NON-INVASIVE AND WIRELESS E-NOSE

DEVICE BASED EXHALED BREATH TEST TO

DIAGNOSIS ASTHMA USING MACHINE
LEARNING AND IOT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted By

J.ASHVIK 711219104003

S.D.INIYAN 711219104010
V.SABESAN 711220104703
M.SIVA SURYA 711220104704

In partial fulfillment for the award of degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

JAI SHRIRAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, TIRUPPUR 638660.

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

MAY 2023
 ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI: 600025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “NON-INVASIVE AND WIRELESS E-

NOSE DEVICE BASED EXHALED BREATH TEST TO DIAGNOSIS
ASTHMA USING MACHINE LEARNING AND IOT” is the bonafide work
of “J.ASHVIK, S.D.INIYAN, V.SABESAN, M.SIVA SURYA
(711219104003,711219104010,711220104703,711220104704)who carried out
the project work under my supervision.

Mrs.A.Gokilavani, Ph.D., Mrs.R.K.Shanmugha Priya, M.E,

Head of the Department, Supervisor,
Associate professor, Assistant professor,
Department of Computer Science & Department of Computer Science &
Engineering Engineering
Jai Shriram Engineering college, Jai Shriram Engineering College,
Tiruppur 638 660. Tiruppur 638 660.

Place: Avinashipalayam,
Date:
Submitted for the Anna university VIVA-VOCE exam held on
……………………………. at Jai Shriram Engineering college, Tirupur-
638660.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

If words are considered as symbols of approval and tokens of

acknowledgement, then let words play the heralding role of not praising and
glorification, but also to exhibit the deeply embedded feeling of thanks and
gratefulness,

This project would have never been materialized without the innumerable
discussions we had with many people. We would like to extend our sincere
gratitude to all of them for giving meaning and substance to our work

We own my loyalty to the management and college we thank our beloved

chairman Thiru T.K.Karupanasamy and other thrust members who provide
excellent educational facilities.

We extended our sincere thanks to our Treasurer

Thiru.M.Govindhasamy and other Managing Trustee, jai shriram engineering
college for having provided excellent environment.

We are very much thankful to our principal Dr.R.Thirumalai, for

making necessary arrangement to do this project.

We thank our Head of department Mrs.A.Gokilavani, Ph.D., for

encouragement and help.

We express our sincere thanks to our guide Mrs.R.K.Shanmugha Priya,

M.E, Assistant professor of Computer Science & Engineering in JSREC for
this in valuable guidance and inspiration offered.
Abstract
Asthma Diseaseis silent in its early stages and fatal in its advanced stages. The current
examinations for Asthma Disease are usually based on imaging. Conventional chest X-rays
lackaccuracy, and chestcomputed tomography (CT) is associated with radiation exposure and
cost, limitingscreening effectiveness. Breath omics, a noninvasive strategy, has recently been
studied extensively.Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) derived from human breath can
reflect metabolic changes caused bydiseases and possibly serve as biomarkers of lung cancer.
Early diagnosis could substantially prolong life expectancy. Because current diagnostic tools
for lung carcinoma are either expensive or invasive and therefore not ideal for screening
purposes, a low-cost, noninvasive handheld portable tool such as the electronic nose (e-nose)
could be useful in clinical practice. In this projectan electronic nose (e-nose) system is
developed for the analysis of exhaled breath, which was applied to detect and classify a set of
exhaled breath samples from healthy people and patients with lung cancer.This
projectappliesSVM classifier to analyze patients’ exhaledbreath samples with electronic nose
in order to differentiate Asthma Diseasepatients(regardless of thestage of the cancer) from
patients with other lung diseases and healthy individuals.The e-nose device with the sensor
array, data acquisition system, and pattern recognition can detect the variations of volatile
organic compounds (VOC) present in the expelled breath of patients and healthy controls.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE

ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1overview
1.2. Problems Identified
1.4objective
2 LITERATURE SURVEY
3 SYSTEM ANALYSIS
3.1EXISTING SYSTEM
3.1.1DRAWBACK
3.2PROPOSED SYSTEM
3.2.1ADVANTAGES
4 SYSTEM DESIGN
4.1. System Architecture
4.2. System Flow – Training Phase
5 BLOCK DESCRIPTION
5.2Modules Description
6 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
6.1HARDWAR REQUIREMENTS
6.2SOFTWAREREQUIREMENTS
6.3HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
8 CONCLUSION& FUTURE
ENHANCEMENT

APPENDIX- A SCREENSHOT
APPENDIX- B SOURCE CODE

REFERENCES
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Overview
The lungs, which is the organ for respiration is a paired cone shaped organs lying in the
thoracic cavity separated from each other by the heart and other structures in the
mediastinum.

