Spectrometry

Introduction
●Compounds absorb light radiation of a specific wavelength. 
●The light absorbed by the sample is directly proportional to the concentration of the sample in the
solution.
●As concentration increases, absorption increases exponentially.
●The spectrophotometer is an instrument that measures light absorption as a function of wavelength in
the UV as well as visible regions. 
●Unlike colorimeters in spectrophotometers, the compound can be measured at a precise wavelength.

II. Terminology of Spectrometry

●Spectrometry- defined as methods of analysis that deal with the measurement of spectra.
●Electromagnetic spectrum-  is the term used to define the complete system of energy propagated in
waveform.
●Radiant energy-  refers to energy in the uv, visible, and ir regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
●Spectrophotometer- is a branch of spectrometry which embraces the measurement of the
absorption, by chemical species. Of radiant energy of definite and narrow wavelength,
approximating monochromatic radiation.
●Wavelength- on the basis of the simple theory of wave motion, the length of a complete wave or
cycle, from the peak of one wave to peak of the next, is called the wavelength.
●Wavenumber- v may be defined as the number of waves per centimeter and is equal to
1/wavelength(cm).
●Frequency- may be defined as the number of complete cycles which pass a given point per second
(cps).  It may also be expressed in hertz, where 1 Hertz = 1 cps.
●Colorimeter- is a branch of spectrophotometry in which the absorption measurement is made in the
visible region of the spectrum
●Spectrophotometer and spectrometer-  are terms used to designate instruments which have a radiant
energy-dispersing device, such as a prism or grating
●Colorimeter and filter photometer-  are terms used to designate instruments which have the necessary
electronics to permit measurement of radiant power but which use a filter instead of a prism or
diffraction grating for the purpose of increasing the sensitivity of the measurement.
III. Theories of Radiant Energy
•Two theories of radiant energy are considered in a discussion of the interaction of radiant energy and
matter. 
•One theory states that energy in the electromagnetic spectrum occurs in bundles
called photons or quanta. 
•The equation which relates the energy of a photon to the frequency of radiation.
  E=hv
Where E= energy, ergs
    v= frequency, Hz
    h= a universal constant, known as Planck’s constant, which equals 6.62 x 10^-27 erg

●The other theory of radiant of radiant energy states that energy in the electromagnetic spectrum is
propagated in wave form. This statement may be expressed mathematically
C=ʎv    or  v=c/ʎ
Where c= velocity of light (3.00 x 10^10 cm/s)
ʎ= wavelength, cm
IV. Fundamental Laws and Related Terms Of Spectrometry
•Beer’s Law- states that the power of a transmitted radiant beam decreases exponentially as the
concentration of the solution containing the absorbing chemical species increases arithmetically
•Lambert’s or Bouguer’s Law- States that the power of  that the power of a transmitted radiant beam
decreases exponentially as the thickness of the solution containing the absorbing chemical species
increases arithmetically
•Beer- Lambert or Beer- Bouger Law- is a combination of the above laws and relates the power of the
incident and transmitted radiant beams to the thickness and concentration of the solution
containing  the absorbing chemical species.

V. Instruments In Spectrophotometry

1. Spectrophotometer- A spectrophotometer is an instrument used to measure absorbance at various

wavelengths.
 
Two types of Spectrophotometer:
a.Single beam spectrophotometer- operates between 325 nm to 1000 nm wavelength
using a single beam of light. 
b.Double beam spectrophotometer- operates between 185 nm to 1000 nm wavelength. It has
two photocells

 
2. Spectrometer- An instrument used for measuring the wavelength of light spectra.

VI. Official Identification Test Using Spectrometric Absorption Methods

Spectrometric absorption methods- are frequently used as identification test for pharmaceutical

substances. 
 
Uv regions three procedure: 
1.Determination of absorbance values at two wavelength, followed by calculation of the ration and
comparison with the value given in the official compendiums.
2.Determination of the absorptivity values  of the official substance and a corresponding reference
standard and comparison of the result. 
3.Comparison of the reference standard spectrum with a sample spectrum. 
 
