CONCEPTS TO LEARN:-

What is Frequency Response?

Frequency Domain Specifications
o Resonant Frequency
o Resonant Peak
o Bandwidth
Bode plots
o Basic factor open loop transfer function used to plot of Bode Plots
o Procedure to construct Bode Plot
o Frequency domain specifications from Bode plot for stability
analysis
o Examples
Polar plots
o Steps to draw Polar Plot
o Polar plot for type 0 system
o Polar plot for type 1 system
o Polar plot for type 2 system
o Examples
o Gain Margin, Phase Margin & Stability from polar plot
Development of Nyquist plots
o Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
o Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
  What is Frequency Response?
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the
steady state response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady
state response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response. In
this chapter, we will focus only on the steady state response.
If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it
produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output
sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles.

Let the input signal be –

r(t)  Asin( 0t)
The open loop transfer function will be –
G(s)  G( j)
We can represent G(jω) in terms of magnitude and phase as shown below.
G( j)  G( j) G( j)

Substitute, ω=ω0 in the above equation.

G( j 0)  G( j 0) G( j 0)

The output signal is

c(t)  AG( j) sin 0 t G( j 0)



 The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying the amplitude of the
input sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of G(jω) at ω=ω0.
 The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase of the input sinusoidal
signal and the phase of G(jω) at ω=ω0.
Where,
o A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.
o ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

We can write, angular frequency ω0 as ω0=2πf0 .

  Frequency Domain Specifications

The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth.

Consider the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system as,

T (s) 
C(s)
 2 n2
R(s) s  2 s   2
n n

Put s = jω in above equation,

T ( j)  n2
( j)2 2 n ( j)  n2

T ( j) 
 n2 
   2 jn  n2
2

n2
 

2  2  2 j 

n 1 2  
 n n
 
1

1 u  j2u
2



Let  u , substitute this value in above equation
n

1
magnitudeof T ( j) is M  T ( j) 
1  u 2   2u 
2 2

1 2u 
phase of T ( j) is T ( j)   tan  
2
 1 u 


o Resonant Frequency

It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response has peak value for
the first time. It is denoted by ωr.

At ω=ωr, the first derivate of the magnitude of T(jω) is zero.

1
M  T ( j) 
1 u 2   2u 
2 2

Differentiate w.r.to. u

1  2  23 
1 u 2   2 u 2 21 u 2  2u   22 u 2 
dM

 
2      
du 
1 2  23 
  1 u 2   2 u 2 4u  u 2 1 2 2 
 
2     

dM
puting u  u and  0 in above equation
r du
3 
1  2
0    1 u 2   2 u
 
2  r 
  2
r 
 2
4u  u 2
 r  r
 1 2 2  



4ur ur 2 1 2 2  0
u r 2 1 2 2  0
u r 2  1 2 2
ur  1 22


put ur  r in above equation
n
r 
 1 2 2
n
r  n 1 2 2
thusresonant frequency is r  n 1 2 2
 o Resonant Peak

It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T (jω). It is denoted by ‘ Mr ’.

At u=ur, the Magnitude of T(jω) is -

1
M 
r
1  u   2u 
r
2 2
r
2

put u  1 2 2 and 1 u 2  2 2 in aboveequation

r r
1
M 
r
2 2 2  2 1 2 2 
2

 
1
M 
r 2 1 2 2
1
Thus resonant peak is M 
r 2 1 2 2

Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot in the time
domain transient response for certain values of damping ratio ζ. So, the resonant peak and
peak overshoot are correlated to each other.

o Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω) drops to 70.7% from
its zero frequency value.

At ω=0, the value of u will be zero.

Substitute, u=0 in M.
1
M   1
1  0   2 (0)
2 2 2

Therefore, the magnitude of T(jω) is one at ω=0.