Figure 1.1. Lung

Each lung has a base resting on the diaphragm and an apex extending superiorly to a point
approximately 2.5 cm superior to the clavicle. It also has a medial surface and with three
borders- anterior, posterior and inferior. The broad coastal surface of the lungs is pressed
against the rib cage, while the smaller mediastinal surface faces medially. The lungs receive
the bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves through a slit in the mediastinal
surface called the helium, and the structures entering the helium constitutes the lungs root.
The right lung is larger and weighs more than the left lung. Since the heart tilts to the left, the
left lung is smaller than the right and has an indentation called the cardiac impression to
accommodate the heart. This indentation shapes the inferior and anterior parts of the superior
lobe into a thin tongue-like process called the lingual.
Airway diseases -- These diseases affect the tubes (airways) that carry oxygen and other
gases into and out of the lungs. They usually cause a narrowing or blockage of the airways.
Airway diseases include asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and
bronchiectasis. People with airway diseases often say they feel as if they're "trying to breathe
out through a straw."
Lung tissue diseases -- These diseases affect the structure of the lung tissue. Scarring or
inflammation of the tissue makes the lungs unable to expand fully (restrictive lung disease).
This makes it hard for the lungs to take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. People with
this type of lung disorder often say they feel as if they are "wearing a too-tight sweater or
vest." As a result, they can't breathe deeply. Pulmonary fibrosis and sarcoidosis are examples
of lung tissue disease.
Lung circulation diseases -- These diseases affect the blood vessels in the lungs. They are
caused by clotting, scarring, or inflammation of the blood vessels. They affect the ability of
the lungs to take up oxygen and release carbon dioxide. These diseases may also affect heart
function. An example of a lung circulation disease is pulmonary hypertension. People with
these conditions often feel very short of breath when they exert themselves.
1.1.1. Lung Disease
Lung disease refers to several types of diseases or disorders that prevent the lungs from
functioning properly. Lung disease can affect respiratory function, or the ability to breathe,
and pulmonary function, which is how well lungs work.

Exhaled Breath Analysis

Exhaled breath analysis an important area of research work which has gained tremendous
interest recently owing to the advances in analytical techniques and nanotechnology. This is a
non-invasive method for disease detection, therapeutic monitoring, and metabolic status
monitoring by analysing the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the exhaled
breath. Along with point of care detection breath analysis has the advantage of non-invasive,
cost-effective, real time, qualitative/quantitative disease diagnosisand hence it has the
potential of replacing traditional blood test which is invasive and pain-staking. Alongside
exhaled breath VOCs are also emitted from urine, sputum and faces (all non-invasive in
nature) also but breath is easiest of all these to handle and hence has the obvious edge over
the other clinical sample.
Exhaled breath analysis for disease diagnosis is an ancient practice: even in the time of
Hippocrates this was in vogue. Sweet breath odour was linked with diabetes and fish-like
smell in exhaled breath was identified with kidney-related diseases. In the late 1780s
Lavoisier took the first initiative to determine the chemical components of human breath. In
1971 Linus Pauling demonstrated that breath is a complex gas containing no less than 200
VOCs and this for sure marked the beginning of the modern breath testing. Later, Michael
Phillips demonstrated that breath contains more than 300 VOCs. Now it is known that breath
contains more than 3500 VOCs.
Human exhaled breath mostly contains, nitrogen (78.04%), oxygen [16%], carbon dioxide
[4%-5%], hydrogen [5%], inert gases [0.9%] and water vapor. Other than that, it contains
inorganics VOCs viz. nitric oxide (10–50 ppb),10 nitrous oxide (1–20 ppb),10 ammonia (0.5–
2 ppm), carbon monoxide (0–6 ppm), hydrogen sulphide (0–1.3 ppm) etc. and organic VOCs
such as acetone (0.3–1 ppm), ethanol, isoprene (~105 ppb), ethane (0–10 ppb), methane (2–
10 ppm), pentane [0–10 ppb] etc. The air that is inhaled goes into the alveoli in the lungs
where the metabolic excretable products diffuse into the inhaled air and then it is rejected in
the form of exhaled air. Therefore, the exhaled air must carry the fingerprint of the metabolic
process going on endogenously. Hence it is a rich source for disease diagnosis and health
monitoring.
Electronic Nose
Electronic nose technology may have the potential to substantially slow the spread of
contagious diseases with rapid signal indication. As our understanding of infectious diseases
such as Asthma disease improves, we expect electronic nose technology to detect changes
associated with pathogenesis of the disease such as biomarkers of immune response for
respiratory symptoms, central nervous system injury, and/or peripheral nervous system injury
in the breath and/or odour of an individual. In this paper, a design of an electronic nose was
configured to detect the concentration of a ASTHMA DISEASEbreath simulation sample of
alcohol, acetone, and carbon monoxide mixture.The fourmost prominent volatile compounds
in Asthma patients were methylpent-2-enal, 2,4-octadiene 1-chloroheptane,and nonanal.
  Pneumonia
Pneumonia is a common lung infection caused by germs, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
It can be a complication of the flu, but other viruses, bacteria and even fungi can cause
pneumonia. Pneumonia and its symptoms can vary from mild to severe. Treatment depends
on the cause of your pneumonia, how severe your symptoms are, and your age and overall
health. Most healthy people recover from pneumonia in one to three weeks, but it can be life-
threatening. The good news is that pneumonia can be prevented—by getting an annual flu
shot (as flu often leads to pneumonia), frequently washing your hands, and for people at high
risk, getting a vaccine for pneumococcal pneumonia.