Ir regions three methods:
4.Dispersing the finely ground solid in liquid petrolatum (mull technique)
5.Dissolving the solids in  a suitable organic solvent, or 
6.Incorporating the solid in a potassium bromide pellet

APPLICATION

 1.Concentration measurements
2.Detection of impurities
3.Chemical Kinetic

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

INTRODUCTION
•The spectrometric methods considered thus far have dealt with the study of transitions (changes)
between energy levels of free, undisturbed molecules, atoms, or ions. 
•Electronic and vibrational transitions were obtained by subjecting these undisturbed chemical species
to radiant energy of proper wavelength.
• In nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr), transitions between energy levels can be generated by radiant
energy only if the molecules are first placed in a magnetic field.
•Nuclear transitions of the proton, 'H, for example, can be made to occur in the radio frequency region
(5 m or 60 MHz) when an organic compound is placed in a magnetic field of about 14,000 G. Under
these conditions protons absorb radiant energy, and peaks characteristic of the organic groups
associated with the protons are observed

NMR INSTRUMENTATION
The basic instrumentation needed to measure NMR spectra includes
(1) a magnet with a strong, stable, homogeneous field
(2) a stable radiofrequency transmitter
(3) a radio receiver and detector
(4) a coil of wire surrounding the sample, which acts as a sensor
(5) a cell containing the sample
(6) a method of sweeping through the spectrum
(7) a recorder to display absorption peaks.
CHEMICAL EXCHANGE
•From our discussion thus far, one would expect ethyl alcohol, CH3,CH2,OH, to give an nmr spectrum
in which the hydroxyl proton appears as a triplet. 
•A pure sample of ethyl alcohol does indeed give this type of spectrum. 
•Although ordinary ethyl alcohol would be expected to give the same spectrum, the absorption peak
for the hydroxyl proton appears as a singlet and not as a triplet
•The explanation for this action is that, during any given time span, a single hydroxyl proton attaches to
many different ethyl alcohol molecules, that is, swapping of hydroxyl protons by ethyl alcohol
molecules takes place.
•This phenomenon is known as chemical exchange and is shown in the reaction:
[ROHα]¹ + [ROHb]² = [ROHb] ¹ + [ROHα]²
•It has been shown that in a sample of pure ethyl alcohol the exchange process is slower than the time
required for the occurrence of a nuclear transition. 
• hence the predicted number of absorption peaks (triplet) for the hydroxyl proton is seen In ordinary
ethyl alcohol, however, the presence of trace quantities of acidic impurities greatly increases the
exchange rate.
• Under these circumstances the exchange process is faster than the nuclear transitions,
and nmr detects only the average environment of the rapidly exchanging protons. 
•The coupling normally observed cannot occur because of this rapid exchange rate, a condition known
as decoupling
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)
•TLC is a simple, quick, and inexpensive procedure that gives the chemist a quick answer as to how
many components are in a mixture.
•TLC is also used to support the identity of a compound in a mixture when the Rf of a compound is
compared with the Rf of a known compound (preferably both run on the same TLC plate).
•A TLC plate is a sheet of glass, metal, or plastic which is coated with a thin layer of a solid adsorbent
(usually silica or alumina). 
•A small amount of the mixture to be analyzed is spotted near the bottom of this plate.
•The TLC plate is then placed in a shallow pool of a solvent in a developing chamber so that only the
very bottom of the plate is in the liquid. 
•This liquid, or the eluent, is the mobile phase, and it slowly rises up the TLC plate by capillary action.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
“It is a process of separating component(s) from the given crude drug by using a gaseous mobile
phase.” 
• It involves a sample being vaporized and injected onto the head of the chromatographic column.
The sample is transported through the column by the flow of inert, gaseous mobile phase. The
column itself contains a liquid stationary phase which is adsorbed onto the surface of an inert solid
•Two major types: 
• Gas-solid chromatography
➢Here, the mobile phase is a gas while the stationary phase is a solid. Used for separation of low
molecular gases, e.g., air components, H2 S, CS2 ,CO2 ,rare gases, CO and oxides of nitrogen . 
•Gas-liquid chromatography
➢The mobile phase is a gas while the stationary phase is a liquid retained on the surface as an inert
solid by adsorption or chemical bonding