At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω) will be 70.7% of magnitude of T(jω) at ω=0.
1
i.e. at ω=ωB, M  0.707 (1) 
2
 1 1
 M  
2 1  u 
b
2
2
 2 u
b
2
 2  1  ub 2   2
 (2 )2 ub
2

let ub 2  x
2  1  x   (2 ) 2 x
2


x2  4 2  2 x  1  0 
x 

 4 2  2  4 2  2 2  4   
` 2
considering only positivevalueof x

x  1  2 2  2 2  1  1 2


x  1  2 2  2  4 2  4 4 
 
2
put x  ub  b n 2
2

b 2

2  2  4 
 1 2  2 4 4
n
2

b  n 1  2 2  2  4 2  4 4 


Bandwidth ωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise time tr in the
time domain transient response.
  Bode plots

One of the most useful representations of transfer function is a logarithmic plot which
consists of two graphs, one giving logarithm of G( j and other phase angle of G(jω) both
plotted against frequency in logarithmic scale. These plots are called Bode Plots in honor of H.W.
Bode who did the basic work in this area. Thus these plots are also called as Bode plot or
logarithmic plot. The transfer function G(jω) is represented by G( j e j

Taking natural logarithm of both sides

In G( j)  In G( j e
j  
 j  ( )

The real part is the natural logarithm of magnitude and is measured in a basic unit called
neper; the imaginary part is the phase characteristic. Similarly,

j
log G( j )  log G( j   log e  () log G( j   0.434 j  ()

In this plot curves are normally drawn on a semilog paper using log scale for frequency and linear
scale for magnitude in dB and phase angle in degrees.

Thus,

The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −

 Magnitude plot
 Phase plot
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is

M  20log G( j) H ( j)

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -

  G( j) H ( j)

The base of logarithm is 10.

 In magnitude plot there is plot of magnitude of G(jω)H(jω) in dB versus frequency.
Slope is also observed while sketching the graph according to the respective factor present in
G(jω)H(jω). Magnitude is measured in dB and slope are measured in dB/decade scale ( or dB/
octave scale). Magnitude is calculated by formula as M  20log G( j) H ( j)

In phase angle plot these is plot of phase angle in degrees versus frequency. The phase

angle is calculated by the general formula as   tan1( y / x)  tan1 ( / a)

Advantages of the frequency-response approach

1. We can use the data obtained from measurements on the physical system without deriving its
mathematical model.
2. frequency-response tests are, in general, simple and can be made accurately by use of readily
available sinusoidal signal generators and precise measurement equipment.

3. The transfer functions of complicated components can be determined experimentally by

frequency-response tests.

4.A system may be designed so that the effects of undesirable noise are negligible and that such
analysis and design can be extended to certain nonlinear control systems.

5. Multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into addition.

6. A simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude curve is available.

7. It is based on asymptotic approximations.

8. The experimental determination of a transfer function can be made simple if frequency-response

data are presented in the form of a Bode diagram.
  Basic factor open loop transfer function used to plot of Bode Plots

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms
present in the open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.

Corner
Slope Phase angle
Type of term G(jω)H(jω) frequency Magnitude (dB)
(ωc) (dB/dec) (degrees)
Constant K -- 0 20 log K 0
Zero at --
jω 20 20 log ω 90
origin
‘n’ zeros at --
(jω)n 20 n 20 n log ω 90 n
origin
Pole at 1 --
-20 - 20 log ω - 90
origin j
‘n’ poles at 1 --
-20 n - 20 n log ω - 90 n
origin ( j)n
1 1 1
 0 for   0 for  
 
Simple zero 1  j
c
 20 20logωτ 90 for
1 1
for   
 
1
 0 for  
1
0 for  
1

Simple pole
1 c
 - 20
 
1  j -20logωτ for
1
-90 for
1
 
 
40 log ωn 0 for
Second For ω < ωn   n
  2 2 j 
 n 2 1  2 
 
c n 20log(2ζ ωn2) 90 for
order  n  40
For ω = ωn   n
n
derivative
term 180 for
40 log ω
For ω > ωn   n
-40 log ωn 0 for
1 For ω < ωn   n
Second 2   2 2 j  c n -20log(2ζ ωn2) -90 for
 n 1  2  
order
 n
n  -40
integral term
For ω = ωn   n
-40 log ω -180 for
For ω > ωn   n
Consider following examples

Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=K

Magnitude M=20logK

Phase angle ϕ=0 degrees

If K=1, then magnitude is 0 dB.

If K>1, then magnitude will be positive.

If K<1, then magnitude will be negative.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself
is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal
line will shift 20logK dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line
will shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all
the positive values of K.
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)= S .