1.1.3. Common Lung Diagnostic (Imaging) Tests

 Chest X-ray. 
This can be used to look for problems like pneumonia, an infection that makes fluid build up
in your lungs. It also can help diagnose cancer or a buildup of scar tissue in your lungs known
as pulmonary fibrosis.
 Computerized tomography (CT) or positron emission tomography (PET) scans.
These are more advanced imaging tests that can be used to find problems that an X-ray might
not until they’re further along, like cancer. A CT scan is a series of X-rays taken from
different angles that are put together to make a more complete picture. A PET scan uses a
special dye that lets your doctor see parts of your body more clearly.
 Chest ultrasound. 
This uses high-frequency sound waves to make an image of your lungs. It can help your
doctor see if there’s any fluid build-up in or around your lungs.
 Pulmonary angiogram. 
This is a type of CT scan that focuses on the pulmonary arteries -- the blood vessels that
connect your heart and lungs. It’s used to spot a potentially life-threatening blood clot in your
lungs known as a pulmonary embolism.
1.2. Problem Identified
Lung disease is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality throughout the world.
Especially the ongoing global pandemic of ASTHMA DISEASE, caused by severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has caused more than three million
deaths and severe harm to the world’s economy. In spite of such high fatality and social
burden, the diagnostic tests for ASTHMA DISEASEare far from satisfactory.To diagnose
this infection in the body, health professionals and doctors have been widely using the RT-
PCR (Real TimePolymerase Chain Reaction) method. This technique is not only laborious,
but also costly. Furthermore, since it is a much slower process, there was a need of having a
technique that could efficiently diagnose this deadly virus in order to save people’s lives.
Thus, researchers have been working hard to develop cost-efficient and fast CAD (Computer-
Aided Diagnosis) techniques like CT (Computerized Tomography) Scan and CXR (chest X-
ray). Moreover, WHO (World Health Organization) has encouraged patients with moderate
symptoms to get a chest X-ray. CXR is a low-cost and one of the fastest CAD technique for
the early detection of such virus. The diagnosis of ASTHMA DISEASEfrom the CXR
samples and distinguishing it from various other lung disorders with similar severe symptoms
is quite a confusing job that is heavily reliant on the availability of competent
radiologists.Due to a similar pathological information between pneumonia and ASTHMA
DISEASEin the early stage, the CXR samples may have latent features distributed near the
category boundaries, which can be easily misclassified by the hyperplane learned from the
limited training data.Difficulty for an experienced specialist to identify a subtype of
Pneumonia in affected patients. Therapid and accurate screening of patients plays an
important rolein controlling the outbreak and relieving the pressure on the medical system
due to the strong infectivity of ASTHMA DISEASE. As CXR is cheaper and faster to obtain
than computed tomography (CT) scan, CXR has become one of the most regularly used
medical image to perform early-stage screening of patients with acute respiratory distress
syndrome (ARDS) and currently with ASTHMA DISEASEsymptoms. However, manual
reading of CXR images is expertise-required, time-consuming, and error-prone. Test
movement needs to be exceptionally quick, adaptable, analyse and conclude accurately
within shorter time.With the fast development of deep learning (DL) methods in medical
image analysis and physiological signals recognition, an emerging trend is to employ DL
methods to assist radiologists and other physicians in reading and comprehending
CXRs.Therefore, an automated system is needed that can accurately and efficiently diagnose
lung disorder is needed. For these requirements, CNN based classification models may aid in
the diagnosis of ASTHMA DISEASEas well as Pneumonia.
1.3Objective
To design and determine the diagnostic accuracy of VOC breath tests for the detection of
cancer.The specific aims of this project were to
 development of a breath analyzing electronic nose (e-nose).
 Electronic Nose system was developed in order to analyze human breath about
diagnose whether people with lung cancer or not.
 predict diagnostic accuracy of VOC-based exhaled breath tests for cancer,
 examine methodologic challenges and mitigating strategies for the use of breath
testing in cancer diagnosis, and
 create a framework for conducting and reporting future studies on the role of VOCs in
cancer diagnosis.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1. Automated Detection of ASTHMA DISEASECases on Radiographs
using Shape-Dependent Fibonacci-p Patterns
Authors:Karen Panetta; Foram Sanghavi; Sos Agaian; Neel Madan
Year:2021
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9391988

