microw'O,ves.
rabbit to microwaves, and to determine the pathologic In all the experiments, a plateauing of the cooling curve
changes as well as certain chemical changes in the eye was practically complete within
15 minutes after dis-
resulting from exposure to microwaves, a study was continuation of heating,
and much sooner in the experi-
made of the effects of various durations of exposure of ments in which there was relatively
little rise in tempera-
intact as well as enucleated eyes at different distances, ture following exposure
to microwaves. As a rule, at the
durat1ons,. and power outputs. · . end of 20 minutes after exposure to microwaves, the
One series of acute experiments was performed on 36 temperature of the aqueous
was lower than that of the
dogs (Fig. 1) and on 79 rabbits. Thermocouple needles were vitreous or deep orbital tissues.
introduced into the orbit and aqueous and vitreous The rapid rate of cooling of the vitreous and aqueous
humors of the eye of the dog, while thermistors were was striking, since both of the
media are entirely avascular.
introduced into the orbit and vitreous of the eye of the Evidentl y most of the heat
produced in these structure s
rabbit, and the temperatures were recorded before and as a result of exposure to microwav
es was carried away by
after exposure to microwaves. The cooling curves were the blood circulating in the
vascular tunics adjacent to
followed for about one-half hour after the microwaves were them. To substant iate
this explanation, a number of
turned off. Exposure of the eye of the dog to microwaves experiments were performe
d in which intact eyes of
using 75 per cent of the output of the generator with the living animals, and the
contralateral intact eyes of the
corn~r director at a distance of 3 inches (about 8 cm) for same animals immediately
after death, were exposed to
30 minutes produced an average temperat ure rise of 1.9° the same dose of microwav
es under identical conditions.
C in the orbit, 3.2° C in the vitreous, and 2.8° C in the After exposure to microwav
es,· the rises in temperat ure
aqueous, exactly one minute after the microwaves were of the aqueous and the
vitreous of the intact eye of the
- turned off. Exposure of the eye of the rabbit to micro- living animal were much lower than
those of the intact
waves using 75 per cent of the output of the generator contralateral eye of the same
animal after death. This
with the corner director at a distance of 5 inches for 30 proved to us that the
blood circulating in the vascular
minutes produced an average temperat ure rise of 3.3° C tW1ics adjacent to the
aqueous and vitreous efficiently
in the orbit and 4.8° C in the vitreous exactly 15 seconds carries away a large part of
the heat produced in these
after the microwaves were turned off, and 2.7° C in the media by exposure to microwav
es.
orbit and 3.7° C in the vitreous exactly one minute after No significant difference was found in the temperatures
the microwaves were turned off. · of eyes of albino and of pigmented rabbits following
In every group of experiments except one in this study exposure to microwaves
under identical conditions.
the actual temperatures of the vitreous and aqueous after However, a significantly higher rise in the temperat ure
exposure of the eye to microwaves were consistently higher of eyes of rabbits than
in eyes of dogs occurred in every
than that of the deep orbital tissues. After the eyes of experiment in which the eyes
of the animals were exposed
5 albino rabbits were exposed to microwaves at a distance to microwaves under identical
conditions.
of 5 inches from the corner reflector with an output of Another series of experiments was performed on 8
94 watts from the microwave generator for a duration of dogs and 6 rabbits similarly
anesthetized,· as well as on
30 minutes, the average temperat ure of the orbital 28 unanesthetized rabbits,
and their eyes were exposed
tissues exceeded that of the vitreous. In most of the to microwaves at specific
output, fixed distance, and
experiments, the temperat ure of the vitreous was higher duration. No records of temperat
ure were made in this
than that of the aqueous. However, when the duration of series. However, the eyes
were examined clinically, and
exposure of the eye of the dog was 10 minutes, the average ophthalmoscopic examinations
of the media and fundi
temperat ure of the aqueous was slightly higher than that were made before and after
exposure to microwaves.
of the vitreous. In every instance, the elevation in tem- The eyes of 2 dogs that were repeatedly exposed, 6 and
perature of the aqueous and of the vitreous exceeded that 10 times, respectively,
to microwaves using 75 per cent
of the deep orbital tissues. of the output of the generator with the corner director at
An interesting observation is the rate of degree of a distance of 2 inches (about
5 cm) showed ophthal-
cooling of the eye after exposure to microwaves. After moscopically observable
anterior cortical cataract within
the cooling curves had been recorded it was observed six days after the last exposure
.
that, in many of the eyes, the temperat ures did not Seven exposures of the eye of another dog to microwaves
return to control values but formed a new base line above once daily for 30 minutes,
using 98 per cent output with
the director at a distance of only 1.5 inches (about 4 cm),
t Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. produced ophthalmoscopically observable anterior cortical
26 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDIC AL ELECTRONICS
cataract within 24 hours after the last exposure. Over a
period of about nine weeks both of these anterior cortical
cataracts increased in size and density and then regressed,
and posterior cortical cataracts developed.
. In one dog, one exposure of the eye for 30 minutes to
microwaves, using 75 per cent output with the director
at a distance of 2 inches (about 5 cm), produced corneal
clouding and partial iridoplegia within 24 hours after
exposure. Microscopic examination of stained sections of
this eye revealed that there was infiltration of the corneal
stroma with polymorphonuclear neutrophils.
Similar clinical and histologic changes were produced
in the eye of another dog within 24 hours after 2 exposures
of 30 minutes each to microwaves, using 98 per cent
output with the director at a distance of 1.5 inches
(about 4 cm); in addition, vitreous opacities, reddening
of the optic disc, and whitening and elevation of the
retina in the region of the disc were observed ophthal-
moscopically. Microscopic examination of stained sections
of this eye in addition revealed erythrocytes, leukocytes,
and fibrinous exudate in the anterior chamber with
hemorrhage into the iris and ciliary processes. Necrosis
of the stroma of the iris and disorganization of the pigment
layer of the iris, and subchoroidal exudate and cystic
degeneration of the retina were also observed.
Out of the 17 eyes of unanesthetized albino rabbits
exposed to microwaves for durations of 10 to 30 minutes
using 75 per cent output (94 watts) with the director at
distances of 2 to 5 inches, cataracts developed in 7 eyes.
Out of 17 eyes, of unanesthetized pigmented rabbits
exposed to microwaves under the same conditions that
were used in the experiments on the eyes of albino rabbits,
cataracts developed in only 3 eyes, The cataracts which
were produced in the eyes of rabbits by exposure to
microwaves were of two types. In one type the cataract
was present immediately after exposure to microwaves,
when it involved diffusely the region of the lens under the
capsule. The cataract progressed rapidly until the entire
lens became opaque .. This type was seen only when
grossly visible damage to other ocular structures was
produced, namely clouding of the cornea with congestion
and hemorrhages into the iris and ciliary processes.
The second type of cataract was not associated with
obvious gross clinical signs of injury, although dissection
and microscopic examination of some eyes containing
such cataracts had demonstrated the presence of hemorr-
hagic infarcts in the ciliary processes, This type of cataract
did not appear immediately following exposure to micro-
waves, but became visible only after a period of time
varying from several days to several weeks. It was limited
to the posterior cortex, but could be made to progress
and involve the entire lens by repeated exposure of the
eye to microwaves.
Exposure of the eye of a rabbit at a distance of 2 inches
from the corner reflector with an output of 94 watts from
the microwave generator, for a duration of 10 minutes,
February
might possibly produce either of the two above-mentioned
types of cataract.
With the aid of the hand slit-lamp the posterior cortical
ca_taracts produced bin thedeytes bof ~abbbits by exposure to A
microwaves were o serve o egm y an en1argement •
and extension of the "water clefts" that are seen in the
region of the posterior horizontal suture in the normal
lens of the rabbit. Seen through the ophthalmoscope, the
first appearance of the cataract was that of a number of
small black dots usually located in the region of. the
posterior horizontal suture.
Many of the larger opacities produced in the eyes of
rabbits by exposure to microwaves progressed in size and
density during the first month after becoming visible to ------~
ophthalmoscopic observation. During the following month 1
they regressed in size and density and changed in shape ~
11
and position. Thereafter the size, shape, position and
density of the cataracts appeared to change relatively
little.
In this study, certain enzymes in the lenses of the eyes
of rabbits were investigated. An adenosine triphosphatase,
a pyrophosphatase, and enzymes acting on L-glycyl-
leucine, L-leucyl-glycine, and L-leucyl-glycyl-glycine were
found in lenses from the eyes of rabbits, dogs, horses,
guinea pigs, and humans. The adenosine triphosphatase
and pyrophosphatase in lens homogenate in vitro are
much more heat-labile than most enzymes, with pyro-
phosphatase being more heat-labile than the ATPase.
Exposure to microwaves which caused severe damage
to the lens and other ocular structures markedly reduced A
the activity of the pyrophosphatase, Exposure to micro- •
waves which did not cause grossly visible damage to
the eyes did not reduce the activity of any of the enzymes
studied. No reduction in activity of adenosine triphos-
phatase and pyrophosphatase was found in the circum-
scribed posterior cortical cataract which followed exposure
to microwaves only after a delayed interval of time.
Almost complete loss of activity of adenosine triphos-
phatase and pyrophosphatase was found in totally
cataractous lenses produced by microwaves. No pre-
cataractous loss of enzymic activity was found in lenses
exposed to microwaves to which etiologic significance
could be attributed in the mechanism of causation of
these cataracts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Daily, L., Zeller, E. A., Wakim, K. G., Herrick, J. F. and Bene-
dict, \V. L., "Influence of microwaves upon certain enzyme
systems in the lens,'' American Journal of Ophthalmology, Vol.
34 (1951), pp. 1301 and 1306.
[2] Wakim, K. G,, Herrick, J. F., Parkhill, E. M., and Benedict,
W. L., "Effects of microwave diathermy on the eye." American
Journal of Physiology, Vol. 155 (1948), p, 432. American Jour-
nal of Ophthalmology, Vol. 33 (1950), p. 1241.
[3] Daily, L,, Wakim, K. G., Herrick, J. F., Parkhill, E. M., and
Benedict, W. L., "The Effects of Microwave Diathermy on the
Eye." American Journal of Ophthalmology, Vol. 35, No. 7
(July, 1952), p. 1001.

1956 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDIC AL ELECTRONICS
Session IV-General Session on Biologic Effects
-
Microwave Energy in Food Procedures
D. A. COPSONt
Summary-Power input up to 1.6 kw is used in electronic ovens
operating at 2,450 me for cooking, heating, and defrosting foods.
Some important considerations in microwave cooking are sizes of
food masses, comparable processing time, residual cooking, nor-
malcy in results, special surface effects, the relation between process
time and food load size, and the effect on nutrients.
INTRODUCTION
LECTRONIC ovens for microwave cooking and
E defrosting at 2,450 me are in daily use in about
eleven major cities in the United States. These
Radarange1 ovens in two models provide cooking power
input of 0.8 and 1.6 kw respectively. The larger model
#1161 is shown in Fig. 1.
- maintain food hot for long periods.
l Fig. I-Commercial model Radarange 1 Microwave Oven.
( The ranges are powered by one or two C-W magnetron
tubes which deliver microwave energy directly into a
metal oven. The cooking operation involves placing the
I . t Head of the Food Lab., Research Div., Raytheon Mfg. Co.,
Waltham, Mass.
1 Trademark, Raytheon Mfg. Co., Waltham, Mass.
-
./
27
food on a glass, china, plastic, paper, or sometimes metal
dish, and then in this oven, closing the door, selecting au
interval on a timing device proportional to the quantity
of food, and pressing a button to start the heating. The
heating or cooking proceeds while the cavity remains;
essentially at ambient temperature.
Present circumstances indicate electronic oven use in,
defrosting portioned foods, heating refrigerated foods, and'
:in primary cooking. Since the method provides an unusual
facility for rapidly raising the temperature throughout a
small mass, such as a dish of mixed semisolids, to serving:
temperature without adversely affecting the surface·
conditions, there is a decreased need for devices which
The information reported in this paper is drawn largely
from our Food Laboratory experience with the specified
power levels in cases where the absorbing material is food.
Our purpose is to obtain the rationale of the process and
establish methods for producing normal quality in micro-
wave-cooked or defrosted foods. This paper presents the
results for some food materials in the thawed state.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Size of Food to be Cooked
The largest unit food masses which a cooking· d'evi'ce i&
ordinarily required to accommodate are turkeys and
heavy beef roasts. Turkeys offer no special problems since,
they have a large body cavity. Heavy roasts may be: ·
1) The kind shown in Fig. 2, which is the usual full-sized
rib roast weighing from 18 to 25 pounds, and measuring:
15 to 18 inches long, 5 to 5½ inches thick, and 10 to 11.
inches across the cut surface.
2) Full-sized rolled rump roasts weighing 9 to 10 pounds.
and measuring up to 7¼ inches in diameter. Fig. &
shows a similar meat mass, that of a rolled rib roast,
as prepared for microwave cooking. Any one measure~
ment being of the order of 7 inches or less as with,
type 2, it was found possible to produce satisfactory
cooked quality with an additional advantage as to
yield which need not concern us at this time. Doneness
28 IRE TRANSAC TIONS-ME DICAL ELECTRON ICS February
in these roasts involves finish temperatures varying
from 122 degrees to 160 degrees F in the range defined
by the terms rare to well-done. These temperatures will
be recognized as roughly defining blood color changes. -
Initial work was done with sections of the larger roasts;
e.g., in Fig. 4 temperature gradients are given through a
three-rib, 5-pound beef roast cooked short of <loneness at
a rate of 2 minutes per pound. The curve represents
temperatures taken at ¼-inch intervals along the directions
indicated. The thermocouple, encased in a long hypodermic
needle, was inserted at the indicated times after -removal
Fig. 2-Standing rib ro:1st weighing 22 pounds.
of the roast from the range, since at these power levels,
thermocouples used in the active microwave field produce
spurious results. Lower temperatures were found inside
the lean face of the roast than inside the fat layer, and
temperatures on the bone side of the A to B curve were
much lower. The curve for temperatures through point
D was more symmetrical. The effect of 10 minutes equaliz-
ing time on this D curve is also given. About 1 degree per
minute was the gain in the center. The same roast sub-
sequently cooked for a total time of 3 minutes per pound
showed a good result except for being slightly underdone
at the center, where the minimum temperature was 110
degrees F.
In Fig. 5 results are shown with a boned and rolled
Fig. 3-Jl.Jlled rib ro:1st weighing 10 pounds.
roast cooked at the rate of 2½ minutes per pound at the
C
I
e