Magnitude M = 20 logω dB

Phase angle ϕ=900

At ω=0.1 rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.

At ω=1 rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.

At ω=10 rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line started
at ω=0.1 rad/sec having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is touching
0 dB line at ω=1 rad/sec. In this case, the phase plot is 900 line.
 1
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H (s) 
s
Magnitude M = -20 logω dB

Phase angle ϕ = -900

At ω=0.1 rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.

At ω=1 rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.

At ω=10 rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

 Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H (s)  1 s


Magnitude M  20 log 1   2  2 dB

Phase angle   tan1  degrees

1
For   , the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees.

1
For   , the magnitude is 20logωτ dB and phase angle is 900.



The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

1 1
The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB upto   rad/sec. From   rad/sec, it
 
is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. In this case, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees up
1
to   rad/sec and from here, it is having phase angle of 900. This Bode plot is called

the asymptotic Bode plot.
 As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact Bode
plots resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have
simple curves instead of straight lines.

Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop transfer function which are
given in the table.

o Procedure to construct Bode Plot

1. Rewrite sinusoidal T.F. in time constant form as

G(s)  K (1Ta S )(1Tb S )

 2 2

 S
 
s n (1T1 S ) (1T2 S )1 S   

 n  
 n

Put s = jω
G( j)  K (1 j T a )(1 j Tb )
 2 
( j)n (1 jT1 ) (1 jT2 )1 j 2      
 j  
   n  
 n 


And identify factors in T.F.
2. Identify corner frequencies ( ωc ) associated with first order factors of T.F.
3. Knowing corner frequency, draw asymptotic magnitude plot. These plots may have
some magnitude with some slop according to respective element.
4. Determine correction to be applied to asymptotic plots.
5. Draw smooth curve through corrected points such that asymptotic to line segment. This
gives actual log magnitude plot
6. Draw phase angle curve by algebraically adding all the values of phase angle for
respective factor associated with considered values of ω.
7. After plotting both the graphs, identify ωcg , ωcp, GM , PM. If GM and PM are positive,
then the system is Stable. If GM, PM are negative then the system is unstable.

Note that, to draw magnitude bode plot one may apply roller scale approach or line
equation ( y  m log   c ) approach . But the roller scale approach is not much
applicable in inverse bode plot and also slopes may not be sketch incorrectly. Thus
prefer the line equation approach.
 o Frequency domain specifications from Bode plot for stability analysis
Lets understand the following parameters and how to identify them from bode plot to
understand about relative stability from bode plot.

1. Gain crossover frequency: The gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which
|(𝑗𝜔)| , the magnitude of open loop transfer function is unity. That is it is the frequency at
which gain becomes unity. From the bode diagram it is observed that, the frequency at
which resultant magnitude bode plot intersects with the 0 dB line. It is represented by ωcg .
2. Phase crossover frequency: It is the frequency at which phase angle of open-loop transfer
function becomes -180o. From the bode plot it is observed that, the frequency at which
phase bode plot intersects with the -180 degree line. It is represented by ωcp .
3. Gain margin: The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude |(𝑗𝜔)| at the frequency at
which the phase angle is -180o.

The gain margin is given as

𝟏
GM =
|𝑮(𝒋𝑚)|

In terms of decibels,

GM_dB = 20 log GM = - 20 log |(𝑗𝜔)|

The gain margin expressed in decibels is positive if GM_dB is greater than unity
and negative if GM_dB is smaller than unity. Thus positive gain margin (in dB) means
that the system is stable, and negative gain margin (in dB) means that the system is
unstable.

For a stable minimum-phase system, the gain margin indicates how much the
gain can be increased before the system becomes unstable. For unstable system gain
margin is indicative of how much gain must be decreased to make the system stable.

From bode plot, the gain margin is identified by observing amount of gain in dB at
phase cross over frequency (ωcp).

4. Phase margin: The phase margin is that amount of additional phase lag at the gain
crossover frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability. The phase
margin is 180o plus the phase angle ϕ of the open loop transfer function at the gain cross
over frequency, i.e.

PM = 180o + ϕ
Following figures will illustrate how to find the Gain Margin and Phase Margin from bode graph to
understand stability of system
 Example 01: For the unity feedback system with open loop transfer function as
50
G(s)  , sketch Bode Plot. Determine gain cross over
S ( S  2) ( S 10 )
frequency, phase cross over frequency, gain margin, phase margin. Also
investigate the stability.