Objective:
The aim of this project is a machine learning-based approach using a novel textural feature
descriptor, Shape-dependent Fibonacci-p patterns for effectively distinguishing ASTHMA
DISEASE, viral pneumonia, and normal condition chest radiographs from each other.
Methodology:
This article proposes a machine learning-based approach using a novel textural feature
descriptor, Shape-dependent Fibonacci-p patterns for effectively distinguishing ASTHMA
DISEASE, viral pneumonia, and normal condition chest radiographs from each other. This
descriptor’s key advantage is that it can encrypt textural patterns having different shapes,
orientations, and discontinuities in one operation while inherently removing noise from the
image. Computer simulations for the full radiograph Kaggle dataset show that the proposed
method has better recall performance than the DL methods and the classical Fibonacci
descriptor. Nearly 100% and 98.44% ASTHMA DISEASEdetection accuracy are achieved
for the classification schemes ASTHMA DISEASEvs normal and ASTHMA DISEASEvs
viral pneumonia, respectively. For the lung area-specific radiograph Kaggle dataset, similar
performance was observed for ASTHMA DISEASEdetection for the classification schemes
ASTHMA DISEASEvs normal and ASTHMA DISEASEviral pneumonia. Likewise, for the
COVIDGR dataset, the proposed feature descriptor yielded better performance compared to
most of the DL methods while achieving comparable performance with respect to method
COVID-SDnet. Since the proposed approach is a machine learning model, it does not require
specialized hardware, has less training time, obtains stabilized model with good detection
performance with small training datasets, is lightweight, and can be deployed quickly.
Merits:
  Less training time.
 Obtains stabilized model with good detection performance with small training
datasets.
Demerits:
 Noise error is high.
 Poor performance.
2.2. Predictive Modelling of Asthma DiseaseData in the US: Adaptive
Phase-Space Approach
Authors:Vasilis Z. Marmarelis
Year:2020
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9137691
Objective:
The aim of this project is a novel adaptive methodology for predictive modeling of the time-
course of daily and cumulative confirmed cases of Covid19 has been presented.
Methodology:
There are currently intensified efforts by the scientific community world-wide to analyze the
dynamics of the Asthma Diseasepandemic in order to predict key epidemiological effects and
assist the proper planning for its clinical management, as well as guide sociopolitical
decision-making regarding proper mitigation measures. Most efforts follow variants of the
established SIR methodological framework that divides a population into “Susceptible”,
“Infectious” and “Recovered/Removed” fractions and defines their dynamic inter-
relationships with first-order differential equations. This article proposes a novel approach
based on data-guided detection and concatenation of infection waves – each of them
described by a Riccati equation with adaptively estimated parameters. Methods: This
approach was applied to Asthma Diseasedaily time-series data of US confirmed cases,
resulting in the decomposition of the epidemic time-course into five “Riccati modules”
representing major infection waves to date (June 18th). Results: Four waves have passed the
time-point of peak infection rate, with the fifth expected to peak on July 20th. The obtained
parameter estimates indicate gradual reduction of infectivity rate, although the latest wave is
expected to be the largest.
Merits:
 Accuracy is high.
 Performance is high.
Demerits:
 Efficiency is low.
 High cost.
2.3. Unsupervised Anomaly Detection in Multivariate Spatio-Temporal
Data Using Deep Learning: Early Detection of ASTHMA
DISEASEOutbreak in Italy
Authors:Yildiz Karadayi; Mehmet N. Aydin; Arif Selçuk Öǧrencí
Year: 2020
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9187620
Objective:
The aim of this project is to a hybrid deep learning framework is proposed to solve the
unsupervised anomaly detection problem in multivariate spatio-temporal data for ASTHMA
DISEASEdetection.
Methodology:
Unsupervised anomaly detection for spatio-temporal data has extensive use in a wide variety
of applications such as earth science, traffic monitoring, fraud and disease outbreak detection.
Most real-world time series data have a spatial dimension as an additional context which is
often expressed in terms of coordinates of the region of interest (such as latitude - longitude
information). However, existing techniques are limited to handle spatial and temporal
contextual attributes in an integrated and meaningful way considering both spatial and
temporal dependency between observations. This article, a hybrid deep learning framework is
proposed to solve the unsupervised anomaly detection problem in multivariate spatio-
temporal data. The proposed framework works with unlabelled data and no prior knowledge
about anomalies are assumed. As a case study, use the public ASTHMA DISEASEdata
provided by the Italian Department of Civil Protection. Northern Italy regions’ ASTHMA
DISEASEdata are used to train the framework; and then any abnormal trends or upswings in
ASTHMA DISEASEdata of central and southern Italian regions are detected. The proposed
framework detects early signals of the ASTHMA DISEASEoutbreak in test regions based on
the reconstruction error. For performance comparison, perform a detailed evaluation of 15
algorithms on the COVID19 Italy dataset including the state-of-the-art deep learning
architectures. Experimental results show that our framework shows significant improvement
on unsupervised anomaly detection performance even in data scarce and high contamination
ratio scenarios (where the ratio of anomalies in the data set is more than 5%). It achieves the
earliest detection of ASTHMA DISEASEoutbreak and shows better performance on tracking
the peaks of the ASTHMA DISEASEpandemic in test regions. As the timeliness of detection
is quite important in the fight against any outbreak, our framework provides useful insight to
suppress the resurgence of local novel coronavirus outbreaks as early as possible.
Merits:
 It shows better performance on tracking the peaks of the ASTHMA
DISEASEpandemic in test regions.
 Achieve early detection.
 Significant improvement on unsupervised anomaly detection performance even in
data scarce and high contamination ratio scenarios.
Demerits:
 Too expensive.
 Underlying system in the presence of noise and anomaly which pose extra
difficulty.
2.4. CovidGAN: Data Augmentation Using Auxiliary Classifier GAN for
Improved Asthma DiseaseDetection
Authors:Abdul Waheed; Muskan Goyal; Deepak Gupta; Ashish Khanna; Fadi Al-