A
B

,...•------ 8" ---+I

ROAST! NG POSITION

MICROWAVE ROASTING OF MEAT

PENETRATION INTO BONED
AND ROLLED BEEF ROAST 3 #10 OZ.
l.60KW MODEL 1161
AFTER 2.5 MIN./LB

150

OF

100

50
2 3 4 5 6
INCHIES INCHES
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
 -...,
'
1956 Copson: Microwave Energy in Food Procedure
same power (1.6 kw). The curves for this truncated-cone-
shaped roast, i.e., A to B and C to D, are nearly sym-
metrical, with less difference than noted in Fig. 4. Curve
AC to D shows maxima just inside the surface and higher
W,temperatures, suggesting that more heat has been intro-
duced through the fat layer than through the lean faces,
and also that there has been some heat loss to surroundings
from the first ¼inch of surface layers. Temperatures at the
narrow end of the roast were slightly higher than at the
wide end. Fifteen minutes later, nearly 30 degrees rise in
the center temperature was noted.
MICROWAVE ROASTING OF MEAT
PENETRATION INTO 3 RIB,
9.75 LB ROAST BEEF
1.GOKW MODEL 1161
AFTER FAT ADDED
AFTE.R 3 MIN./LB
20
4 6
INCHES
Fig. 6
In Fig. 6 curves are shown for a three-rib 9.75-pound
beef roast prepared with a fat layer applied to the end
j lean faces, so that this roast was essentially covered with
fat with no lean showing. It was well tied and roasted for
29 minutes and 15 seconds on the basis of 3 minutes per
pound with one turning and 180 degrees rotation at the
end of 10 minutes. Higher temperatures occur just inside
the natural fat covering in the direction of A to B, decrease
to a minimum at 3¼ inches, and rise to a much lower
point on the boned side. This is a roast similar to that
shown in Fig. 4; however, a different result has been
obtained by covering the normally open faces of the
) - roast with a fat layer. This difference is emphasized by
inspection of the sub-curve areas, which show a deeper
l
.
\
and greater heat input from this direction than in the
previous case. This input brings the curve to near sym-
metry with the maximum of the A to B curve. The fat
29
layer, on the otherwise open faces has then contributed
to the cooking, and the shapes of the curves, at least with
respect to the height of the maxima, approach similarity.
The portion of the meat adjacent to the rib case again
shows lower temperatures due to an interplay of factors
connected with the bone.
These tests indicate the advantages of working with
boned, . rolled, and symmetrical pieces of meat. The
importance of the equalization period for residual heat
is shown in the rise in temperature of the eenter, as
shown in the broken curve which indicates that less than
rare <loneness increases to medium <loneness after removal
of the meat from the range. If the center te::nperature
were lower than indicated, a longer equalization time
would be required. The center temperature on removal
of the meat from the range was called the reference
temperature, and final <loneness was determined by the
reference temperature as well as by the residual cooking.
The former depended upon the amount of cooking, e.g.,
in minutes per pound, and the latter upon both amount
of cooking and the equalization time which was effective
up to about 40 minutes.
. "r
... ,. 1 t 1
l ·~ [
I, 1. I,
r! :,L
Fig. 7
Temperature Distribution-Spheres
Temperature gradients were also determined in a
symmetrical absorbing material as shown in Fig. 7. Agar
was made up with 2.7 per cent nutrient agar and cast in
the form of a sphere 5.75 inches in diameter. This mass
thus consisted essentially of immobilized water in which
circulation of heat was minimized. Spheres were heated
at 0.7 and 1.6 kw input levels ai1d temperatures were
measured along a diameter. Heating intervals were chosen
to obtain maximum temperatures less than the melting
point of the agar and the energy input was not equivalent
for the two levels, being slightly less in the case of 0.7 kw.
The maxima occur in the center of the sphere and the
 30 IRE TRiiNSA CTIONS -MEDIC AL ELECTR ONICS February

110,-·,
--
f•
F•
90 _ '. l
'ID

'.¢:

70 C llli

...

110

F°
F•
90

Fig. 8

Fig. 10
;e HI '!'ii ti ""~ E] i!i (lli IW ei. II! .~FSi ,I [Ii !Ni 'A, /i .Gi i,@~~ i,lli91 R i' i ; fl
ii i "· · . 10 ir 1r1¥.J •11 b L~ lf}f ~ :ao_~ M e,1iill M11 :or ••·. ··· • ' r; center maxima are seen, and although the temperat ures
b · • • •· -c" :;11 .•:, "' t.~I ~ = :'.,Lt \/:Ii':' •••• ·••• IJ':' ••::i:.,;
130
. "3 "" •• :••• •·; :CT
are not corrected for conduction during the heating period
;JC . ]8 it .:i: ;1f:;J!i l(lt 11 I,··!.: ·'·: :H:;:: in the range, heating by microwaves appears negligible
~E t.t t~r-: ~::_A~: ifll !ii I:: I< . ::· 1-:l:~::
·c -- jF'; c°'~i ~~;;\[cc!~~ ::: .•:: :cc; :II~: ••· ' k' beyond 2.75 to 3 inches.
"' --:, ~: i~; ::: ;:; i;i'kf' • Ifie:• i '" •• ,.:• : , ii'· The effect of heat conduction for the larger agar cylinde r&
110
Jreici Eic"i =~ii~ fir;i';ii ;,,,.. a:~ •X.l•':?: ::- ·•· • • '
· i'[i,;l!il!iii ~~ iili;imm,2::,:• ··· ·•• ··. J.: is shown in Fig. 9. A gradual rise in the center tempera tureW
is observed over a 55-minute period (lower curve), and
90 the slow rate of rise shown here suggests that we obtained
"
lil
approximately direct heating temperat ures in the previous
;i; figure. For the first 10 minutes the rise was only 3 degrees,
ccic and it will be remembered that microwave heating times
i!lf ;i ~! t~ l'.-~ ·d.i: t
'"
t;lilt_;.i- :1.J: frrj were less than 10 minutes and that less than 1 minute
illll iltm 'lff f1i1!1 ll l1i1 tci l'l 1ti1 was required to read gradient temperatures. The upper
Fig. 9
curve indicates changes at 1-inch depth at the center
line, representing a gradual drop.
usual surface heat losses are seen. The cem,er temperat ures Temperature Gradients in Agar Cylinders of Increasing
are undoubtedly influenced by the symmetr y of the object, Diameter
which may produce heat conduction effec";s along a radial
The effect of heating a series of increasing-diameter
direction with accumulation in the center. Some wave
cylinders will now be considered. Cylinders were prepared
phenomena may be involved, again related to symmetry.
in a series from 4 to 8 inches in diameter, with height
Tempm-ature Distribution-Cylirulei-
equivalent to the diameter in each case. Initial tempera-
ture was 77 degrees F. The power level used was 1.7 kw
The results obtained from microwave heating of another and the power-to-mass ratio was maintained approxi-
symmetrical shape, that of 2, cylinder, are 3hown in Fig. 8. mately constant at 30 kw-seconds per pound.
For the
The curves show the temperat ures obtainec at quarter-inch 4-inch cylinder shown in Fig. 10, the temperat ure gradient
interv8ls along the diameter A to B and height C to D. rises steeply to a maximum, approximately at the
center.
The upper curve refers to a 14.1-pound mass heated 6 The curve represents the average of three sets of gradient
minutes at 1.6 kw, and the lower one to a 15.6-pound mass readings through a plane at the center in the
direction
heated for 9.5 minutes. The height was 7.5 inches for the indicated. The C to D temperat ure gradient is
also shown .
upper curve and 7 .75 inches for the lo'Ver curve, and but is distorted because of the position of the agar cylind
er-
diameters were 8 inches. The initial temperat ure was on the metal floor of the cavity. This mass of 1.6
pounds
69 degrees F and measurements were rr_ade at a room was heatP.d for 28 seconds.
temperat ure of 76 degrees F. Under these experimental Fig. 11 shows the result obtained with a 5-inch cylinder
conditions of short heating within a large agar mass, no heated for 60 seconds. The weight was 3.4
pounds. A
1956 Copson: Microwave Energy in Food Procedure 31

liIT :t: 8~ f~ 1 ~~: w; im ::; t~i

i,c:J!,i!il'lli '1-.'·rJ,om\:i! .•• i ······
'1:: 1-:!.;. ,... ~. ·::· .. <..:...; .
;:i Ii:: •;.c fl~ !]i; f,j ;i; '~. ,;'d!~
m~ ~u f!:! iii !I," .
,fij J ., ·~ \i ;" iiiili;i ;IJ Mi ~ ~f~1 ~~ m '"_;r ·~ ,Sl !;Ii \Iii :;:; ::1: :·:: ::::

di ::g tfo t~ 1~!~ ~~! ~: ~J /I::-:

ii'j !ill !iii 'Ii ;J! il;i li, Hi ~r/ift,-;-li':f/ •••

Fig. 12
Fig. 11

plateau is observed with a slight rise at the center. The

effect of a 1-inch increase in diameter has been to level
the temperatu re gradient throughou t the mass. This

-
increase in dimension has produced more uniform tem-
peratures through the cylinder.
In Fig. 12 the gradients are shown for a 6-inch cylinder
weighing 5.8 pounds and heated for 102 seconds. The
temperatu res obtained appear similar to those of the
smaller cylinder, but the maximum at the center is much
more pronounced, suggesting that this dimension has
some special significance.
Fig. 13 shows the results obtained with a 7-inch cylinder
weighing 9.3 pounds and heated for 164 seconds. It shows
a ,vave-formed curve with maxima at 1 inch depth and
at the center.
Fig. 14 shows an 8-inch agar cylinder weighing 14.5
pounds, which was heated for 253 seconds. It will be
observed that the center portion is practically level, and
essentially only the 1-inch maxima are observed. At this
dimension, therefore, we have reached the point where
the supplemen tary effect is scarcely discernible at the
center.
Fig. 13
In the series tested, all show a maximum at an approxi-
mate depth of 1 inch from the surface, and the temperatu re
gradient from this point to the center depends mainly on We were required, therefore, to devise a temperature-
the diameter. The additive effect which produces a center measuring method which was as independent as possible of
maximum ends essentially when the diameter increases these influences. We chose a system utilizing the expansion
from 7 to 8 inches, but a slight temperatu re rise is observed of dry air indicated on a mercury manometer. Low-loss

-at the center even with the 8-inch mass.