•High Performance Liquid Chromatography is a widely used analytical separation technique. This form of
liquid chromatography or liquid separation is highly sensitive and automated which leads to accurate
quantitative determinations.
•It is used in order to separate and identify the different analytes/compounds within a sample and to
find the concentration of these various analytes.
HPLC IS..
•Ideally suited for separation and identification of,
➢ Proteins
➢Amino acids
➢Nuclei acids
➢Hydrocarbons
➢Carbohydrates
➢Pharmaceuticals
➢Pesticides
➢Pigments
➢Antibiotics
➢Steroids and a variety of other inorganic substances.

Chromatography
 •Chromatography is a physical process where the components (solutes) of a sample mixture
are separated as a result of their differential distribution between stationary and mobile
phases
•Provides a way to identify unknown compounds and separate mixtures.

Greek chroma meaning ‘Color’ and graphein meaning ‘Writing’

History of Chromatography
•Mikhail Semyenovich Tsvet, Russian botanist (referred to as Father of chromatography) is
credited for the development of chromatography.
 
Principal objectives obtainable through the use of chromatography
•Resolution of mixtures into constituent parts
•Determination of homogeneity
•Comparison of substances suspected of being identical
•Purification
•Concentration of substances from dilute solutions
•Identification and control of technical products
•Quantitative separation from complex mixtures
•Indication of molecular structures
Applications of chromatography 
•Research 
•Forensics 
•Pharmaceutical industry
Principle Objectives obtained through Chromatography
•Chromatography is usually based on principle of partition of solute between two phases. It
usually consists of a mobile phase and a stationary phase.

Mobile Phase - Usually refers to the mixture of the substances to be separated dissolved in a
liquid or a gas.
Stationary Phase - Is a porous solid matrix through which the sample contained in the mobile
phase percolates.

Column Chromatography
•Separates substances based on differential adsorption of compounds to the adsorbent as the
compounds move through the column at different rates which allows them to get separated
in fractions. 

 
Partition Chromatography
•The separation of components between two liquid phase viz original solvent and the film of
solvent used in the column.
•Separation in partition elution chromatography is based upon Nernst’s law. According to this
law, when two practically immiscible solvents are in contact with each other and a
substance which is soluble in each is added, the substance distributes itself in such a way
that at equilibrium and at a given temperature the ratio of the concentrations of the two
solutions is a constant.

Plate Theory
•In the plate theory the entire length of the chromatographic column is considered to be
composed of many small, identical cells called theoretical  plates. Each cell contains a pair
of immiscible solvent (water and ether).
Reversed Phase Chromatography
•Is a liquid chromatography technique that involves the separation of molecules on the basis
of hydrophobic interactions between the solute molecules in the mobile phase and the
ligands attached to the stationary phase.
•Reversed phase chromatography is especially useful in the separation of water insoluble
substances such as steroids.
Ion Exchange Experiment
 •Is a process in which ions attached to a high molecular weight polymer are exchanged for
other ions in solution. 
•Ion exchange resins are used to demineralize water and to separate mixtures of ions. One
important characteristic of ion exchange resin is its capacity, expressed in terms
of milliequivalents of exchangeable ion per gram of resin.

TLC 

•TLC or the Thin-layer chromatography involves the spotting of a sample of a mixture of

components at one end of an adsorbent-coated glass plate or other suitable support
followed by passage of a solvent (developer) through the adsorbent for the purpose of
separating the components of the sample.