Turjman; Plácido Rogerio Pinheiro
Year:2020
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9093842
Objective:
The aim of this project is data augmentation method Using Auxiliary Classifier GAN for
Improved Asthma DiseaseDetection.
Methodology:
This analysis still has a variety of limitations. Firstly, GAN architecture and training can be
improved further. Secondly, it used a small dataset because of the time constraints and
difficulty in gathering enough data. The quality of the synthetic samples produced in this
research could be improved by integrating more labelled data which improves the learning
process of GAN. Thirdly, the dataset is obtained from various sources and cross-centre
validations were not conducted in this analysis. This article has made every effort to ensure
that the data collected is correctly labelled. Any mistake in data labelling, however, would
probably affect the results reported. Such an impact could be especially pronounced when the
dataset is small. Lastly, the only way to reliably detect ASTHMA DISEASEis through
medical assistance and clinical testing. The findings of this article provide promising results
that encourage the use of this approach to make more robust radiology systems. This article
also promotes a systematic large-scale gathering of COVID-CXR images.
Merits:
 Accuracy is high.
 Time complexity is low.
Demerits:
 Substantial amount of training data.
 High cost and poor performance.
2.5. ASTHMA DISEASEDetection Based on Image Regrouping and
Resnet-SVM Using Chest X-Ray Images
Authors:Changjian Zhou; Jia Song; Sihan Zhou; Zhiyao Zhang; Jinge Xing
Year: 2020
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9446895
Objective:
The aim of this project is a novel chest X-ray images based ASTHMA DISEASEdetection
method, the image regrouping and the residual encoder block combined for feature learning
and extraction, the extracted features were input into SVM for classification.
Methodology:
This article proposed a novel chest X-ray images based ASTHMA DISEASEdetection
method, the image regrouping and the residual encoder block combined for feature learning
and extraction, the extracted features were input into SVM for classification. The proposed
method made a concerted effort to reduce the interference of background and skeleton noise,
which showed strong feature learning and expression ability by combined between deep
residual network and Support Vector Machine. The proposed method investigated the
potential biomarkers in the CXR images and found the random localized distributed in lung
region and the noise such as background, spine and ribs have interference of classifiers. To
address this problem, divided the lung region into 15 × 15px pieces, and randomly regrouped
them in to a new image; the regrouped image kept the original ASTHMA DISEASEfeatures
and weakened the background and ribs noises. This article also proposed a residual encoder
block for feature learning, which inspired from auto-encoder. The purposed of auto-encoder
is learning a strong feature for image reconstruction; rather, concentrated on more feasible
work such as feature classification to detection ASTHMA DISEASE. Since the deep residual
network had achieved the state-of-art in classification but need large-scale training data. As
this reason, extend the residual network for feature extraction and input the extracted features
into SVM for classification.
Merits:
 More feasible.
 Strong feature learning and expression ability.
Demerits:
 Lower accuracy.
 Efficiency is low.
2.6. Deep learning for mycoplasma pneumonia discrimination from
pneumonias like ASTHMA DISEASE
Authors:Ali Serener; Sertan Serte
Year: 2020
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9254561
Objective:
The aim of this project is to lessen these diagnosis difficulties by using several deep learning
methods on computed tomography (CT) images to classify them as having mycoplasma
pneumonia, typical viral pneumonia or ASTHMA DISEASE.
Methodology:
Mycoplasma pneumonia, also known as atypical pneumonia, is a contagious respiratory
infection caused by the bacterium mycoplasma pneumonia. It spreads through respiratory
droplets that contain the bacteria which can cause tracheobronchitis, upper respiratory tract
disease as well as pneumonia. Common symptoms are dry cough, fever, shortness of breath,
and fatigue. Viral pneumonia, on the other hand, is a lung infection caused by viruses such as
influenza virus, rhinovirus, and coronavirus. It is acquired by breathing or touching and
results in lung air sucks being infected and filled up with fluid. Common signs of viral
pneumonia are cough, fever, shortness of breath, and loss of appetite. If the lungs are also
invaded with bacteria, bacterial pneumonia symptoms might also occur.This article uses deep
learning techniques on CT images to help differentiate mycoplasma pneumonia from other
types of pneumonias. Specifically, it ran experiments involving deep learning on CT images
to distinguish between mycoplasma pneumonia and ASTHMA DISEASE. It also
experimented and analysed the discernment of mycoplasma pneumonia from typical viral
pneumonia. Using seven different deep learning architectures, it analysed the detection
performance of these discernments. The results show ResNet-18 and MobileNet-v2
architectures as good choices to employ in order to distinguish mycoplasma pneumonia from
typical viral pneumonia and ASTHMA DISEASE.
Merits:
 It greatly distinguishes mycoplasma pneumonia from typical viral pneumonia and
ASTHMA DISEASE.
 Accuracy is high.
Demerits:
 Poor performance.
 Low accuracy.
2.7. Texture Analysis of Ultrasound Images for Pneumonia Detection in
Pediatric Patients
Authors:S. L. Contreras-Ojeda; C. Sierra-Pardo; J. A. Dominguez-Jimenez; J. Lopez-
Bueno; S. H. Contreras-Ortiz
Year: 2019
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8730238
Objective:
The aim of this project is an approach for pneumonia detection based on texture analysis of
ultrasound images.
Methodology:
Pneumonia is a condition that can be life-threatening and affects a high number of children
around the world. Lung ultrasound can be used for the diagnosis of pneumonia, but requires
high experience. This work suggests that pneumonia detection is possible using texture
analysis of ultrasound images. Differences at the mean levels were found in the mean and
median. The pixels of images with pneumonia had lower intensity than the healthy ones. The
results suggest that texture image processing of lung ultrasound can aid in the diagnosis of
pneumonia in pediatric patients. However, it should be noted that pixel intensity is sensible to