Internal Temperature Rise Under Microwave Heating

difficult at these power levels due to extraneous influences,

such as the rf field on the temperatu re measuring system. 1.8
materials made up the in-cavity portion, and the response
was found to be dependent on the temperatu re at the
sensing bulb in loads of the order of those recorded. The
In-cavity temperatu re measurements have proven temperature-calibrated manometer indication
sensing bulb
degrees F
immersed
less at
in
the
a liter
last
of
instant
water
of
was
microwave
for the
consistent ly
heating
 32 IRE TRANS ACTIO NS-ME DICAL ELECT RONIC S
100
Fo
D - .
'-~
90
80
. ±ti:··
110
100
Fo
90
80
. _pt t~- :!]1-, :4' . -
-·' ' I...:..-,
. J"
;- -
Fig. 14
than the tempera ture indicated by a standar d alcohol
thermometer inserted on termination of the heating.
When both temperatures were measured after cessation
of heating and agitation of the water, they were equal. We
took the lower reading in the first case as an indication
that the manometer device was not affected by the rf
directly, for if the reading had been greater, rf inter-
ference on the system would have been suggested.
With the sensing bulb sealed in various agar cylinders
along the major axis at the center, the internal response
to microwave heating was measured. Fig. 15 shows the
observations made. For the time interval from t 0 to the
cessation of heating, a linear response to the energy was
observed at the center, the slope of the curve increasing
with decreasing cylinder diameter. For a cylinder 8 inches
in diameter a different response was observed at the center.
Here there was a greater lag in response than in the case,
of smaller cylinders. With the smaller cylinders, B re-
sponded before 30 seconds, and A responded at 30 seconds.
The response may be considered independent of conductive
heat in this poor heat conducting material. It will also be
recalled that the data shown previously in Fig. 9 indicated
that a 10-minute period of heat transfer by conduction
yielded only a 3 degrees F rise in the center tempera ture
of an 8-inch agar cylinder: The curves level off following
cessation of microwave heat, whereas they would be
expected to show a drop if the response of the tempera ture
measuring system were being affected by the rf. For curve
B, data not shown indicate a rise at the end of 45 minutes,
showing that tempera ture at the center was being influ-
February
:'ti·· r
-
• ..
:t:1:;t
. i~F
. J]j:j
++:
• +.j:-
: - -1 ~
,:
:·;;
- - I-~~ ·1·!U
~ l::'
:·. f:t_ Tl
c- .
-:-"t••
..._ 1T.!"•
' ... ,. ;1:
,_ ,-J -·tt1 "ElR :~~~
:•::.. i:1#1:t _ !~ r.i'tt ,,c1
enced after the power was off, but a distinctly long lag -
period intervened.
Microwave Energy Absorption as a Function of Load Size
In microwave cooking, the time requirement is directly
proportional to the amount of food being heated. Two
types of curves are shown for illustration. In Fig. 16 (page
34) the upper curve shows the power absorbed in increasing
water loads. The greater the load, the greater the energy
absorbed per unit of time up to 3 liters of water at 1.6 kw
in the microwave oven. Thus, the power mea_surement is
load-dependent, and a significant increase in heating rate
may be obtained in this manner (18 per cent over this short
range). The extension to food loads illustrates the possible
capacity increase, as shown in Fig. 17 (page 34). Here the
capacity to cook hamburger patties increases by 114 per
cent in the abscissa interval from 8 ounces to 90 ounces. It
will be observed that in this region the relation is linear,
and cooking or heating rate may be established by con-
sidering the slope as a factor for change in time as a
function of load. Acquaintance with cooking by the
usual surface methods indicates that the time for increasing
loads is practically constan t for moderate loads under
steady- state oven tempera ture conditions. Thus, in a
-
standar d domestic range a 5 ounce potato bakes in 80
minutes at 350 degrees F to a final internal tempera ture
of 190 degrees F and five such units require only 90
minutes, so that the difference is small and the time
practically constant. Microwave cooking requires 2
minutes for one unit of this kind, and 8 minutes for five,
 Copson: Microwave Energy in Food Procedure 33
1956

-tni=-it
·= --- 1 =_ i-1:t::·=m.i-==· ~--- ±.1.ij:
=· =
...1:,-/•I.)._
ri..,.· :::;:l t i.1....+:i
i.J· -

- •
~ j...l, ., •
¢:...i,_;
··.::·, ..,..;_ --,-,

: )1.. :i: :_ ~: :j. : .+;J t-i;t". f :-.-:!_~-:~:.:.

-f: .r:j:i.~-- . . .. ···Eµ
r:.,-1'1:icf ---~~-1l!~- -
1

j: -~ 1 -.

"-i~ ilf:-.: ::,_. :_.:1:i=.

-•-~·-,.. ·11·r
~- ·•pJ·r:;:·.
:!:i.- ,:i: ; :,: ....
- ·- - -·-
150

-·--
, -. I .

-- -
•!--;
r:~
~::~.

·--+
--'1 130
130 ::::!·--

+
- 110

90 -·

70
70

..: ~
:j:• ··
' ;Jfltc~ -
.!:r.
t,,:µ.r::!:::::!: ~-

Fig. 15

or a direct increase in time. The difference is, therefore, a retention of vitamin C in tomatoes, broccoli, and cabbage,
difference in the method of getting thermal energy into and of phenylalanine, thiamin, and iibofiavin in meat.
the product, or penetration. DISCUSSI ON
To explain the relatively greater heating times required
for increasing loads with microwave heating as compared The dimensions of most food products are such that
with surface or oven heating, we note that for surface they come within the influence of direct microwave
cooking each heat-absorbing unit is surrounded by a hot heating at this frequency, while in the case of large pieces
atmosphere, and therefore the number of units does not of meat, it was shown that a balancing of direct heating
affect the capacity for moderate loads under assumed and heat-conduction effects achieves desired results and
steady-s tate conditions. Changing to microwave heating simultaneously gives a normal rare pattern. Undoubtedly
is similar to removing a semipermeable membrane and combination of penetrati on and delivery of thermal energy
allowing a perfusion of the mass with thermal energy. within the material, relation of gradients to thickness, and
The load-size studies serve as evidence that the heating advance of the heat line after termination of microwave
depends on internal concentration of micro-wave power. heating are interesting features of the study.
As expected, the after-heating effect has consequences
Retention of Nutrients
in the cooking of foods. We note in particular that cakes
Any cooking process has importan t implications in progress from an under baked to fully baked state, or
nutrition. The full effect of microwave cooking in this from fully baked to overdone, after removal from the
area has not been evaluated. Obviously the short exposure range. Further, if a cake is cut before the residual cooking
to high temperat ures in many microwave procedures, is accomplished, excessive crumb dryness occurs due to
de-emphasis on holding food hot for service, and greater some action of the energy still present. This effect does
emphasis on the use of frozen foods, plus other functions not occur if cooling time is provided, or if the energy is
which will suggest themselves, are all favorable to the allowed to dissipate internally. Similarly, vegetables are

- protection of nutrients. The selection of some portion

of the data for presentation from an incomplete study is
of dubious value. However, nutrition al studies at the
Departm ent of Food Technology at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology have shown significantly better
2
observed to improve in doneness and quality if a short
conditioning period is allowed after micrm:fave cooking.
Our cooked product temperat ure differentials vary
from those obtained with conventional cooking in a hot
chamber or under hot radiant elements. Consider the
moment of cessation of heat; at this time, the surface and
2
C. Campbell, (1955), private communication.
 34 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

,;,j 1.9
!1::::
I. 9 I~;: I, 8

TIME-LOAD RELATIONSHIPS OF
1.8 HAMBURG PATTI~$ COOKED
. IN THE RADARANGE."'(HIGH HEAT)
FOOD TECH. LABORATORY
RAYTHEON MFG.CO.
13 SEPT. 1954
1.7 MODEL 1161

EFFECT OF INCREASING
...
0
m
1.6 WATER LOAD QN POWER
1.2
a:
"' 0.20
a: OF RADARANGE"!HIGH HEAT) 1-
.,,0 FOOD TECH LABORATORY
13 SEPT 1954 I.I
.J
:::; 0.19
m
<l MODEL 1161 .J
.,, 1.5
1.0 ::. 0.18
I-
I- a:
<l
31: 0.9 "'
a. 0.17
0 U) (.}
.J 1.4
0.8 I- w 0.16
i: I- U)

"';;: ' N
0.7 ~ 0.15
w
1.3 0.6
::. 0.14
j::

0.5 '31:
I-

1 .2
0.4 0.12

0.3 0.1

I. I
0.2 0.09

1.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
LITERS OF WATER
Fig. 16
interior temperature differentials are reversed in the two
methods of heating. However, with microwave heating
there is a much smaller differential with ordinary-sized
foods such as a potato, and temperatures tend to be more
uniform at the instant of cessation of heating. The actual
surface is cooler. Ordinarily, high exterior temperatures
are required during baking to create a baking temperature
within the food. These circumstances may well explain
residual cooking ""ith microwaves, in that ordinary
cooking gives higher surface temperatures and conditions
are less favorable for continued cooking after cessation of
heat because of rapid loss of surface heat to surroundings.
For short heating periods with microwave energy, as in
baking apples, potatoes, and cakes or in cooking fish,
surf~ce cooking is moderate and crusting absent. Thus, an
apple retains a nearly fresh surface appearance while
being baked throughout, and the time for 12 apples would
be 6 minutes. The facility with which dishes of food may
be heated without crusting or deterioration has made
such heating an important application of microwave
cooking.
Products which cook quickly but ordinarily require a
browning or crusting to meet taste acceptance pose a
problem in microwave-only cooking. Chickens, steaks,
and chops are examples. The problem is resolved by prep-
arations which promote natural browning through Maillard
reaction of normally present but now concentrated
materials, such as glucose and glycine in cooking pre-
0.1
10 20 30 40
0 WT. (OZ.)
4.0
Fig. 17
paration. These studies have been reported previously.~ -
It is general practice, however, to treat this class of
foods as products requiring through-cooking, usually in a
few minutes, plus short broiling or searing. These two
processes are sometimes carried out in conjunction with
freezer storage or refrigeration.
A third class of foods with respect to microwave cooking:
practice is the group of roasted products, such as meat.
and poultry. These roasts generally require a cooking:
period of the order of 20 to 30 minutes, and this is ample,
for surface coloring without further treatment. Superficia[
fat layers absorb microwave energy and the temperature
may rise well above the boiling point of water, so that.
regular oven conditions are approached by the roast itself
and browning occurs. The effect of longer heating at.
these power levels in such products is, therefore, surface-
browning attributable to high temperatures of 250 degrees.
F or more, melting of fat, and development of some
crispness. If heating is continued to the overdone stage,..
crusting occurs.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Temperature gradients were determined in various beef
roasts so that a model for efficient roasting by microwave
energy could be constructed. Agar shapes were used as
phantoms in penetration studies. In spheres 5 . 75. inches: -
in diameter, and in cylinders up to 7 inches in diameterr
3
D. A. Copson, B. R. Neumann, and A. L. Brody,. '·'Browning;
methods in microwave cooking," Joitr. Agr. Food Chem·.,. vol. 3,
pp. 424-427; May, 1955.
 1956 IRE TRANSACTIONS -MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
temperature maxima were demonstrated at the center.
The internal temperature rise was measured in agar
cylinders while they were being heated by microwave
- energy using a dry-air expansion device indicating on a
mercury manometer. Direct heating by microwave
energy was observed at the center of these objects.
Cylinders up to 8 inches in diameter were tested.
The progress of conducted heat toward the center of
large masses, after the termination of microwave heating,
was found to be important in accomplishing the cooking.
Thermal conduction effects and the nature of the thermal
energy within a mass appear to contribute to residual
I, cooking. Compared to surface heating, the temperature
r differential is reversed in direction in small units and the
I';
Paramagnetic Resonance Methods in Biological Research*
SCOTT BLOISt
F ALL THE specialties in the field of physics, that
O of magnetism has been unique in the infrequency
of its application to research in biology. This is
easy to understand upon realizing that living systems
display no gross magnetic properties. Despite this, there
A have been occasional studies of considerable value such as
W the work of Pauling, Coryell, and coworkers' on the
magnetic susceptibility of the various states of hemo-
globin. This work, employing classical susceptibility meth-
ods, and extended by other investigators to additional
systems such as respiratory enzymes, suffers from a sensi-
6
tivity which is at best about 10- M.
The recent development of microwave paramagnetic
resonance techniques has, however, increased the feasi-
bility of performing magnetic measurements on biological
systems, and in particular, upon living systems. A sample
11
containing as little as 10- moles of a paramagnetic
substance can now be studied and there are indications
that this sensitivity may be increased by another two
orders of magnitude. Because of this high sensitivity, the
very weakness of the magnetism of biological systems
becomes an asset since one can perform the observation
with a minimum_ of disturbance to the system.
In order to observe paramagnetic resonance absorption,
one places the sample in a microwave cavity which is
located in a steady, magnetic field. Microwave power
flowing continuously into the cavity with its magnetic
vector oriented normal to the steady magnetic field will
then induce transitions between Zeeman levels of a
paramagnetic molecule. If the values of the steady
A * This research was supported in part by the United States Air
W Force, through the AF Office of Sci. Res., Air Res. and Dev. Comm.
t W. vV. Hansen Laboratories of Physics and Dept. of Physics,
Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif.
1 L. Pauling and C. D. Coryell, "The magnetic properties and
structure of the hemochemogens and related substances," Proc.
Nat.. Acad. Sci., vol. 22, pp. 159, 210; March, 1936.
35
gradient is greater than in microwave heating. In micro-
wave-cooked products the degree of surface cooking rela-
tive to internal cooking has important consequences which
are favorable for purely heating functions, limiting for
small objects requiring browning, and acceptable in the
case of large roasts requiring extended cooking of the
order of 20 to 40 minutes. Cooking times with microwaves
as well as capacity are functions of load size. For a moderate
load, cooking time with surface heating is nearly inde-
pendent of the size of the load. The fact that the cooking
time is a function of the load size may be explained by
• icrowave power concentration within the food.
Important improvements in nutrient retention in foods
cooked by miscrowaves are suggested in early reports.
magnetic field and the microwave frequency satisfy the
Larmor condition, these transitions become sufficiently
- numerous so that the resulting absorption of microwave
power can be observed. In practice, one customarily keeps
the microwave frequency constant (X band being typical)
and sweeps the external magnetic field until the resonance
is found.
Since the sample being observed is immersed in a
microwave field, there are secondary effects involving the
electric field. First, any dielectric absorption in the sample
reduces the Q of the system and thereby reduces the
sensitivity of the apparatus. For this reason, paramagnetic .
resonance studies are frequently limited to solids or
nonaqueous solutions. If the method is to be useful in
biology, this limitation must be faced. In practice, it is
found that locating a thin layer or thin capillary of an
aqueous sample at an electric field node (where the
magnetic field is a maximum) enables one to detect a
7 8
paramagnetic species at a molarity of about 10- -10- •
A second question is the extent to which this die,lectric
absorption may affect the sample, particularly when it is
a living system. We have so far hoped that since the
microwave absorption spectra of liquid systems charac-
teristically show no sharp lines for reasons of strong
molecular interaction, the main effects would be the
gross thermal ones. If this proves to be the case, control
of power level, possibly pulsed oper:;i,tion of the klystron,
and suitable cooling should prevent untoward effects. For
information on details and results of this electric inter-
action it is hoped this Symposium will greatly assist us.
A well resolved paramagnetic resonance line yields
considerable information: the area enclosed by it is a
measure of the number of paramagnetic molecules in the
sample; the location of the line (determined by the "g"
value) gives information regarding the coupling of the
free electron responsible for the paramagnetism; and the
 36 IRE TRANSACTIO NS-MEDICA L ELECTRONIC S February