Solution:

3. write sinusoidal T.F. in time constant form as

50
G( j) 
j ( j  2) ( j  10 )

2.5
G( j)   j   j 
j 1  1 
 2   10 
4. Analysis for the gain plots.

Corner Overall
Slope
Type of term G(jω)H(jω) frequency Magnitude (dB) slope effect
(ωc) (dB/dec)
( dB/dec)
Constant K= 2.5 -- 0 20 log 2.5 = 7.96 0
1 -- - 20 log ω=
Pole at origin - 20 - 20
j -20 log 0.1 = 20
1
Simple pole  j  c1  2 - 20
1  - 40
 2 
 j   c2  10
Simple pole 1  - 20 - 60
 10 

Calculating the starting magnitude point for Bode Plot, Use constant term and pole at origin
together, thus
 K 2.5

j j
 
2.5
Magnitude in dB  20 log
j
  20 log 2.5  20 log 
for   0.1
 20 log 2.5  20 log 0.1
 27.96 dB
Thus magnitude bode plot curve will start with magnitude of 27.96 dB at ω = 0.1

Using equation

y  m log   c
Finding intercept c first.

27.96   20 log 0.1 c

c  27.96  20 log 0.1

c  7.29
Putting value of c in above equation thus

y   20 log 2  7.29
y  1.27
y = 1.27 is the magnitude value in dB at ω = 2

The line joining the point with magnitude 27.96 at ω = 0.1 and 1.27 at ω = 2 will have slope of

-20 db/decade.
For next slope, of -40 dB/decade

Again using

y  m log   c

1.27   40 log 2  c
c  1.27  40 log 2
c 13.31
thus
y   40 log 10 13.31
y   26.69
Thus the line connecting the point with magnitude 1.27 at ω=2 and - 26.69 at ω= 10 will
have slope of -40 db/decade.

 26.69   60 log 10  c
c  26.69  60 log 10
c   33.31
thus , no any next valuue of c , selecting next value of 
arbitary as   20
y   60 log 20  33.31
y  111.38
Thus the line connecting points with magnitude y=-26.69 with ω = 10 and y =-111.38 with
ω= 20 will have slope of -60dB/decade. This line will continue till with slope of
-60dB/decade till ω = ∞.

5. Analysis for the phase plots.

as

2.5
G( j)   j   j
j 1  1
   
 2   10 


 0       
  tan1   tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 
2.5       
0 2 10
           
  0  90o  tan 1  tan 1 
   
2 10 
1   1  
   90  tan
o
 tan 
   
2 10 


For considered values of ω , ϕ will be

 
 90o  tan 1  tan 1 
ω     ϕ
 2  10 
1 0.1 1 0.1 
 90o  tan  tan 
0.1     - 93.44
 0.2
2 
  10
0.2 
 90o  tan 1
 tan 1 
0.2     -96.86
 2   10 
1 0.5  1 0.5 
 90  tan
o
 tan 
0.5     -106.90
 2   10 
1 1  1 1 
 90  tan
o
 tan 
1     -122.28
2  10 
1 2 
 90  tan 1  tan
o 1

2   - 146.31
10 
1 5  1 5 
 90  tan
o
 tan 
5     -184.76
2  10 
10  90o  tan 15 tan 11 -213.69
20  90o  tan 110 tan 12 -237.72
50  90o  tan 125 tan 15 -256.40
∞  90o  tan 1 tan 1 -270

Thus, plotting the magnitude bode plot and phase bode plot from above discussion.

The resultant bode plot is shown below.

As observed from graph, ωcg = 2.3 rad/sec

ωcp = 5 rad/sec
G.M. = 15 dB

P.M. = 25o

Since ωcp > ωcg and GM and PM are positive , the system is stable.
 Example 02: For the unity feedback system with open loop transfer function as
20( S 1)
G(s) 
 
S s2  2s 10 ( S  5)
, sketch Bode Plot. Determine gain cross

over frequency, phase cross over frequency, gain margin, phase margin. Also
investigate the stability.