For many mixtures it offers the advantages over column and paper
chromatography of:
1.Achieving separations in a relatively short time 30 mins or less
2.Accomplishing a complete analysis with as little as 20 ng1 of material
Providing complete separation of components in complex mixtures (excellent resolution)
 
What is the significance of TLC?
1.Determination of the pigments a plant contains
2.Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food
3.Identifying compounds present in a given substance
4.Monitoring organic reaction
Gas Chromatography
•A type of automated chromatography (a technique used to separate mixtures of substances)
in which the mixture to be analyzed is vaporized and carried by an inert gas through a
special column and the thence to a detection device.
•As name implies, uses as the mobile phase an inert gas commonly called carrier gas

High pressure liquid chromatography

•Is an analytical technique used for the separation of compounds soluble in a particular
solvent.
•It is a chromatographic technique that can separate a mixture of compounds

History
- Initially discovered as an analytical technique in the early 20th century and was first used as a
method of separating colored compounds
Ion-Selective Electrodes
 •An electrochemical sensor that works based on the principle of a galvanic cell. It converts
the activity or concentration of a specific ion present in a solution into electrical potential.
•It is the electrode that generates the potential in the response to the presence of a solution
of specific ion.
Selectivity Coefficients
•Is a numerical measure of how well the membrane of how well the membrane can
discriminate against the interfering ion.
Debye-Huckel rule
•The Debye-Hückel theory for bulk electrolyte solutions is generalized to planar interfacial
geometries, including screening effects due to mobile salt ions which are confined to the
interface and solutions with in general different salt concentrations and dielectric
constants on the two sides of the interface.

pH measurement
Potentiometric Considerations of pH
• Hydrogen (hydronium-) ion concentrations are determined with a laboratory device
such as a potentiometer or an electronic instrument (pH meter) equipped with suitable
electrodes, one actually measures the activity of hydrogen ion rather than the
concentration.
• The electrodes used to measure hydrogen-ion activity must be of such character that
one, commonly called the indicator electrode, develops a potential that varies according
to the activity (concentration) of hydrogen ions and the other, commonly called the
reference electrode, maintains a constant potential.
• Reference electrode (half-cell) involves several considerations, including reproducibility,
permanency, and the temperature coefficient.
• Saturated calomel electrode- most practical choice of reference electrode for all-round
use and is the most popular.
Quinhydrone Electrode
• Least expensive of the hydrogen ion-sensitive electrodes.
• Consists of an equimolar mixture of quinone and hydroquinone (available commercially
as quinhydrone) and a platinum foil electrode.
• The quinhydrone electrode cannot be used for pH measurements above 8 to 9. Neither
can it be used in the presence of strong oxidizing or reducing agents.
When quinhydrone is dissolved in an aqueous solution, it dissociates, forming quinone and
hydroquinone. The equilibrium established between the dissociation products
• The potential developed at the platinum electrode at 25⁰ C immersed in the test
solution containing the quinhydrone is given by:
0.0592 [ Q ] aH +²
EQ=EQ + log
2 [ H 2 Q]
• For pH values greater than 7.66 ,Ec must be negative and the electrode assembly shown
in the schematic (Fig. 20.1) may be used.
 • pH values less than 7.66, Ec, must be positive and the electrode assembly must be
rearranged so that the calomel electrode is connected to the negative terminal and the
quinhydrone electrode is connected to the positive terminal of the potentiometer.
pH Measurements

• Measuring the pH of pharmaceutical solutions and products, a properly standardized