00
hyperfine structure, if any, gives us knowledge of the
structure of the molecule itself. Since the resonance can
be displayed or recorded repetitively in time (Fig. 1) we
have in principle a graph of concentration vs time which O······HO
immediately gives the rate constants for the kinetics of QUINHYDRONE
the system.
tt Dimerization

0 ;;
OH

y
OH
:_~
0
(-H)
~

(+H)
O·
(+H) II
O
HYDROQUINONE SEMIQUINONE QUINONE

\~/
I

Free radical reaction Free radical reaction

1
TIME-. (2DIV./MIN.)
i
Polymeric Products
+
Polymeric Products

Fig. 2-The reaction scheme for the oxidation-reductio n of p-benzo-

Fig. I-The repetitive display in time of the differentiated absorp- quinone (hydroquinone).
tion curve of the semiquinone of p-benzoquinone during aklaline
oxidation. The envelope of this curve is a concentration vs time
plot of the free radical with the initial concentration being of the which has a concentration dependent upon the pH of the
order of 10-51VI.
solution (Fig. 3). It has been found that these reactions
are essentially reversible physiological at pH, but as the
In order to observe any resonance at all, it is necessary solution is made increasingly alkaline the lifetime of the
that the system under observation contain paramagnetic free radical intermediate is increased and the yield of the
molecules. In biological systems these usually arise from polymeric products rises markedly. This polymeric
a paramagnetic atom such as the iron group, or a free material is observed to form during alkaline oxidation-
radical or molecule containing an odd number of electrons. reduction of all the quinones and aromatic amines studied
A further possibility lies in the paramagnetism of an and appears to be similar in nature to melanin. Since this -
"even" molecule which has been raised to a metastable has been observed to be shared by catechol and DOPA it
excited state. To illustrate the scope of the present day appears that magnetic resonance method should be useful
application of the magnetic resonance method, it has been in studies of biological pigmentation processes.
used by Ingram and Bennett2 to study several metallo-
porphyrins and carbonized organic compounds, by
Commoner and coworkers3 to observe resonances in a CONCENTRATION OF THE. SEMIQUINONE
number of lyophilized plant and animal tissues, and by ~ p-BENZOQUINONE ( .136 HYDROQUINONE
(/)
-
f--
the author to examine the free radicals produced duri11g z OXIDIZING IN AIR)
the reversible oxidation-reduction of biological quinones. 4 =>
>-
Our program at Stanford has at present two principal <ta:
a:
. objects: one aim is to increase the instrumental sensitivity I:::
~
which we believe can be accomplished by improved a:<t
(I) .......___
"'
microwave configurations, better klystrons, and more z
efficient detection methods. The other phase is to apply 0
~
our present paramagnetic resonance spectrometer to the f--a:~ "I'-
--
r--..__
study of biochemical systems which are appropriate to wz
(.)
the sensitivity of the apparatus. This has at the moment 0z
taken the form of a detailed study of kinetics of biological
(.) r-- :---._ pH 10.0
quinones undergoing reversible oxidation-reduction.
The general mechanism involved in the single electron
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
oxidation-reduction of quinones is shown in Fig. 2 for the 45
4 TIME IN MINUTES
case of p-benzoquinone. w·hen this molecule loses one
hydrogen atom a paramagnetic semiquinone is formed Fig. 3-Concentration of the semiquinone of p-benzoquinone as a
function of pH. ·
2 D.
J. E. Ingram and .J. E. Bennett, "Paramagnetic resonance in
activated carbon," Phil. Mag., vol. 45, p. 545; 1954. Also "Phthalo-
-cyanine, chlorophyll, and haemoglobin derivatives," J. Chem. Phys., If we ignore for a moment the free radical-polymeric -
vol. 22, p. 1136; 1954. reactions and dimerization, the kinetics of these systems
3 B. Commoner,
J. Townsend, and G. E. Pake, "Free radicals in
biological materials," Nature, vol. 174, p. 689; 1954. may be represented by Fig. 4. The free radical inter-
4 M.
S. Blois, "Observation of the semiquinone of benzoqui- mediate is indicated as the species _labeled B. To give a
none," J. Chern. Phys., vol. 23, p. 1351; 1955; also "A note on
free radial formation in biologically recurring quinones," Biochern. qualitative idea of the behavior of these quinones, the
et Biophys: Acta (in press). larger molecules like 9, 10 anthraquinone appear to reach
 1956 Blois: Paramagnetic Resonance Methods in Biological Research 37

~ OXIDATION
H2 N ~ N H 2
A
z p-PHENYLENEDIAMINE
0
~ CONSECUTIVE FIRST
a: ORDER REACTION
1- 1
z K k
w A~s-.1.c

-+
(.)
z
0
(.)
~ OXIDATION
HO"=./-OH Ho-Q-o•
TIME p - BENZOOUINONE

}rig. 4-Concentration changes in consecutive first order reactions. Fig. 5-Qualitative comparison of the differentiated resonance sig-
nals of the free radicals produced by oxidation of p-phenylene-
diamine and p-benzoquinone.
a peak value of concentration in something like 2 to 3
hours at, say, pH 10, while the maximum for p-benzo- H N - o - ~ OH /\
quinone occurs in not more than a few seconds under 0~ • - _,. ~
similar conditions. We have not as yet observed this
latter maximum since it takes place before the sample
tube could be inserted in the instrument. (A continuously
H2 N - o - O H
circulating system is now under construction, aii.d we will
observe the fast reacting systems as the components are p- AM I NOPHENOL ~ 0'1/. · to
added and mixed directly in the sample holder.) It is also ~4,.>:
~
found that the o-benzoquinone free radical is still less
stable and with solutions having molarities where the
para form would show a resonance for several hours, the
/0,i,