the scanner gain settings, firm placement of the transducer, and artifacts such as acoustic
shadowing. Therefore, it is important to look for other metrics to better characterize tissues
with pneumonia.
Merits:
 High accuracy.
 Speed is high to get faster result.
Demerits:
 Requires high experience.
 Not good specificity for automatic pneumonia detection.
2.8. Field Trial of Aspiration Pneumonia Predicion based on Electronic
Medical Records
Authors:Masahiro Hayashitani; Eiji Yumoto; Toshinori Hosoi; Masahiro Kubo; Hiroyuki
Hiramitsu; Kensuke Kato; Mayumi Moriguchi
Year: 2019
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8904811
Objective:
The aim of this project is prediction method of aspiration pneumonia in department of
neurosurgery in order to reduce workload about care for aspiration pneumonia.
Methodology:
In Japan, the lack of labour of medical staff causes long working hours. In particular, the
increase in care time due to the onset of complications is an issue in Kitahara International
Hospital (KIH), which mainly has neurosurgery. Among the complications, aspiration
pneumonia occurs in elderly stroke patients. In our estimation, medical staff have to provide
post-onset care four hours a day per patient of aspiration pneumonia. Preventive cares like
oral care and breathing training are provided in order to avoid the onset of aspiration
pneumonia. However, it takes long time to provide the preventive cares for many patients.
This article proposed the prediction method of aspiration pneumonia in department of
neurosurgery in order to reduce workload about care for aspiration pneumonia. The
prediction method is based on electronic medical records including age, sex, and vital signs.
This article demonstrated the method in KIH. In the field trial, the medical staff provided
preventive cares based on the output of method. It showed that the trial reduced care time of
the medical staff by 10%, and the number of patients with aspiration pneumonia was reduced.
Merits:
 Number of patients with aspiration pneumonia was reduced.
 Reduced care time of the medical staff by 10%.
Demerits:
 Heavy workload about care for aspiration pneumonia.
 Low accuracy.
2.9. PNet: An Efficient Network for Pneumonia Detection
Authors:Zhongliang Li; Juan Yu; Xuechen Li; Yingqi Li; Weicai Dai; Linlin Shen; Lisha
Mou; Zuhui Pu
Year:2019
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8965660
Objective:
The aim of this project is to a deep learning-based framework, PNet, for pneumonia
detection.
Methodology:
Pneumonia is a common lung disease and affects millions of people worldwide each year.
The chest X-ray is one of the most commonly accessible radiological examinations for
screening and diagnosing lung diseases. Usually, chest X-ray images (CXRs) are taken at
physical examination and evaluated by radiologists. The unbalance between tremendous
numbers of CXRs and limited number of radiologists need to be solved by Computer Assisted
Diagnosis (CAD). As deep neural networks have shown promising results in CAD,
implemented a deep learning-based framework, PNet, for pneumonia detection. 10784 chest
X-ray images collected at the Shenzhen No.2 People’s Hospital were employed for training
and evaluation. The experimental results showed that the proposed PNet (1,695,777
parameters) achieved higher accuracy and F1 score than classical networks like AlexNet
(42,725,889 parameters) and VGG16 (27,560,769 parameters).
Merits:
 Higher accuracy.
 By using small size convolution filters to extract image features is good.
Demerits:
 Unbalance between tremendous numbers of CXRs.
 Limited number of radiologists.
2.10. Deep Online Sequential Extreme Learning Machines and its
Application in Pneumonia Detection
Authors:Sriram Vijendran; Rahul Dubey
Year:2019
Link:https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8710700
Objective:
The aim of this project is an ELM based comprehensive adaptive image classifier for the
detection of pneumonia by the use of Chest X-Rays for faster diagnosis and earlier delivery
of treatment.
Methodology:
Deep neural networks have demonstrated high levels of accuracy in the fields of image
classification. Deep learning is a multilayer perceptron artificial neural network algorithm,
that uses a backpropagation based learning technique to approximate complicated functions
and alleviating the difficulty associated with optimizing deep models. Multilayer extreme
learning machine (MLELM) is a learning algorithm of an artificial neural network which
takes advantages of deep learning and extreme learning machine. Not only does MLELM
approximate the complicated function but it also does not need to iterate during the training
process. Furthermore, Online Sequential Extreme Learning Machines (OSELM) is an
adaptive algorithm based on ELM that does not require fresh training when faced with a new
dataset, but can adapt to the new dataset by being trained on the new dataset alone.This
article presents the potential application of Deep OS-ELM’s in the field of medical imaging
studies, specifically in the detection of pneumonia from Chest XRays. Detailed modelling
and analysis of images are presented. The proposed model has shown better performance than
SVM’s and ELM’s in terms of accuracy and better training time than CNN’s. Test results
indicate that the proposed model is highly effective in the diagnosis of pneumonia through
Chest X-Rays and can be implemented easily with minimal computational requirements.
Merits:
 Its effectiveness is high.
 Accuracy is high.
Demerits:
 Time consuming process.
 It requires proper tuning hyper parameters such as learning rates, number of epochs,
stopping criteria etc.
 CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
3.1. Existing System
The recently proposed methods for detection/classification of lung diseases such as Asthma
Disease, viral pneumonia, and bacterial pneumonia utilized the machine learning models
primarily based on SVM, K-NN, Logistic Regression, ANN, Random Forest and Ensemble
Learning. However, differentiating the Asthma Diseasecaused pneumonia from viral and
bacterial pneumonia is still a challenging research problem due to lack of the sufficient
experiments on scalable datasets. The following research gaps of recent methods for Asthma
Diseaseand pneumonia disease detection using X-ray scans are the key motivations for the
proposed method.
Machine Learning is an art where the machines are made to learn by some given data and so-
called answers, and not by programming.
 K-Nearest Neighbours Classifier
K Nearest Neighbours classifier is Supervised classification method. During the training
time, without having any previous information about the structure of the dataset it classifies