pH meter equipped with glass and calomel electrodes (or a combination electrode)
and capable of reproducing pH values to 0.05 Ph.
• Two types of pH meters:
(1) The two-knob pH meter (zero-adjust (also called standardization control or set
control, etc.) and temperature control].
(2) The three-knob pH meter [temperature. intercept (also called zero-adjust, etc.), and
slope control].
pH MEASUREMENT USING A TWO-KNOB PH METER
1. Operational switches and modes (pH, mV, plon) of the instrument.
Select the mode for pH measurement. Allow the instrument to warm up.
2. Select a pH 7.00 buffer and either a pH 4.00 buffer (if the pH of the unknown solution
is less than 7.00) or a pH 10.00 buffer (if the pH of the unknown is greater than 7). (An
exploratory pH measurement may be necessary to determine the approximate pH
value of the unknown solution)
3. Allow the temperature of the buffer solutions to come within 1 to 2⁰ of the
temperature at which the pH measurement is to be made (usually room temperature)
4. Rinse the electrodes and sample container with pH 7.00 buffer and then immerse the
electrodes in a fresh sample of this buffer solution.
5. Turn the selector switch to the "pH" position, if necessary, and rotate the zero-adjust
knob (intercept, set, or equivalent) until the needle of the meter corresponds to the
pH value of the buffer solution.
6a. Remove the electrodes and repeat step 5, rinsing the electrodes and sample
container with a pH 4.00 (or 10.00) buffer solution.
6b. Immerse the electrodes in a fresh sample of this solution and rotate the temperature
knob until the needle of the meter corresponds to the pH value of the buffer solution.
The pH meter has now been properly standardized. (Do not be concerned if the
reading of the temperature dial does not correspond to the temperature of the
measuring solution.)
(7) Finally, rinse the electrodes and sample container with the unknown solution,
immerse the electrodes in the solution, and read and record the pH value. After the
pH measurement has been completed, rinse the electrodes and store them in distilled
water.