Solution:

1. write sinusoidal T.F. in time constant form as

20( j 1)
G( j) 
 
j  j   2 j 10 ( j  5)
2

20( j 1)
G( j)   j 2 j2   j 
10  5 j    1 1  
 10  10   5 
20( j 1)
G( j)   j 2 j2   j 
10  5 j    11  
 10  10  5 
0.4 ( j 1)
G( j)   j 2 j2   j 
j    11  
 10  10  5 

2. Analysis for the gain plots.

Overall
Type of Corner frequency Slope Magnitude slope
G(jω)H(jω)
term (ωc) (dB/dec) (dB) effect
( dB/dec)
-- 20 log 0.4
Constant K= 0.4 0 0
= -7.96
-- - 20 log
Pole at 1 ω=
- 20 - 20
origin j -20 log
0.1 = 20

Simple
zero
( j 1) c1  1 20
0

 j 2 1
Quadratic j2 
   1 c2  10 3.16 -40 -40
term  10  10 

Simple 
1
j   c3  5
  - 20 - 60
pole
 5 
 Calculating the starting magnitude point for Bode Plot, Use constant term and pole at
origin together, thus

K 0.4

j j
 
0.4
Magnitude in dB  20 log
j
  20 log 0.4  20 log 
for   0.1
 20 log 0.4  20 log 0.1
 12.04 dB

Thus magnitude bode plot curve will start with magnitude of 12.04 dB at ω = 0.1

Using equation

y  m log   c
Finding intercept c first.

12.04   20 log 0.1 c

c  12.04  20 log 0.1
c   7.96
putting valueof c in aboveequation,
thus,
y   20 log 1 7.96
y   7.96
The line joining the point with magnitude 12.04 at ω = 0.1 and -7.96 at ω =1 will have
slope of -20 db/decade.
For next slope, of 0 dB/decade

Again using

y  m log   c

 7.96  0 log 1 c
c   7.96
thus
y  0 log 3.16  7.96
y   7.96
The line joining the point with magnitude -7.96 at ω = 1 and -7.96 at ω =3.16 will
have slope of 0 db/decade.

For next slope, of -40 dB/decade

Again using

y  m log   c

 7.96   40 log 3.16  c

c  40 log 3.16  7.96
c  12.03
thus
y   40 log 5 12.03
y  15.93
 Thus the line connecting the point with magnitude – 7.96 at ω =3.16 and - 15.93 at
ω = 5 will have slope of -40 db/decade.

For the next slope of -60dB/dec after ω = 5, no further value of ωc. Thus selecting an
arbitrary value as ω = 20

Thus,

15.93   60 log 5  c
c  15.93  60 log 5
c  26
y   60 log 20  26
y   52.06
Thus the line connecting points with magnitude y=-15.93 with ω = 5 and y =-52.06 with ω=
20 will have slope of -60dB/decade. This line will continue till with slope of -60dB/decade
till ω = ∞.

3. Analysis for the phase plots.

as

0.4 ( j 1)
G( j)   j 2 j2   j 
j    11  
 10  10  5 
     2  

 0  
  tan1  tan 1  tan 1  tan 1   tan 1 
         
 0.4   1   2  0  10  2   5 
1  
  0  tan 1   90o  tan 1   tan  
10   2 5 
2      
1
  tan    90  tan 
1 o
2 
 tan 1  
10   5 
   


Considering values of ω and respective phase value is given in table.
2 
  
  tan 1    90o  tan 1  tan 1 
ω    ϕ
 10     5 
2

 2  0.1  1 0.1

tan 0.1 90  tan 
1 o 1
  tan  
0.1 10  0.1  - 86.58
2
5
   
2 1
tan 1 1 90o  tan 1  tan 1 
1     -68.71
9   5 
 3.16
tan 1 3.16 90o  90o  tan 1 
3.16   -139.85
 5 
5 tan 5 90 180 tan 1
1 o 1 -236.30
10 tan 10 90 180 tan 2
1 o 1 - 249
20 tan120 90o 180 tan14 -258.8
50 tan150 90o 180 tan110 -265.4
100 tan 1100 90o 180 tan120 -268.2
1000 tan11000 90o 180 tan1200 -269.7
∞ tan1 90o 180 tan1 -270

Kindly note that , for quadratic term present in denominator ( i.e. quadratic poles), the phase
angle is -90 for   n and -180 for   n .