H2 N - o - o • ~r
corresponding ortho-semiquinone vanishes in a few Fig.shape 6-Qualitative indication of the difference in resonance line
where the oxidation of p-aminophenol is accomplished in
minutes. In the cases of ortho and para naphthoquinone air and with hydrogen peroxide.
we have estimated the stability of the para-semiquinone
to be about 50 times that of the ortho isomer.
4 group 5 and later observed by us that the hydroquinone
A A preliminary survey of quinones has led us to the fol-
resonance consists of five closely spaced lines. vVe intend
W lowing tentative conclusions:
to re-examine at higher resolution all the quinone reson-
l) The semiquinones of ortho isomers are from one to ances with which we have worked in the expectation of
two orders of magnitude less stable than the para. finding further hyperfine structure. This is a necessary
2) The free radical stability is increased foi· the poly- step toward understanding these line shape differences.
nuclear hydrocarbons-steric hindrance for dimeri- Study of the behavior of biological quinones is only a
zation probably playing a role. part of a larger problem, that of biological oxidation-
3) The yield of insoluble oxidation-reduction products reduction in general and the corollary role of antioxidants.
of the aromatic hydroxyl compounds and aromatic As instrumental sensitivity is increased to the point where
amines increases when the free radical stability is enzyme-substrate reactions can be studied, and assuming
increased. From this, it seems likely that these that single electron transfers are involved, it would appear
products (including melanin) are produced by free that oxidation-reduction can be approached in a unified
radical reactions. manner by use of these methods.
A further application of this method will be an evalua- •
Other results have turned up which we hope to explore tion of the predicated role of free radicals in carcinogenesis.
in more detail. The oxidation of the aromatic amines This hypothesis is an attractive one since the intracellular
displays the free radical behavior during univalent dehy- production of free radicals appears to be the principal
drogenation, as shown in the upper sequence of Fig. 5. feature common to such diverse agents as ionizing radiation
Resonance itself is broader than with hydroquinone and and the carcinogenic chemicals. Finally, there is reason to
its appearance is that indicated in the figure. Some very suspect that free radicals in biological systems may be
tentative results indicate that this shape is characteristic more common than usually supposed. It seems likely
of the free nitrogen valence in distinction to the free that we should think of free radical prod~ction as a process
oxygen valence shown below it. A somewhat similar line similar to ionization; it can occur with all molecule~ and
shape has been observed with riboflavin where a ,free often with energy threshold much lower than the latter.
nitrogen valence also exists upon reduction. To fur.,~her In summary, the application of this tool to biology
A chec~;thi~ we have ex_ai:1in~d p:aminophenol (Fig._ 6} _by gives one a means of obtaining essentially unique data
•allowu1-g it to first ox1d1ze 111 air, and then by ox1d1zmg which appear to be associated with life processes at the
with hyi:lrogen peroxide. The former treatment might be molecular level.
expected to affect more strongly the easily oxidizable
amino group while the latter would oxidize both amino
6 B. Vankataraman and G. K. Fraenkel, "Paramagnetic resonance
and hydroxyl groups. The approximate shapes of the of methyl substituted p-benzoquinones," J. Chem. Phys., vol. 23,
resonances are as shown. It was first reported by Fraenkel's p. 588; March, 1955.
J
 \
38 'll/ IRE TRANSACTIONS -MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
~-/
~ )'/ Heat Exchange Chafacteristics of Animals
LfQ/ / Exposed to 10-Cm Microwaves*
T. S. ELYt AND
Summary-Work now in progress on the biological effects of high
intensity 10-cm microwave fields has been accompanied by studies
on heat exchange characteristics of rats, rabbits, and dogs irradiated
under relatively free field conditions. These studies include meas-
urements of field intensity and distribution as well as of body
temperatures. Determination of initial heating rates, steady-state
body temperatures, and cooling rates permitted estimation of thermal
characteristics including absorption and certain heat exchange pa-
rameters as an aid in interpretation of biological effects.
INTRODUCTION
T
HE INCREASE in radar field intensities in recent
years and the increase in the use of microwaves in
therapeutic diathermy have produced a potential
hazard and created a need for further understanding of the
biological effects of this form of energy. Considerable work
has been done on the effects of localized microwave
irradiation on animal structures such as the eye, testis,
bone, and hollow viscera [1-8]. Selective heating of tissues
has been shown to be due to differences in their micro-
wave absorption and heat dissipation ability.
Little work was found in which field strengths were
known ai~d controlled, or in which the entire animal body
was exposed to the field. Information on the heat exchange
, characteristics of animals completely exposed to measured
microwave fields would be valuable for the over-all
understanding of the biological effects of these microwaves,
and would be helpful as a preliminary to the study of
localized effects.
From a hazard standpoint, the S-band (IO-cm band)
has a peculiar place in the diathermy spectrum. Longer
wavelengths generate heat in tissues in a more diffuse
manner, and are therefore less likely to cause localized
injury. Shorter wavelengths are absorbed more super-
ficially and are more easily perceived.
We have undertaken to study the over-all heating and
cooling of animals completely immersed in an S-band
. microwave field, particularly with regard to the absorption
of the electromagnetic energy, the ability of the animals
to dissipate heat at elevated body temperature, and the
relation of field strength to body temperature increases.
Such information should be of value from the physiological
standpoint as well as for the understanding of microwave
effects.
Before an animal is exposed, and while he is in a
steady-state condition with his environment at his normal
* The opinions herein expressed are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the U. S. Navy or of the naval
service at large.
t Naval Medical Research Institute, National Naval Medical
Center, Bethesda, Md.
t Presently at the Office of U.S. Naval Research, London Branch,
London, Eng.
February
D. E. GOLDMANt
body temperature, heat production is just balanced by
heat loss. Any additional source of heat, such as microwave
power, causes a rise in body temperature. As the rise is
perceived by physiological thermostatic mechanisms, an
increased cooling rate acts to reduce the temperature, and
a decrease in the rate of rise results. The initial rate of •
temperature rise, however, is entirely the result of the
additional heating, and the magnitude of this power input
can be estimated from the animal's weight, specific heat,
and initial rate of temperature rise. The effectiveness of
absorption of the power is measured as a ratio of the
microwave heat production in the animal to the total
power in the area of the beam intercepted by the animal.
The ability of an animal to dissipate additional heat at
elevated body temperature and, consequently, his ability
to withstand microwave fields, can be studied by measur-
ing the average field intensity necessary to maintain body
temperature at a prescribed level.
The rate of cooling of an animal from elevated tempera-
tures is an indication of his heat loss capability at a given ·
temperature. An ideal inert thermal mass would cool -
exponentially; however, a live animal's cooling is dependent
on· many physiological factors, the characteristics of
which change with temperature. The most important of
these are metabolism, respiration, and blood flow.
The live animal's cooling will probably not be expo-
nential, but will reflect the physiological changes involved.
The dead animal's cooling rate approximates the expo-
nential quite closely, any departure being due mainly to
the fact that temperature equalization throughout the
body depends in this case entirely on conduction, and
some significant differentials do develop.
METHOD
An S-band (10.4-cm) pulsed radar transmitter with a
horn antenna was used for the experiments. A beam was
radiated horizontally with vertical polarization. The
radiation was confined to a shielded enclosure which was
lined with an absorbing layer in order to give relatively
free field conditions. A power divider in the waveguide
system allowed the shifting of any portion of the trans-
mitter output to a water load_, thereby affording field
intensity control over a wide range. Transmitter input
power was automatically regulated, and variation of the
average field strength with time was within one per cent.
Field strength measurements were made with a small A
receiving horn, a directional coupler, a coaxial attenuator, W
and a Hewlett-Packard 4300 Microwave Wattmeter.
Families of intensity curves were recorded in each of
several planes perpendicular to the radiation axis. From
 1956 Ely and Go;dman: Heat Exchange Characteristics of Animals
Fig. 1-Rat in exposure supp"'rt.
Fig. 2-Rabbit in exposure support.
-these curves, intensity contour charts were plotted, per-
mitting estimation of the total field in any particular profile
area.
Three species of animals, in three size. ranges, were used
for the study: 4 Long-Evans rats of about 200 grams,
10 albino rabbits of about 4 kilograms, and 8 mongrel
dogs of about 10 kilograms. The animals ,vere exposed,
one at a time, in a horizontal upright position, with their
flanks perpendicular to and centered on the beam axis.
Figs. l, 2, and 3 show the manner in which the animals.
were supported. Exposure support matm·ials were sub-
stantial enough to restrict a somewhat anxious animal,
and yet cause a minimum distortion o~ absorption of the
field, or restriction of normal convective cooling air. ·rn
order to minimize the production of -:;emperature differ-
entials within the animal, field intensit~es of no more than
about 100 milliwatts per square centimeter were used.
Rats and rabbits proved relatively docile, and were
exposed in a plastic insect screen tu·Je supported by a
horizontal Lucite bar on vertical glase. tubes. The screen
support was not adequate for the dog3, which were more
active, and so a canvas sling ·was developed, which gave
them good support and adequate restraint.
The dogs' marked lack of submissi~ness to the experi-
mental procedure, and the body ternp3rature fluctuations
A resulting from their attempts at m,wement made the
Winterpretat ion of the data difficult. General anesthesia
was attempted and abandoned, beca1.1se all agents tried
caused a profound fall in body tem::wrnture and inter-
ference with the normal thermoetatic mechanisms.
3!!
l l
i-, ~j
Fig. 3-Dog in exposure support.
However, the administration of 6 mgm/kilogram of
chlorpromazine intramuscularly about an hour before the
experiment was effective in calming the dogs and therefore
improving the temperature records. With this agent, we·
did not find the temperature fall characteristic of the·
general anesthetic drugs, and the results compared well
with what results were obtained from the unmedicated
dogs. •
Rectal temperatures were recorded continuously during
the microwave exposure, as well as for a period before
and afterward. For this purpose, a small shielded ther-
mistor connected in an unbalanced direct current bridge·
was used in conjunction with a recording potentiometer.
It was found that by orienting the thermistor leads
perpendicular to the direction of polarization, the direct
effect of microwaves on the thermistor was nil. The
thermometry system was found by calibration to be
0
sensitive to about 0.01 C , and accurate to about 0.05 C •
0
In addition to recording the animal's temperature, the·
potentiometer was used as a controller to start and stop,
the transmitter. A thermostatic cycling of animal body
temperature was obtained, with the over-all swing as lmv-
as about 0.03 C 0 • The control point was selected by
changing the range of the recorder. During the period
of temperature control, transmitter "on" and "total"-
times were determined by two synchronous timers.
Each experimental run was conducted in the following
general sequence: Animal weight was determined, pre-
medication (if any) was given, and the animal was placed
in the exposure support. The thermistor was inserted, and
temperature recording started. Fig. 4 shows, in principle,.
the exposure routine. The first portion of the record,,
before irradiation is started, established a baseline, or·
initial, normal body temperature, and also indicated
variations in this value, such as those due to activity or·
medication. Next, the transmitter was turned on, and the
body temperature ro:;;e. This provided the initial slope
needed in the absorption calculation. Interpretation of
field intensities with the animal present is very difficult;
_J
 40 IRE TRANSACTIO NS-MEDICA L ELECTRONIC S February
ture. When the animal's temperature reached this level,
automatic on and off cycling of the field started, and the
animal temperature oscillated about the prescribed level.A
t
w
This appears as the first group of small oscillations in the•
ll:
::, figure. Average field intensity was measured as the product
~ of the measured field intensity and the fraction of time
ll:
w
a.
~
the transmitter was on. After a period at one temperature
w
f- sufficient to give a good average field value, the control
i5
0
temperature was increased by a degree or half-degree, and
al
another steady-state field determination was made.
Determinations at several more levels were made, and
then the transmitter was shut off entirely, and the animal's
TIME-:,,.
cooling temperature record was obtained.
Fig. 5 shows an example of an actual record. Since the
Fig. 4-Time sequence of animal exposure experiment. range of the recorder rather than the control point on the

J )

,. s 8
-
·i
Fig. 5-Actual temperature recorder chart of an experimental run.

consequently measurements were made without the recorder was changed, all cycling appears at the same
animal, under relatively free field conditions. level, although actually representing a series of different
The dimensions of most experimental animals are not temperatures.
very much greater than S-band wavelengths; therefore, A single experimental run, therefore, provided data for
diffraction of the field by the animal can cause the effective the estimation of microwave absorption "efficiency,"
absorption cross section to differ significantly from the as well as data on heat dissipative ability at several ele-
geometrical cross section. As the latter is used in our vated body temperatures, and a cooling constant in the
calculations, the term "Absorption Efficiency" is not a case of dead animals.
true efficiency, and is used only because of convenience. The animals survived the procedure well if not heated
l t is calculated as: to beyond 42° C. At 43° C there were some deaths, while
Absorbed power no animal survived 44 ° C. If death did not occur during
Absorption "Efficiency" or within a few minutes of exposure, the animal recovered.
Incident Profile Power
Those animals which survived the higher levels of hyper-
(Initial Heating Rate)(Animal Wt.)(Animal S.H.) thermia were temporarily disabled, but apparently
(Av. Microwave Profile Intensity)(Profile Area) con;iplete recovery occurred within a few hours of the end
of the exposure.
The effect of the irradiated animal on the transmitter
power output is not a problem unless the animal intercepts . ~mIB -
most of. the beam and is close to the radiating antenna. Fig. 6 shows the individual calculated values of absorp-
The first control, or steady-state temperature, was tion "efficiency" for each animal. The open circles are
-chosen about one degree above the normal body tempera- the species averages.
I i
1956 Ely and Goldman: Heat Exchange Characteristics of Animals
100 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
I - l
80
o AVERAGE
.
• ~
->-
u
z 60
w
u
G:
u..
,w
- 0
~
z
a.. 40
°'0
(/)
I
Q
Q
(D
<[
! related to body temperature.
20
0 L -_ _. . __ _ _ __ . . , ~ - - - - ~ - - - '
Rll.1S RABBITS DOGS
Fig. 6-lndividual values and species averages of absorption
"efficiencies" for rats, rabbits, and dogs.
Fig. 7 shows schematically the heat gain and loss rates
of an animal as a function of body temperature. Normal
A temperature is at the ord~nat~, and increases to_ the right.
WHeat gain from metabolism 1s above the abscissa. Heat
loss, plotted below the abscissa, has been grouped i1~to
two factors: surface loss and respiratory loss. The heavier
line is the resultant sum of the gain and loss.
The metabolic heat gain curve at normal body tempera-
ture is at a level which represents the resting metabolic
rate. As the temperature increases, the metabolic rate
also increases, but in a somewhat exponential manner.
This is due not only to increase in the rate of metabolic
chemical reactions, but also to the increased respiratory
effort and struggling which appear at these elevated
temperatures. The surface loss line is nearly straight, since
nonsweating animals are involved. However, the increase
in slope shown by the respiratory loss curve represents
the use of increased breathing as a cooling mechanism.
At higher levels, this mechanism begins to lose its effec-
tiveness because of an impairment of respiration which
is seen at high body temperatures.
The resultant curve shows that for a moderate sub-
normal temperature, there is a gain of heat, which acts
to return the temperature to normal. For a moderately
elevated temperature, there is a resultant loss of heat,
which also acts to return the temperature to normal. If
the fever is higher, there is a decrease in ability to lose
heat, and for high temperatures, the net heat exchange
- even becomes positive, which further increases the
temperature until the animal dies.
In the region between the points where the resultant
curve crosses the abscissa, any additional source of heat,
41
2
~
f--
<l
w
:,::
METABOLIC GAIN
BODY TEMPERATURE
Fig. 7-Qualitative heat exchange characteristics of an animal as
of a magnitude just sufficient to make the resultant equal
zero, would produce a steady temperature.
Figs. 8, 9, and 10 show the e},,l)erimental data obtained
from the rats, rabbits, and dogs, respectively. Body·
temperature rise above normal is plotted with respect to
the microwave field intensity required to maintain this
rise. Each animal in the group is represented by coded
points. The dashed line is an approximate average. Here
microwave power has been used as the additional source
of heat necessary to caus~ the animal's net heat exchange
to equal zero, in other words, to maintain constant body.
temperature. The ri.1agnitude of the microwave power,
then, represents the rate at which the animal would lose
heat without this source, or his heat dissipation ability.
In order to facilitate comparison with Fig. 7, the results
have been plotted in the fourth quadrant.
In Fig. 7, again, the bottom of the resultant heat
exchange curve represents the maximum heat dissipation
ability of the animal. This point occurs at about 4 ..5 C
0
0
above normal for the rats, about 3 ..5 C above normal
for the rabbits, and about 2..5 C 0 above normal for the
dogs. However, since there is a species difference in normal
body temperature, this amounts to about 42° C in each
case.
The second point at which the resultant curve crosses
the axis represents a condition where the animal is in a
steady-state condition-heat input balanced by heat
output, but it is an unstable point. Any gain in tempera-
ture produces a net heat input resulting in additional
temperature gain, while any loss of temperature produces.
a net heat loss, with further temperature loss.
The cooling constants of several of our experimental
animals, together with some figures for mice, and one
value from the literature [9] which represents the average-
of several humans, are plotted in Fig. 11.
DISCUSSION
All the animals used in this study were fur-bearing and
unclipped. It may be that fur significantly changes th<7
absorption characteristics of microwaves. Further experi-
 42 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February
o~------,-------,-------,-------,-------,---------,,--------,

"'·
25'f-
.... , ......
··,. ....
......
......
·,..
RATS

.,·,

~
0
....J
w
0 0

Q
•

' '···•-•.
.........
•

. .
;•·'
,./
,
/ /
-

75,,-.
0 ·••··•·•·· .
•··•·•.......................................-....,•···..•
..,,
0
0
0

0
2 3 4 5 6 7
BODY TEMPERATURE RISE (C 0 )

Fig. 8-Microwave field intensity required to maintain steady-state body temperatures in rats.
'01•;------.-----r------.------,------,
',' ', 0.----------------c--0-r-6,------,
' I
\ I
. ,,.a',
',,.......... 0
RABBITS
\
\
', 6 6
• 6

/
I
/

0
o ',e • • e ', • I
a A - ........ ......_ _ _ _
'
a
..."', ,/
DOGS

------1.__. .,.____ _ >-

............ ___

-----
0 .,,,,,-.,,,,,,,,,,
/"
•

• •
6
•
>-
iii
z
w
!z 50 0
• • • 0 •
0
.0
_J
:w 0
...J
,.;: w
;;:

75 75'

2 3 4 5 0 3 4 5
BODY TEMPERATURE RISE (C 0 )
BODY TEMPERATURE RISE (C.0 )

:Fig. 9-Microwave field intensity required to maintain steady-state

body temperatures in rabbits. Fig. 10-Microwave field intensity required to maintain steady-state
body temperatures in dogs.