pH MEASUREMENT USING A THREE KNOB pH METER

1. Follow steps I through 6a as described in the recent slide
6b. Immerse electrodes in a fresh sample of this buffer solution and rotate the temperature
control to the position where the dial reading corresponds to the temperature of the buffer and
the unknown solution.
6c. Rotate the slope control knob until the meter needle corresponds to the pH of the buffer
solution. If the pH of the solution to be tested is more alkaline than 9, it is necessary to use the
type of glass electrode which has a negligible alkali error in the region of the test.
7. The pH meter has now been properly standardized, and the pH of the unknown solution is
measured.
The pH of solutions which are only partially aqueous is approximated in the manner described
above. Report the values so obtained as apparent pH values. This is particularly important for
hydroalcoholic solutions.
Buffer Solutions
• Buffer solutions required for calibrating pH meters and electrodes may be purchased
from commercial sources, or they may be prepared from specified reagents and
chemicals following the directions given in the USP. XIX.
The five stock solutions needed to prepare the standard buffer solutions listed in the official
compendium are:
1. Hydrochloric acid, 0.2 M. and sodium hydroxide, 0.2 M. Prepare and standardize 1 liter of
each solution following the general directions given in Exercises 3.1 and 3.3, respectively. The
final concentration of these solutions must be at least 0.2000± 0.0005 M.
2. Potassium biphthalate, 0.2 M. Dissolve 40.846 g of potassium biphthalate in water and dilute
to 1000 ml.
3. Potassium phosphate, monobasic, 0.2 M. Dissolve 27.218 g of monobasic potassium
phosphate in water and dilute to 1000 ml.
4. Boric acid and potassium chloride, 0.2 M. Dissolve 12.366 g of boric acid and 14.911 g of KCI
in water and dilute to 1000 ml.
5. Potassium chloride, 0.2 M. Dissolve 14.911 g of KCl in water and dilute to 1000 ml.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
INTRODUCTION
• The spectrometric methods considered thus far have dealt with the study of transitions
(changes) between energy levels of free, undisturbed molecules, atoms, or ions.
• Electronic and vibrational transitions were obtained by subjecting these undisturbed
chemical species to radiant energy of proper wavelength.
• In nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr), transitions between energy levels can be
generated by radiant energy only if the molecules are first placed in a magnetic field.
• Nuclear transitions of the proton, 'H, for example, can be made to occur in the radio
frequency region (5 m or 60 MHz) when an organic compound is placed in a magnetic
field of about 14,000 G. Under these conditions protons absorb radiant energy, and
peaks characteristic of the organic groups associated with the protons are observed
NMR INSTRUMENTATION
The basic instrumentation needed to measure NMR spectra includes
(1) a magnet with a strong, stable, homogeneous field
(2) a stable radiofrequency transmitter
(3) a radio receiver and detector
(4) a coil of wire surrounding the sample, which acts as a sensor
(5) a cell containing the sample
(6) a method of sweeping through the spectrum
(7) a recorder to display absorption peaks.
CHEMICAL EXCHANGE
• From our discussion thus far, one would expect ethyl alcohol, CH3,CH2,OH, to give an
nmr spectrum in which the hydroxyl proton appears as a triplet.
• A pure sample of ethyl alcohol does indeed give this type of spectrum.
• Although ordinary ethyl alcohol would be expected to give the same spectrum, the
absorption peak for the hydroxyl proton appears as a singlet and not as a triplet.
• The explanation for this action is that, during any given time span, a single hydroxyl
proton attaches to many different ethyl alcohol molecules, that is, swapping of hydroxyl
protons by ethyl alcohol molecules takes place.
• This phenomenon is known as chemical exchange and is shown in the reaction:
[ROHα]¹ + [ROHb]² = [ROHb] ¹ + [ROHα]²
• It has been shown that in a sample of pure ethyl alcohol the exchange process is slower
than the time required for the occurrence of a nuclear transition.
• hence the predicted number of absorption peaks (triplet) for the hydroxyl proton is
seen In ordinary ethyl alcohol, however, the presence of trace quantities of acidic
impurities greatly increases the exchange rate.
• Under these circumstances the exchange process is faster than the nuclear transitions,
and nmr detects only the average environment of the rapidly exchanging protons.
• The coupling normally observed cannot occur because of this rapid exchange rate, a
condition known as decoupling
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)
• TLC is a simple, quick, and inexpensive procedure that gives the chemist a quick answer
as to how many components are in a mixture.
• TLC is also used to support the identity of a compound in a mixture when the Rf of a
compound is compared with the Rf of a known compound (preferably both run on the
same TLC plate).
• A TLC plate is a sheet of glass, metal, or plastic which is coated with a thin layer of a
solid adsorbent (usually silica or alumina).
• A small amount of the mixture to be analyzed is spotted near the bottom of this plate.
• A small amount of the mixture to be analyzed is spotted near the bottom of this plate.
• The TLC plate is then placed in a shallow pool of a solvent in a developing chamber so
that only the very bottom of the plate is in the liquid.
• This liquid, or the eluent, is the mobile phase, and it slowly rises up the TLC plate by
capillary action.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
“It is a process of separating component(s) from the given crude drug by using a gaseous
mobile phase.”
• It involves a sample being vaporized and injected onto the head of the chromatographic
column. The sample is transported through the column by the flow of inert, gaseous
 mobile phase. The column itself contains a liquid stationary phase which is adsorbed
onto the surface of an inert solid.
• Two major types:
• Gas-solid chromatography
Ø Here, the mobile phase is a gas while the stationary phase is a solid. Used for separation
of low molecular gases, e.g., air components, H2 S, CS2 ,CO2 ,rare gases, CO and oxides
of nitrogen .
• Gas-liquid chromatography
Ø The mobile phase is a gas while the stationary phase is a liquid retained on the surface
as an inert solid by adsorption or chemical bonding.
Ø High Performance Liquid Chromatography is a widely used analytical separation
technique. This form of liquid chromatography or liquid separation is highly sensitive
and automated which leads to accurate quantitative determinations.
Ø It is used in order to separate and identify the different analytes/compounds within a
sample and to find the concentration of these various analytes.
HPLC IS..
• Ideally suited for separation and identification of,
Ø Proteins
Ø Amino acids
Ø Nuclei acids
Ø Hydrocarbons
Ø Carbohydrates
Ø Pharmaceuticals
Ø Pesticides
Ø Pigments
Ø Antibiotics
Ø Steroids and a variety of other inorganic substances.