Thus plotting bode plot from above information.

As observed from graph, ωcg = 0.45 rad/sec

ωcp = 3.9 rad/sec
G.M. = 10 dB

P.M. = 105o

Since ωcp > ωcg and GM and PM are positive , the system is stable.

The bode plot graph is shown below.

  POLAR PLOTS

o The polar plot of sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude
of G(jω) verses the phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates as ω is varied
from zero to infinity.
o Therefore it is the locus of G( j) G( j) as ω is varied from zero to
infinity.
o As G( j) G( j)  Me j()
So it is the plot of vector Me j ( ) as ω is

varied from zero to infinity

o In the polar plot the magnitude of G(jω) is plotted as the distance from the
origin while phase angle is measured from positive real axis.
o Positive angle is taken for anticlockwise direction and Negative angle is taken
for clockwise direction.
o Each point on the polar plot of G(jω) represents the terminal point of a vector
at a particular value of ω.
o In the polar plot, it is important to show the frequency graduation of the locus.
The projections of G(jω) on the real and imaginary axes are its real and
imaginary components.
o An advantage in using a polar plot is that it depicts the frequency-response
characteristics of a system over the entire frequency range in a single plot.
o One disadvantage is that the plot does not clearly indicate the contributions of
each individual factor of the open-loop transfer function.
 o Steps to draw Polar Plot
 Step 1: Determine the T.F G(s)
⚫ Step 2: Put s=jω in the G(s)
⚫ Step 3: At ω=0 & ω=∞ find G( j) by lim G( j) G( j)

0
& lim



⚫ Step 4: At ω=0 & ω=∞ find G( j) by

limG( j)
 0
& limG( j)
 

⚫ Step 5: Rationalize the function G(jω) and separate the real and imaginary
parts .
⚫ Step 6: Put Re [G(jω) ]=0, determine the frequency at which plot intersects
the Im axis and calculate intersection value by putting the above calculated
frequency in G(jω)
⚫ Step 7: Put Im [G(jω) ]=0, determine the frequency at which plot intersects
the real axis and calculate intersection value by putting the above calculated
frequency in G(jω)
⚫ Step 8: Sketch the Polar Plot with the help of above information

Lets try to understand polar plots for the some of the systems in general

o Polar Plot for Type 0 System

K
Consider a type 0 system as G(s) 
(1 sT1)(1 sT2 )

For given type 0 system,
⚫ Step 1: Put s=jω

K
G( j) 
(1 jT1)(1 jT2 )

 K   tan1 T  tan1 T
1 T1  1 T2 
2 2 1 2
⚫ Step 2: Taking the limit for magnitude of G(jω)
K
lim G( j)  K
1 T1  1 j T2 
2 2
0
K
lim G( j)  0
1 T1  1 j T2 
2 2


⚫ Step 3: Taking the limit of the Phase Angle of G(jω)

G( j)    tan1 T  tan1 T  0
lim 1 2
0
G( j)    tan1 T  tan1 T  180
lim 1 2


⚫ Step 4: Separate the real and Im part of G(jω)

K (1 2 TT ) K(T1  T2 )
G( j)  1 2
j
1  T   T   TT
2 2 2 2 4
1  T 2   2T 2   4TT
2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

⚫ Step 5: Put Re [G(jω)]=0

K (1  2TT )
2 21 2 4  0    1 &   
1  T   T   TT
2 2
TT
1 2 1 2 1 2

So When
1 K T1T2
  G( j)    900
T1T2 T1  T2
&     G( j)  0 1800

⚫ Step 6: Put Im [G(jω)]=0

K(T1  T2 )
1  2T 2   2T 2   4TT  0    0 &  
1 2 1 2

So When
  0  G( j)  K00
    G( j)  01800

Thus the polar plot for the type 0 systems with this information will be as follows.
o Polar Plot for Type 1 System
K
Consider a type 1 system as G(s) 
s(1 sT1)(1 sT2 )

For given type 1 system

⚫ Step 1: Put s=jω

K
G( j) 
j(1 jT1)(1 jT2 )