1opoo,,------,-----.-----.------.---'----,
mentation including a comparison between clipped and
unclipped animals would be valuable, particularly from
the standpoint of extrapolation to humans.
"§1000
>- The values of absorption "efficiencies" obtained were
:::,
z not highly consistent, but most are not far from 40 per
~
>-
z cent, and this figure suggests itself as a good approximate
i'! working value. A significant species difference was not
8
U)

100 1>-I>?;' demonstrated, which fact is reasonable considering that

w
:; /'/I.
,f: the microwave power gain and heat loss are both approxi-
<.!)
z
:::; mately direct linear functions of animal surface area.
0
8 10 There is a rather wide spread in individual points on
the steady-state field graphs (Figs. 8, 9, and 10). However,
the over-all trend is apparent not only from the point-
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
BODY WEIGHT (gm) averages, but also from the curves of the individual
Fig. 11-Cooling time constants of several animal species as related animals. Although none of the rats or rabbits reached the
to body weight. axis again at elevated temperature, three of the dogs
 1956 Ely and Goldman: Heat Exchange Characteristics of Animals
actually crossed it at the points indicated, and continued
into the region of positive net heat exchange to death.
All three species required a field of roughly 25 milliwatts
~ e r square centimeter to maintain a fever of 1 C 0 -sug-
gesting little species difference in this respect. Although
it is not to be inferred that this figure is proposed for use
in formulating safety standards, this type of information
may be of value from the hazard study standpoint. We
have related temperature rise to field intensity because
these quantities represent cause and effect, and are the
most convenient to measure accurately. We also did
calculations of intermediate events, using such factors as
,_ absorption "efficiency," metabolic rate, surface area, and
I profile area, but found that little was contributed except
additional sources of error.
Cooling records were made mainly as a partial check on
procedure. If an animal were to cool as a unit, slope of
cooling curve would be equivalent to net heat loss at any
point, hence would be equivalent to values obtained
during steady state temperature phase of experiment.
However, the animal is not an ideal thermal mass.
Of the many possible sources of data variability in this
experiment, the differences between individual animals
and the time changes in a given animal seem to be the
greatest. The experiments have consisted of heating
complicated systems in a nonuniform manner with
uncontrolled. ambient temperatures and humidities, and
measuring their temperatures in a location which did not
necessarily represent average. We found not only that
e_ive animals vary in their sensitivities to microwaves, but
any given animal's response can vary from minute to
minute. Irregular patterns of voluntary activity, breathing,
and even blood flow, cause erratic temperature swings.
CONCLUSIONS
Rats, rabbits, and dogs were totally exposed to a
calibrated S-band microwave field. Rectal temperature
43
recordings during exposure provided data on the rate of
power absorption and on the ability of the animals to
dissipate the heat absorbed. The average absorption of
each species was roughly 40 per cent of the power in the
animal's geometrical profile, and the heat dissipation
ability was such that a field of 25 milliwatts per square
centimeter could be dissipated at a body temperature
0
:increase of about 1 C The data further demonstrated
•
that at high body temperatures the heat loss mechanisms
of the animal body become less effective, and at a very
high temperature a net heat gain results.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Daily, Jr., L., vVakim, K. G., Herrick, J. F., and Parkhill, E. M.,
"Effects of Microwave Diathermy on the Eye." (Abstract)
American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 155 (September, 1948),
pp. 432.
j2] Daily, Jr., L., ViTakim, K. G., Herrick, J. F., Parkhill, E. M., and
Benedict, W. L., "The Effects of Microwave Diathermy on the
Eye: An Experimental Study." American Journd of Ophthal-
mology, Vol. 33 (August, 1950), pp. 1241-1254.
[3] Engle, J. P., el al., "Effect of Microwaves on Bone and Bone
Marrow and Adjacent Tissues." Archives of Physical 1lfedicine,
Vol. 31 (October, 1950), pp. 453-461.
[4] Hines, H. M., and Randall, E. J., "Possible Industrial Hazards
in the Use of Microwave Radiation." Electrical Engineering,
Vol. 71 (October, 1952), pp. 879-881.
[5] Hirsch, F. G., and Parker, J. T., "Bilateral Lenticular Opacities
Occurring in a Technician Operating a Microll"ave Generator."
American Medical Association Archives of Industrial Hygiene
& Occupational Medicine, Vol. 6 (December, 1952), pp. 512-
517.
:6] Hutt, B. K., Moore, J., Colonna, P. C., and Horvath, S. M.,
"Influence of Microwave Irradiation on Bone Temperature in
Dog and Man." Amer-ican Journal of Phys·ical Medicine, Vol.
31 (October, 1952), pp. 422-428.
[7] Richardson, A. vV., Duane, T. D., and Hines, H. M., "Experi-
mental Lenticular Opacities Produced by Microwave Irradia--
tions." Archives of Physical Medicine, Vol. 29 (Dec-3mber, 1948),
pp. 765-769.
[8] Richardson, A. vV., Duane, T. D., and Hines, H. lVL, "Experi-
mental Cataract Produced by Three-Cm Pulsed Microwave
Irradiations." American Medical Association Archives of Oph-
thalmology, Vol. 45 (April, 1951), pp. 382-386.
[9] Molnar, G. W., Hurley, Jr., H. J., and Ford, R., "Preliminary
Report on Measurement of Post Mortem Cooling of the Human.
Body." Army Medical Research Laboratory", Re}ort No. 147,
January 17, 1955.
_J
44 IRE TRANSACTIONS-1l1EDICAL ELECTRONICS
Physical Evaluation of Personnel Exposed to
Microwave Emanations
C. I. BARRON,t A. Ai LOVE,t AND A. A. BARAFFt
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
COMPREHENSIVE physical examination pro-
A gram of radar personnel at a large airframe
manufacturer was instituted in an effort to deter-
mine whether prolonged (years) and short (months)
duration exposure to microwave emanations had resulted
in transient or permanent biological damage. It was
further hoped to correlate any significant findings with
time-field power relationship and postulate standards for
safe exposure.
Included in the program were 226 Derc1mmel with
histories of radar contact varying from o-cc,:;,.,ional beam
exposure to 4 hours a day and up to 13 years overall. 88
control subjects were given examinations similar in scope
for baseline comparison. The examinations were designed
to detect pathology experimentally induced in small test
animals apparently by the thermal effects of absorbed
electromagnetic energy. Special emphasis was placed on
those structures with poor heat regulatory mechanics;
the cornea of the eye, the gastro-intestinal and genito-
urinary tracts, and those organs and systems adversely
affected by excessive heat, such as the gonads and hema-
poietic systems.
Rada~ personnel were grouped· as to years of exposure,
0 to 2 years, 2 to 5 years and 5 to 13 years. The distribution
of the red blood counts, white blood counts and blood
platelets was essentially identical among the sub-groups
and comparable to the control group. There was a signi-
ficant decrease in the polymorphonuclear cells in 25 per
cent of the radar personnel as compared to 12 per cent in
the control group. An interesting and disproportionate
increase in monocytes above 6 per cent and eosinophiles
over 4 percent was also noted in the radar group. The
significance of these changes is not immediately apparent
and warrants further study.
Urinalysis revealed no significant difference for the two
groups. Fertility statistics were essentially comparable.
There was no i11dication of increased significant pathology
among the radar personnel. Ocular examinations revealed
a high incidence of pathology for the radar group. However,
in all but a single case of retinal hemorrhage, the etiology
t California Division of Lockheed Aircraft Corp., Burbank,
February
was known and determined to be entirely unrelated to
radar exposure.
Modified Rumpel-Leede tests for capillary fragility
were disproportionately high for the control group. There
was no apparent correlation between reduced platelet
counts and positive tests.
Subjective complaints were present in a minority of
cases and consisted essentially of a heating sensation when
in close proximity to X band antenna and buzzings or
vibrations near S band antenna. Occasional complaints
of fatigue, headaches, and aching eyeballs were elicited.
The presence of embedded metallic foreign bodies was
not associated with any localized heating or tissue-
destructing effects.
Re-examination was accomplished on 175 subjects
following 6 to 9 months of incidental contact with both
S and X band pulsed radar transmitters of high power.
Examinations were essentially limited to the ocular
structures, blood cellular studies, and urinalyses. Pre-
liminary observations revealed a decrease of red blood
cells in excess of 10 per cent from original in 30 per cen~
of subjects; an increase of white blood cells in 50 per cent;
and an increase in lymphocytes in 39 per cent. The blood
platelets showed no significant unidirectional change.
Urinalyses revealed no evidence of significant changes.
Approximately 14 per cent of all subjects sired offspring
during the 9 month recheck period.
The difficulty in measuring field power densities upon
which the biological effects of microwave energy are pre-
dicated is stressed. Routine field measurements are gener-
ally made in the far radar field, an acceptable boundary of
which is defined by 2d 2 /A, where cl is the diameter of the
round dish propagating energy and lambda the physical
wave length of the frequency. Within the far field, accurate
field power densities may be formulated by application of
the inverse square law of free field air absorption.
Since radar test and maintenance personnel may be
exposed to the firing beam at distances not encompassed
by the far field boundary, it becomes increasingly difficult
to evaluate biological effects and hazards in relation to
absolute exposure dosage. The need for more precise meas-
urements is obvious and can be achieved through the
development of exposure level meters reflecting absorption
Calif. in quantum units of radar energy.
 1956 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
The Mechanism of Absorption of Ultrahigh Frequency
e Electromagnetic Energy in Tissues, as Related
to the Problem of Tolerance Dosage*
H. P. SCHWANt
T
HE TWO excellent studies reported earlier at this
symposium by Major D. B. Williams and
. Lieutenant T. S. Ely indicate that intolerable
body temperature rise due to absorption of electromag-
,..., netic energy is the most serious health hazard. This is
true at least in all instances where a substantial part of
the body is exposed to the radiation so that conditions
of "total body irradiation" are approximated. Major
Williams has shown that tolerance dosage for the eye,
at least in the case of animals, investigated by him is
near 0.2 watts/cm2, while Lieutenant Ely reported in-
tolerable body temperature rise in his animals at much
smaller energy flux figures. We had come to similar
conclusions from evaluation of existing literature con-
cerning radiation-induced cataracts and calculations of
likely body temperature rise. Available experience with
local application of electromagnetic energy supports this.
material and permits us to conclude that an energy flux
2
Afigure of 0.01 watts/cm should not be exceeded, if total
•body absorption of the radiation is assumed. Also, the
optimal permissible value of 0.01 watt/cm2 should not be
applied for more than one hom. Of course, it· is very im-
portant now to know the answers to two questions:
1) What percentage of airborne radiation is absorbed
by the human body?
2) Where is the absorbed energy transformed into heat?
The answer to the first problem establishes a relation-
ship between optimal tolerable absorbed energy flux and
energy flux in the field of the radiation source undisturbed
by the body. The second problem is of importance since
in the case of pure surface heating the usual mechanism
of the body's heat regulation is available to carry away
excess heat. In the case of deep heating this possibility
does not exist directly, especially whenever subcutaneous
fat with its relatively poor heat. conductivity separates
skin and deep tissues. In the latter case, obviously,
tolerance dosage recommendations should be more
carefully made. This paper attempts to answer the two
problems formulated above.
In order to obtain conclusions of general value, a
'\ gigantic number of difficult experiments would be re-
.AT * These studies were aided by a contract between the Office of
•~aval Research, Dept. of the Navy, and Univ. of Pennsylvania,
NR 119-358. .
t Electromedical Group, Moore School of Electrical Engineering,
and Dept. of Phys. Med. and Rehab., Schools of Medicine, Univ. of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4, Pa.
45
AND KAM Lit
quired on a purely experimental basis. vVe have chosen,
therefore, a semitheoretical approach. From reflection.
coefficients, obtained by exposure of tissue layers to
radiation in transmission line sections, ,ve calculate
their dielectric parameters. The dielectric parameters are
just a more convenient means of expressing 'the results
of such experiments. vVe are able to conclude from them
by analysis the laws which govern the absorption of
electromagnetic waves in the more complex ar:·angement
of the human body. However, we must make a simplifying
assumption. We will discuss here only the case of airborne
radiation propagated in plane wave fashion perpendicular
to the smface of the human body, as indicated in Fig. 1.
I I
AIR ISKINi FAT MUSCLE
I I
Fig. 1-l~lectromagnetic energy passes through skin, subcutaneous
fat, and more deeply located tissues and is transformed into heat.
The triple layer arrangement illustrated is the basis of the analysis
which is presented.
This case will be approximated roughly by the trunk of
a person facing the source of radiation. We can -state
that the percentage of absorbed energy will be a ma;,rimmn ·
under such conditions. Any conclusions drawn from such
an approach will give, therefore, the highest possible
value of absorbed energy which should be considered in
an attempt to establish tolerance dosage figures. The
body itself is to be represented by a triple arrangement
of skin, subcutaneous fat, and deep tissue such as muscle
and various body organs. Since depth of penetration of
electromagnetic radiation has been shown to be sufficiently
1
small , the deep tissue layer may be assumed to extend
infinitely, as shown in Fig. 1. Only occasionally do bone·
structures appear within reach of the radiation and,
when they do, only . for lower frequencies than those
predominantly of interest today.
1
H. P. Schwan and G. M. Piersol, "The absorption of electro-
magnetic energy in body tissues, Part I," Am. J. of Phys. Med.,
vol. 33, pp. 371-404; December, 19~4.
46 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February
TABLE I eor-----------------------a.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT e AND CONDUCTIVITY K (IN MHO) ARE
GIVEN FOR FAT AND FOR MUSCLE AS A REPRESENTA1.'IVE OF 70
DEEPLY SITUA1.'ED 1.'ISSUES. SINCE THE DIELECTRIC DATA OF
SUBCUTANEOUS FAT VARY CONSIDERABLY WITH WATER l
CONTENT AND 'l'EMPERATURE, REPRESENTATIVE DATA UNDER 60
A VARIETY OF CONDITIONS ARE GIVEN.
50
0
37°c 50°c 20°c
€ DIEL. CONST.
+ +
40 X
CONDUCT•. ( m Mho)
Muscle Wet Fat Dry Fat Wet Fat Wet Fat