the training set based on the k value. In the proposed work Scikit-learn python library used
for importing the KNN classifier in the program. K Nearest Neighbours algorithm known as a
lazy learner as well because it doesn’t learn from the training data but memorize the training
dataset. The algorithm is based on similar features. As there is no training phase, K Nearest
Neighbours keeps all training data and used it during the testing phase. How closely our
features resemble out training set determines how images classify a given data point. The
outcome of this algorithm is a discrete value which is based on the majority of votes from its
neighbours. If the k value rises the confidence in prediction improves
 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
An ANN is a computational model based on the human Lung. ANNs contain some nodes
which are connected through weights. Each node receives data from previous nodes, adds it
together and outputs data through a nonlinear function, and then propagates data to
proceeding nodes. The first neuronal layer of the ANN is the input layer composed of
variable number of collected data from observation. The next additional neuronal layers
compose of hidden layers created to generate a variable number of numerical combinations.
The last neuronal layer named output layer generates the answer (numbers that represent the
output). Most of ANN models are based on the idea of supervised training. There are two
phases in the ANN action: training/ learning phase and test phase. A validating phase is still
often made. In training/learning phase, input data are presented to the ANN and weights are
adjusted and fixed. In other words, the ANN does indeed learn the input patterns in the
learning phase.
 Support Vector Machines (SVMs)
SVM is a supervised machine learning algorithm that predicts an optimal hyperplane in an n-
dimensional space to divide the training set into multiple classes. Different kernel functions
can be specified for the decision function depending on the problem. They could be used to
implement a multi-class classification on a dataset, providing in advance a subset of labelled
data needed for model training.
 Random Forest
Random Forest Algorithm is widely used because of its capability to solve both classification
and regression functions and its simplicity. It is a kind of supervised learning algorithm in
which many decision trees combine to give a more stable and accurate precision. For large
datasets, this algorithm prevents the overfitting of the data by building small decision trees by
creating a subsample space of random features. Whilst there can be some complex
computations resulting in more training time, the results produced are good because of
combinations of these smaller trees. The major obstacle of random forest is that a huge
variety of trees could make the algorithm too sluggish and useless for real-time predictions.
In general, those algorithms are rapid to train, however pretty gradual to create predictions as
soon as
they’re trained. An extra correct prediction calls for extratrees, which results in a slower
model. In maximum real global applications, the random forest is rapidly sufficient however
there can genuinely be conditions wherein runtime overall performance is critical and
different methods
might be preferred.
 Ensemble Methods
o XGBoost
XGBoost is a decision-tree-based ensemble Machine Learning algorithm that uses a gradient
boosting framework. In prediction problems involving unstructured data (images, text, etc.)
artificial neural networks tend to outperform all other algorithms or frameworks.
o Bagging
Bootstrap aggregating also called bagging (from bootstrap aggregating), is a machine
learning ensemble meta-algorithm designed to improve the stability and accuracy of machine
learning algorithms used in statistical classification and regression. It also reduces variance
and helps to avoid overfitting.
o ADABoost
AdaBoost algorithm, short for Adaptive Boosting, is a Boosting technique that is used as an
Ensemble Method in Machine Learning. It is called Adaptive Boosting as the weights are re-
assigned to each instance, with higher weights to incorrectly classified instances.
3.2. Disadvantages
 Approximately 95% of ML-based methods were failed to consider the challenges of
X-ray image quality enhancement. Therefore, infected areas of X-ray images were not
accurately identified during automatic feature extraction.
 Existing ML-based works took complete lung image for automatic feature extraction,
but only the features of infected lung regions are relevant for diagnostics. The lack of
ROI estimation in chest X-ray images leads to high-dimensional and irrelevant feature
extraction for classification. It also restricts the severity analysis of disease due to the
lack of ROI-specific features.
 High training time of ML is a challenging issue that leads to a computationally
inefficient solution for early detection of lung diseases.
 Asthma Diseaseand pneumonia detection methods using Machine learning have been
evaluated on small X-ray samples in which 10–15% samples were considered for
testing and 80–85% samples were used for training and validation. To claim
efficiency and reliability, such models require a better training and testing ratio.
 The automatic feature extraction approaches of ML relied on pre-training models
using irrelevant ImageNet datasets for lung disease predictions.
 As the Asthma Diseasecaused pneumonia is relatively new, lack of sufficient medical
data in ML pre-trained models led to unreliable feature extraction.
3.3. Proposed System
Deep Convolutional Neural Network has been proposed for the early detection, segmentation,
and diagnosis of chronic renal failure on the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) platform.In
this project, a deep learning-based Deep Convolutional Neural Network (DCNN) method has
been proposedfor the early detection, segmentation, and diagnosis of Covid 19 or Pneumonia
or Normal. In the proposed DCNN system, the noise mustbe reduced after acquiring a raw
image, as it can be an importantsegmentation problem. The pre-treatment technique based on
awavelet is used to minimize noise. The denoted RPN image segmentsthe lung area and
extracts more processing features of characteristicsthat have been chosen to indicate an
abnormality inthe lung disease. A graphical userinterface is developed for manual
segmentation to extract theregion of lung area.
3.3.1. Region Proposal Network
This region proposal network takes convolution feature map that is generated by the
backbone layer as input and outputs the anchors generated by sliding window convolution
applied on the input feature map.