K   900  tan1 T  tan1 T
 1 T1  1 j T2 
2 2 1 2

⚫ Step 2: Taking the limit for magnitude of G(jω)

K
lim G( j)   
 1 T1  1 j T2 
2 2
0
K
lim G( j)  0
 1 T1  1 j T2 
2 2

 ⚫ Step 3: Taking the limit of the Phase Angle of G(jω)
G( j)    900  tan1 T  tan1 T  900
lim 1 2
0
G( j)    900  tan1 T  tan1 T  2700
lim 1 2


⚫ Step 4: Separate the real and Im part of G(jω)

 K (T1  T2 ) j(K 2TT  K)
G( j)  j 1 2
  3(T 2  T 2   2T 2T 2 )   3(T 2  T 2   2T 2T 2 )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

⚫ Step 5: Put Re [G(jω)]=0

 K (T1  T2 )
   (T 2  T 2   2T 2T 2 )  0    
3
1 2 1 2

So at
  G( j)  0  2700

⚫ Step 6: Put Im [G(jω)]=0

j(K 2TT  K ) 1
1 2
 0    &   
  3(T 2  T 2   2T 2T 2 ) TT
1 2 1 2 1 2

So When
1 K TT
  G( j)   1 2
00
T1T2 T1  T2
    G( j)  00

Thus the polar plot for the type 1 systems with this information will be as follows.
 




















o Polar Plot for Type 2 System

K
Consider a type 2 system as G(s)  s2 (1 sT )(1 sT )
1 2

Following the similar way done in previous examples we will get polar plot for type 2
system as shown below
 20
Example: Sketch the polar plot for G(s) 
s(s  1)(s  2)

Solution: 

Step 1: Put s=jω 

20
G( j) 
j( j 1)( j  2)
20
   900  tan 1   tan 1  / 2
  1   4
2 2

Step 2: Taking the limit for magnitude of G(jω)

20
lim G( j)   
 0   1   4
2 2

20
lim G( j)  0
    1   4
2 2

Step 3: Taking the limit of the Phase Angle of G(jω)

lim G( j)    900  tan1   tan1  / 2  900

0

lim G( j)    900  tan1   tan1  / 2  2700



Step 4: Separate the real and Im part of G(jω)

 602 j20(3  2 )
G( j)   j
(4  2 )(4  2 ) (4  2 )(4  2 )

Step 5: Put Re [G(jω)]=0

 60 2
 0    
( 4   2 )(4   2 )
So at
  G( j)  0  2700
Step 6: Put Im [G(jω)]=0

j20(3  2)
 0     2 &   
( 4   2 )(4   2 )
So for positivevalueof 
10 0
  2  G( j)   0
3
 G( j)  000

With the above information the polar plot for the given example will be as follows.
o Gain Margin, Phase Margin & Stability from polar plot

⚫ Phase Crossover Frequency (ωcp) : The frequency where a polar plot intersects the –ve real
axis is called phase crossover frequency

⚫ Gain Crossover Frequency (ωcg) : The frequency where a polar plot intersects the unit circle
is called gain crossover frequency So at ωcg G( j)  Unity

⚫ Phase Margin (PM):

Phase margin is that amount of additional phase lag at the gain crossover frequency required to
bring the system to the verge of instability (marginally stabile)

Φm=1800+Φ

Where
Φ=∠G(jωg)
if Φm> 0 => +PM (Stable System)
if Φm<0 => - PM (Unstable System)

⚫ Gain Margin (GM):

The gain margin is the reciprocal of magnitude G( j) at the frequency at which the phase
angle is -1800.

GM  1 1

| G( jwc) | x

In terms of dB

1
GM in dB  20 log 10  20 log10 | G( jwc) | 20 log 10(x)
| G( jwc) |
Following figure will show above parameters in polar plot diagram,

 Stability

The given system is Stable, if critical point (-1+j0) is within the plot as shown below, Both
GM & PM are +ve

GM=20 log10(1 /x) dB

The given system is Unstable, if critical point (-1+j0) is outside the plot as shown below,
Both GM & PM are -ve
The given system is Marginally Stable System, if critical point (-1+j0) is on the plot as
shown below, Both GM & PM are ZERO.