30
me

150 66 7.6 3.8 7.6 7.6 20

400 58 6.8 3.4 6.8 6.8 10

+ + + +
FREQUENCY (Mc)
900 54 6.1 3.05 6.1 6.1
0
100 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
1000 10,000
3,000 54 4.4 2.2 4.4 4.4
Fig. 2-Dielectric constant (,) and conductivity (K) (in mMho) of
10,000 45 3.3 1.65 3.3 3.3 skin tissue. The results are obtained by the authors (o, +), England
(t., Nature, Vol. 166, p. 480; 1950) and Cook (x, e, Brit. J. Appl.
Phys., vol. 2, p. 295; 1951). The curves define the values used in all
37°c 50°c 20°c numerical discussions.
10 3K
Muscle Wet Fat Dry Fat Wet Fat Vlet Fat

me higher frequencies together establish smooth curves

which are utilized for the calculations. The variability of
150 10 0.66 0.33 1. 32 0.33
the skin data is characterized by two out of five sets of
400 10 0.78 0.39 1. 56 0.39 measurements made by us (200-1,000 me) and by the
deviation of the curve from the single observations. It
900 11 0.91 0.45 1.81 0.45 is small enough to neglect in the following discussions.
3,000 22 1.18 0.59 2.35 0.59
Percentage of absorbed energy and distribution
energy in skin, fat and deep tissues are uniquely deter-
04t
10,000 125 2.63 1. 31 5.26 1.31 mined by the dielectric properties of the tissues. Details
of the analytical procedure are to be given elsewhere3
and are similar to those discussed above 4
The dielectric data used in our studies are summarized We will discuss first the percentage of airborne energy
in Table I. The data for muscle and other body organs absorbed by the body. Table II summarizes results
.are found to be quite reproducible, and these data are obtained at 150 and 400 me. It gives ranges of figures
well understood in terms of the structure of these tissues2 • which correspond to variation of the thickness of sub-
Data obtained for fatty tissue, on the other hand, have cutaneous fat layer from 0 to 2 cm. The lower percentage
been found to vary considerably, probably due to variation figure applies always to zero thickness, and the increase
in water content and the fact that its conductivity is of the percentage of absorbed energy with thickness of
highly temperature dependent. The "wet" fat indicated subscutaneous fat is continuous. The table demonstrates
in the table, with somewhat higher water content, repre- that the percentage of airborne radiation which is absorbed
.sents horse fat, while the "dry" fat has been found more by the body, for low frequencies such as are shown i11 the
characteristic of pork. The values for human fat are table, is nearly independent of thickness of both skin
.somewhere in between. We have carried out our analysis and fat layer. It is also found to be nearly independent
for all types of fat named in Table I, and at different of temperature and degree of water content of sub-
temperatures, but can summarize here only the most cutaneous fat. However, it changes with frequency from
important results. about 30 per cent at 150 me to 50 per cent ± 10 per cent
The dielectric properties of skin, which are used for at 400 me. The dependence of the data on frequency is
the calculations, are summarized in Fig. 2. Previously in accord with previously published data1 • 5 , which apply
.available data are insufficient for our purpose and it was to just one layer of tissue. They indicate the transparency
necessary, therefore, to add data to cover the frequency
.range from 200 to 1,000 me. The results, presented in
Fig. 2, show that our new data and the older data at
2 H.P. Schwan and Kam Li, "Capacity and conductivity of body
Submitted for publication, PROC. IRE.
3

H. P. Schwan, E. L. Carstensen, and Kam Li, "Heating of

4

muscle layers by electromagnetic and ultrasonic diathermy," Trans:w,

-tissues at ultrahigh frequencies," PROC. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 1735-1740;
December, 1953.
AIEE, (Communications and Electronics), p. 483; September, 1953.
6 H.P. Schwan and E. L. Carstensen, "Application of electric and
fa.
acoustic measuring techniques to problems in diathermy," Trans.
AIEE, (Communications and Electronics), p. 106; May, 1953.
 1956 Schwan and Li: Absorption of UHF Energy in Tissues 47
TABLE II 100
900 MC.
PERCENTAGE OF AIRBORNE RADIATION, ABSORBED BY-THE
BODY, FOR 1.50 AND 400 MC. THE DATA ARE GIVEN FOR A
VARIETY OF l'A'l' CONDITIONS AND SKIN 'l'HICKNESSES VALUES
AND DEMONS'l'RAT.E THE NEGLIGIBLE INFLUENCE OF THESE
PARAMlcTERS. Tmc RANGES OF VALUisS, WHICH ARE GIVEN,
SHOW 'rHE SMALL INCREASE WHICH 'rHE PERCENTAGE OF
ABSORBED ENERGY UNDERGOES AS THE THICKNESS OF
SUBCU'rANEOUS FAT INCRIDASES FROM ZIDRO TO 2 CM.

Fat Skin 150 me 400mc

I
Thickness
0
O"
WET 0 26-27 36-42
>-
31°c 0.2 cm 26-31 36-54 <.!)

J 0.4 cm 27-32 37-60

a::
lLJ
z
lLJ
0
DRY 0 27-29 37-40 lLJ
ID
37°c 0.2 cm 27-32 37-52 a::
0
0.4 cm 29-34 38-61 Cl)
ID
<[

WET 0 26-28 37-43

50°c 0.2 cm 26-30 37-52
0.4 cm 27-33 37-59

WET 0 26-27 37-44

20°c 0.2 cm 26-31 36-55
0.4 cm 27-33 37-62

of both skin and fat for the electromagnetic radiation at

such low frequencies. However, it is noticeable that the
dependence on the parameters is somewhat stronger at
Fig. 3-Percentage of airborne radiation, which is absorbed by-the
A400 me than at 150 me. body, is given as function of thickness of subcutaneous fat layer
• Fig. 3 gives the percentages of absorbed energy for for 900, 3,000, and 10,000 me. The parameter]{ gives the thickness
of the assumed skin layer in cm.
900, 3,000 and 10,000 me. The curves at 900 me and
especially at 3,000 me demonstrate a pronounced varia-
tion of percentage of absorbed energy with thickness of 3000Mc.
subcutaneous fat and thickness of skin. Normal skin
thickness values vary between 2 and 4 mm, with values •
C)

up to 5 mm and more possible on the back. The curves ~ 60

z
demonstrate that, especially at 3,000 me, energy absorp- "'0
~ 4C
tion can vary from 20 to 100 per cent for likely values of 0::
0
skin and fat thickness·. At 10,000 me, on the other hand, <I>
~ 20
the percentage of absorbed energy for all skin values of
practical interest is again nearly independent of both 0 o::-------:o=--.2-:-------::0~.4-:------:-o.~s---o-:-'.-a_ _ _.,_w_
skin and fat layers and varies between 40 and 50 per SKIN THICKNESS (Cm)
cent. The explanation is that all the energy is already
Fig. 4-Percentage of airborne radiation, absorbed by the body, as
absorbed in the skin, due to the fact that the depth of function of thickness of skin. Assumed is a layer o~ 1.25 cm sub-
penetration is smaller than 1 mm. The curve demonstrated cutaneous fat. The curve demonstrates tremendous influence of
in Fig. 4, shows finally, the periodic behavior of the thickness of the skin layer on the percentage of absorbed energy.

percentage of absorbed energy with thickness of skin

layer for a fat layer of 1.25 cm and a frequency of 3,000 me.
The results presented in Table II and in Figs. 3 and 4
demonstrate that at low frequencies well below 1,000 me
and at high frequencies well above 3,000 me rather
simple conditions exist. The percentage of absorbed
energy is nearly independent of skin and subcutaneous
A.fat thickness and is near 40 per cent. However, in the
!•range from 1,000 to 3,000 me very complicated con-
ditions exist. Here the percentage of airborne energy
which is absorbed by the body may vary between 20 and .
100 per cent, depending upon how thick skin and sub-
cutaneous fat are. The explanation for the fact is the
ability of both skin and fat to act as A/4 transformers,
since their thickness is comparable in this frequency
range to one quarter of a ·wavelength, and they can
transform, therefore, the input wave impedance of the
deep tissues according to well known rules over a con-
siderable range of impedance values. This makes possible,
depending on conditions, the occurrance of all possibilities
from complete mismatch to almost exact impedance match,
with corresponding variability of the percentage of air-
borne energy absorbed by the body. Conditions· for 100
 48 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS February

50 M

2 3 2 3

100 . . - - - - - - - - ~ 100 . - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
s
s
50 50
M

2 3 '2 3

100 , - - - - - - - - - - - , 100 . . - - - - - - - - - - 100..---------

s
s
50 50-

0 o,___ _,____2..___ _,3 0 o,,___ _,___ ____.2..___ _,3 OM

0 2 3
Fig. 5-Total heat developed in skin, subcutaneous fat, and deeply
situated tissues is expressed in per cent of total energy absorbed by
the body. The ordinate gives percentages of heat, the abscissa,
thickness of subcutaneous fat. The upper row of graphs refers to
a skin thickness of 0 cm, the middle row to 0.2 cm skin thickness,
and the lower row assumes 0.4 cm skin thickness. The shaded
areas refer to the heat figures pertaining to fat (indicated by sym-
bol F). The upper areas hold for skin heating (S), and the lower for
deep tissues heating (M). For any particular combination of values
of frequency, thickness of skin and fat, the sum of all the heat con-
tributions developed in skin (S), fat (F), and deep tissues (M) is
100 per cent in this presentation.