GM=20log10(1 /1)=0 dB
 Development of Nyquist plot
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed
loop control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to
draw the complete frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

 Nyquist Stability Criterion

The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if
there are P poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the
corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−Z times. So, we can write
the number of encirclements N as,

N=P–Z

If the enclosed‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed
closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of
the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the ‘s’ plane by
selecting it as a closed path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed
loop transfer function are in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed
loop transfer function are nothing but the roots of the characteristic equation. As the
order of the characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us
correlate these roots of the characteristic equation as follows.
 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the
open loop transfer function.

 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the
closed loop transfer function.
 We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the
right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e., P = 0 ⇒ N = − Z
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in
the right half of the‘s’ plane.
i.e., Z =0 ⇒ N=P

thus, the Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the
critical point (1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is
nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the characteristic equation plane.

o Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots

Following are the rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.

o Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.
o Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0,
then varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
o Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero
(0− if any pole or zero present at s=0).
o The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros
at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of
the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the
polar plot starts.

After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system
using the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the
encirclement, then the closed loop control system is absolutely stable.
 o Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots

From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable
or unstable based on the values of these parameters.

 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

 Gain margin and phase margin

o Phase Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is
1800) is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωcp.

o Gain Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as
the gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωcg.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over
frequency and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωcp is greater than the gain cross over
frequency ωcg, then the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωcp is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωcg,
then the control system is marginally stable.
 If phase cross over frequency ωcp is less than gain cross over frequency ωcg, then the
control system is unstable.

o Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at
the phase cross over frequency.

1
GM 
Mpc

Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.
 -
o Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over
frequency.
PM  180O  gc

Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the
phase margin is listed below.
 If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is positive, then the control
system is stable.
 If the gain margin GM is equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero degrees, then the control
system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is negative, then the
control system is unstable.

Example 1: Sketch the Nyquist diagram for the system shown in the following figure.

Solution:

The open-loop transfer function is

500
G(s)H (s) 
(s 1)(s  3)(s 10)

Replacing s with jω yields the frequency response of G(s)H(s) , i.e.,

500
G(s)H (s) 
( j 1)( j  3)( j 10)

 500
(14 2  30)  j (43   3 )
after rationalization
(14 2  30)  j (43   3 )
 500
(14 2  30)2  j (43   3 ) 2
 Magnitude response: 

500
G( j)H ( j)  2
14 2  30   43   3 
2
   
   


Phase response
  
 43  3  
   
G( j)H ( j)  tan1   
  2 
14 30 

  

Checking crosswing with real axis i.e. 180o angle

Thus Cross Re: Im = 0

  43  3 
 
 

2  2  0
14 2  30   43  3 
   
   
43    0
3

  0 and  6.56 rtad / sec

  


Checking crossing with imageinary axis. i.e jω line

Cross Im: Re = 0

1422  30
 2  
 
   3 2  0
14 30 43
   
   
 14 2  30  0
  1.46 rtad / sec
  


Key Points of the polar plot:

Thus the Nyquist plot for the system will be,

Example 02: Consider a system with open loop transfer function as G(s)H (s)  4S  1
S 2 (S 1)(2S 1)

Draw the Nyquist plot and also comment on stability.

Solution:

Given system is a type – 2 system, hence the Nyquist plot will have two infinite semi
circles.

Put s = jω

1 4 j
G( j)H ( j) 
  2 (1  j)(1 2 j)

Thus,

at   0 , G( j) H ( j)   , G( j) H ( j)  180o

at    , G( j) H ( j)  0 , G( j) H ( j)  270o

Thus identifying that where the polar plot of the system will cut negative real axis by
rationalizing G(jω)H(jω), and equating the imaginary part to 0, we will get ,

4 1 2 1
 
8 2 2

Thus , the polar plot of the system will be

ω= 0
 1
Thus, the value of L at  
2 2

Putting value of ω in real part of rationalized term we will bet

L  G( j) H ( j)   1
2 2

Will be
32
L  10.67
3

Thus the inverse polar plot of the system with reversed direction is as follows, it will be
symmetrical mirror image of polar plot.
Thus the Nyquist plot of the system will be drawn as

In the above plot, we can observe that the point (-1,0) is encircled two times in clockwise direction.
∴ N = -2
In system, there are no open loop poles in right s-plane
Hence P = 0
∴ the system is unstable