per cent energy absorption can be obtained only when
skin thickness can be neglected. However, inspection of
the curves for 900 and 3,000 me in Figs. 3 and 4 shows
that up to 90 per cent energy absorption can exist for
reasonable values of the skin thickness. Since tolerance
considerations must be conservative, up to 100 per cent
energy absorption must be assumed in an establishment
of toler~nce dosage for frequencies between 1,000 and
, 3;000'-r'nc and up to 50 per cent for frequencies well below
1,000 me and well above 3,000 me. · thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer. At 90.0 me most
. We will consider now the second problem of importance,
namely, where energy is .transformed into heat. This is
summarized in Fig. 5 for the frequencies 900, 3,000, and
10;000 me. Given is the total amount of energy absorbed
by the body as it is transformed into heat in skin, sub-
cutaneous fat, and deep tissues. The results pertain to
skin thicknesses of zero (upper row), .0.-2 cm (middle row)
and 0.4 .cm (lower row). Percent~ges of totally absorbed
energy are plotted as a function of tbic:\,mei;;s of sub-
cutaneous fat. N atu.ra}ly, the to~al of all energies trans-
formed info ];1eat in the three layers adds up ·to 100 per
cent in this presentation. The results show that skin
absorbs most of the energy at 10,000 me. Only 20 to 30
per cent of t4e total energy is made available for heat in
the fat and deep tissues, for skin thickness of 2 mm.
For skin thickness of 4 mm, 90 per cent of all energy is
absorbed in the skin. At 3,000 me a more complicated
sit1,1.ation prevails. The amounts of h_eat develope1d in
skin, fat, and deep tissues are more comparable t.o each
other, but depend in detail in a complex manner .on the
of the energy reaches into the deep tissues, unless we hav:e
to deal with a combination of values which _are high both
for skin thickness and fat thickness (skin thick;er th.an 4
mm and fat thicker than 1 cm). The part of the energy
which is absorbed in the body surface layers is about
equally diviqed betw,een fat and ski.n; it goes mainly into
fat when skin thickness is below 2 n;i.m ap.d ,predominantly
into the skin for larger values than 2 mm. The trend,_
indicated by this graph, becomes more propounced :;it
lower frequencies (not included in Fig. 5). At 1:00 me,
~lmost all of the energy reac~es int~ the de.e_p ,tissues.
 1956 Schwan and Li: Absorption of UHF Energy in Tissues
The same applies, of course, at 150 me, in fact even more
so, as our evaluations, not demonstrated here, show.
, In summary, it may be stated that for frequencies well
e.ibove 3,000 me, most of the radiant energy is transfor~ed
into heat in the skin. For frequencies well below 1,000
me, all energy reaches beyond the fatty layer and is
transformed into heat in the deep tissues. In the range
from 1,000 to 3,000 me, the energy splits up into heat
contributions whose amounts in the three layers depend
on the thickness values of the skin and fat in a more
IJ complicated manner. vVe consider this an important
result in so far as it establishes that radiation of a frequency
below 1,000 me is much more dangerous than radiation
operating above 10,000 me. The poor heat conductance·
of fat must make it difficult for the human body to get
rid of heat developed in the deep tissues, and must result
in significant temperature rise before a sufficient temper-
ature gradient is established across the fat layer to
deliver the heat to the outside. On the other hand, heat
developed in the skin must almost instantaneously bring
into play the heat regulating elements of the body surface
and must result in effective cooling of the body surface.
These· results refer exclusively to "wet" fat of body
temperature. We have carried out the same calculations
for "dry" subcutaneous fat and also for different temper-
atures as indicated in Table I. Physiologically, unreason-
ably large temperature changes had to be assumed in
order to obtain sizable temperature effects, i.e., the
~nfluence of temperature of the subcutaneous fat was
-.,round to be negligible. The same can be shown to hold
for the temperature of the deep tissues and skin. The
variability of the amount of water bound in the fat
material has a somewhat more noticeable effect. This has
already been pointed out before in a similar discussion
restricted to a case in which the skin could be neglected6.
6 H. P. Schwan and Kam Li, "Variations between measured and
biologically effective microwave diathermy dosage," A.rch. of Phys.
Med. and Rehab., vol. 36, pp. 363-370; June, 1955.
I'··.
I
I
I"\.
~,
49
However, our detailed calculations, omitted here, show
that all the conclusions derived above are always valid.
Presently available knowledge makes it difficult to
state to what extent heat generated at the body surface
is more tolerable than heat generated in the deep tissues.
A more differentiated dosage statement must wait, there-
fore, until more research has been done concerning this
a,spect of heat physiology. However, it seems safe to
state that 0.005 watts/cnl applied to the total body
surface can be tolerated under all circumstances, since
this would just about double the heat output of the
human body due to "its own metabolism. Considering _the
fact that, at most, half of the body surface is hit by
radiation, 0.01 watt/cm2 is reasonable as a tolerance
dosage recommendation. For the frequency range above
3,000 me, higher flux figures can be tolerated.
CONCLUSIONS
At frequencies lower than 400 me and higher than 3,000
me, the human body will absorb about 40 to 50 per cent
of airborne radiation. Between 1,000 and 3,000 me the
percentage of absorbed energy fluctuates between 20 and
100 per cent, depending on frequency, thickness of skin,
and thickness of subcutaneous fat. Conservative estimates
of tolerable amounts of energy should be based,. therefore,
on a possible 100 per cent absorption.
At frequencies lower than 1,000 me most of the radiant
energy is transformed into heat in the deep tissues.
Frequencies higher than 3,000 me cause predominant
surface heating. Intolerable temperature rise due to
exposure to high frequency electromagnetic waves is less
likely, therefore, at high frequencies above 3,000 me than
.at lower frequencies below 1,000 me.
A tolerance dosage of 0.01 watt,/cm2 is recommended
for the total frequency range. It is expected that this
figure can be replaced by a higher figure for frequencies
above 3,000 me when more about the mechanism of heat
regulation of the human body is known.
 50 IRE TRANSACTIONS-MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
SYMPOSIUM ON PHYSIOLOGIC AND PATHOLOGIC EFFECTS OF MICROWAVES
Anderson, F. A., President, The Burdick
Corp., Milton, Wis.
Baer, Dr. R., Dept. of Physical Medicine
and Rehabilitation, The Ohio State Uni-
versity, Columbus, Ohio.
Baldes, Dr. E. J., Head, Section of Bio-
physics and Biophysical Research, The
Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Barron, Dr. C. I., California Division, Lock-
heed Aircraft Corp., Burbank, Calif.
Baus, Rene, Dept. of Biophysics, Tulane
University, New Orleans, La.
Bieging, G. P., Manager, Marketing Re-
search and Product Planning, Heavy
Military Electronics Equipment Depart-
ment; Electronics Division, General Elec-
tric Co., Syracuse, N. Y.
• Blois, Jr., Dr. M. S., Research Associate,
Microwave Laboratory, Vv. W. Hansen
Laboratories of Physics, Stanford Uni-
versity, Stanford, Calif.
Brody, Cmdr. S. I., (MC) USN, Depart-
ment of the Navy, Bureau of Medicine
and Surgery, Washington 25, D. C.
Brown, Dr. G. H., Director, Systems Re-
search Laboratory, Radio Corporation of
America, RCA Laboratories, Princeton,
N.J.
Carpendale, Dr. M. T. F., Fellow in Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Foundation, Rochester, Minn.
Chapman, Dr. Carrie, Oakland Veterans
Administration Hospital, Oakland, Calif.
Christensen, Glenn, Section of Biophysics
and Biophysical Research, The Mayo
Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Copson, Dr. D. A., Research Division, Food
Laboratory, Raytheon Manufacturing
Co., Box 12, Allston, Mass.
Daily, Jr., Dr. Louis, The Daily Eye Clinic,
1117-18-19 Medical Arts Building, Hous-
ton, Texas.
De Lucchi, Capt., Office of Scientific Re-
search, Headquarters, Air Research and
Development Command, P. 0. Box 1395,
Baltimore 3, Md.
Dohan, Dr. F. C., Medical Director, Radio
Corporation of America, RCA Victor
Division, Camden 2, N. J.
Dudenhoefer, Dr. P., Veterans Administra-
tion, Milwaukee, Wis.
List of Attendees
Dunnette, William, Section of Biophysics
and Biophysical Research, The Mayo
Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Ely, Lt. T. S., (MC) USN, Naval Medical
Research Institute, National Naval Medi-
cal Center, Bethesda 14, Md.
Engel, Dr. J. P., St. Barnabas Hospital,
920 S. Seventh St., Minneapolis, Minn.
Erickson, Dr. D. J., Section of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Fawcett, Gr. Capt., Chief, Tele-Communi-
cations, Air Materiel Command, Ottawa,
Canada.
Flint, Dr. C. H., Fellow in Physical Medi-
cine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Foundation, Rochester, Minn.
Garvey, Tim, Raytheon Manufacturing Co.,
Waltham 54, Mass.
Geduldig, Donald, Research Assistant in
Ophthalmology, c/o Prof. C.R. Burrows,
School of Electrical Engineering, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Gullickson, Jr., Dr. Glenn, Dept. of Phys-
ical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo
Memorial Building, The University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Haagensen, Bud, Raytheon Manufacturing
Co., Waltham 54, Mass.
Hartig, Prof. H. E., Head, Dept. of Elec-
trical Engineering, Institute of Technol-
ogy, University of Minnesota, Minnea-
polis, Minn.
Haugen, Merlin, The Burdick Corp., Mil-
ton, Wis.
Henriksen, Dr. J. D., Fellow in Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Foundation, Rochester, Minn.
Herrick, Dr. J. F., Section of Biophysics,
The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Hines, Dr. H. M., Professor and Head,
Dept. of Physiology, State University of
Iowa, College of Medicine, Iowa City,
Iowa.
Holden, Dr. J. A., Light Military Electronic
Equipment Dept., General Electric Co.,
Utica, N. Y.
Horvath, Dr. W. J., Airborne Instruments
Laboratory, Inc., 160 Old Country Road,
Mineola, N. Y.
February
Isaacson, James, Section of Engineering,
The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Jones, R. E., Head, Section of Engineering,
The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Kottke, Dr. F. J., Professor and Head,
Dept. of Physical Medicine and Rehabili-
tation, The Medical School, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis 14, Minn.
Krusen, Dr. F. H., Head, Section of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Kubicek, Dr. William, Department of Phys-
ical Medicine and Rehabilitation, The*
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,..,
Minn.
Lehmann, Dr. J. F., Associate Director,
Department of Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation, The Ohio State Univer-
sity, Columbus 10, Ohio.
Licht, Dr. Sidney, 360 Fountain St., New
Haven, Conn.
Loken, Merle, Radiation Therapy, Uni-
versity of Minnesota, Minneapolis 14,
Minn.
Lowry, Dr. R. H., Office of Canadian Air
Attache, Canadian Embassy, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Lubin, Dr. Martin, Medical Dept., Occupa-
tional Medical Service, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge 39,
Mass.
Lustig, Dr. R. T., Grand Rapids, Mich.
Marston, R. L., General Electric Co.,
Schenectady, N. Y.
Martin, Dr. G. M., Section of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Marvin, Dr. J. F., Radiation Therapy, Uni-
versity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.,
Maxson, R.H., The Burdick Corp., Milton
Wis.
Meahl, H. R., High Frequency Measure-
ments Engineer, General Engineering
Laboratory, General Electric Co., Sche-
nectady, N. Y.
Miller, Capt., Army Environmental Health
Laboratory, Army Medical Service, ArmyA
Chemical Center, Edgewood, Md. •
Moore, D. G., David Sarnoff Research
Center, RCA Laboratories, Radio Cor-
poration of America, Princeton, N. J.
 1956
Mumford, W. W., Bell Telephone Labora-
tories, Inc., Whippany Laboratory, Whip-
pany, N. J.
Nels.on, Dr. P. A., Department of Physical
A Medicine and Rehabilitation, Cleveland
W Clinic, 2020 East 93rd St., Cleveland 6,
Ohio.
Olsen, Dr. K. J., c/o Dr. J. F. Lehmann,
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Orvis, Dr. A. L., Section of Biophysics and
Biophysical Research, The Mayo Clinic,
Rochester, Minn.
Otting, W. J., Office of Scientific Research,
Headquarters, Air Research and Develop-
ment Command, P. 0. Box 1395, Balti-
more 3, Md.
Paul, Dr. David, Veterans Hospital, Iowa
City, Iowa.
Peebles, Dr. F. E., Dept. of Anatomy,
Tulane University, New Orleans, La.
Phoebus, Capt. C. P., (MC), USN, Special
Assistant for Bio Sciences, Office of Naval
Research, Department of the Navy,
Washington 25, D. C.
Quimby, Dr. F. H., Head, Physiology
Branch, Office of Naval Research, De-
partment of the Navy, ·washington 25,
D. C.
Redford, Dr. J. W. B., Fellow in Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Foundation, Rochester, Minn.
List of Attendees
Reynolds, Dr. 0. E., Director, Biological
Sciences Division, Office of Naval Re-
search, Department of the Navy, Wash-
ington 25, D. C. · cine and Rehabilitation Service, Veterans
Richardson, Dr. A. W., Dept. of Physiology,
St. Louis University School of Medicine,
St. Louis, Mo.
Rucker, Dr. C. W., Section of Ophthalmol-
ogy, The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Schwan, Dr. H. P., School of Medicine,
University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce
St., Philadelphia 4, Pa.
Senstad, Paul, Section of Engineering, The
Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Shearer, D. D., Apparatus Product Plan-
ning, X-Ray Dept., General Electric Co.,
4855 Electric Ave., Milwaukee 1, Wis.
Solon, L. R., Acting Chief, Radiation
Branch, Health and Safety Laboratory,
Manager of Operations, U. S. Atomic
Energy Commission, ·P. 0. Box 30,
Ansonia Station, New York 23, N. Y.
Sowby, Dr. F. D., Medical Officer, Radia-
tion Section, Occupational Health Divi-
sion, Department of National Health and
Welfare, Room 412, Laurentbn Building,
Ottawa, Canada.
Speicher, H. W., Administrator, Industrial
Hygiene, Westinghouse Electric Corp.,
East Pittsburgh, Pa.
Tolles, W. E., Airborne Instruments Labo-
51
ratory, Inc., J.60 Old Country Road,
Mineola, N. Y.
Troedsson, Dr. B. S., Chief, Physical Medi-
Administration Hospital, 54th St. and
48th Ave. S., Minneapolis 17, Minn.
Vosburgh, Dr. B. L., Manager, Health
Services, Health and Safety Services
Dept., General Electric Co., 1 River
Road, Schenectady, N. Y.
Wakim, Dr. K. G., Section of Physiology,
The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Walsh, Wing Cmdr., Chief, Clinical Medi-
cine, A.F.H.Q., Ottawa, Canada.
Wertz, Dr. J. E., Dept. of Physical Chem-
istry, University of Minnesota, Minnea-
polis 14, Minn.
Widmann, F. W., RCA Laboratories Divi-
sion, Princeton, N. J.
Williams, Maj. D. B., USAF, Dept. of
Radiobiology, USAF School of Aviation
Medicine, Randolph Air Force Base,
Randolph Field, Texas.
Willis, G. R., Section of Engineering, Mayo
Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Wilson, Jr., Dr. G. M., Fellow in Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Mayo
Foundation, Rochester, Minn.
Wolf, Lt. Carl, Army Environmental Health
Laboratory, Anny Medical Service, Army
Chemical Center, Edgewood, Md.