3.3.2. Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix

Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM) based texture analysis of Lung diseases for
parametric variations. The investigations were carried out using three Pyoderma variants
(Boil, Carbuncle, and Impetigo Contagiosa) using GLCM. GLCM parameters (Energy,
Correlation, Contrast, and Homogeneity) were extracted for each colour component of the
images taken for the investigation. Contrast, correlation, energy, and homogeneity represent
the coarseness, linear dependency, textural uniformity, and pixel distribution of the texture,
respectively. The analysis of the GLCM parameters and their histograms showed that the said
textural features are disease dependent. The approach may be used for the identification of
CKD diseases with satisfactory accuracy by employing a suitable deep learning algorithm.
 3.3.3. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
A CNN is a type of deep learning used to analyse visual scenes. It is characterized by having
one or more hidden layers, which extract the attributes in videos or images, and a fully
connected layer to produce the desired output. Whereas for the computer, the image is a 3D
array (width × height × depth) of values ranging from 0 to 255. It is simply pixels of colour;
if the number of channels is one, the image is grayscale, black, and white. Besides, the
channels are three colours (if images are RGB). CNN Deep Network has shown outstanding
performance in many competitions related to image processing due to its accurate results.
CNN is a hierarchical structure that contains several layers.

Figure 3.1. Architecture of CNN

3.4. Advantages
 Providing unlimited accuracy
 Predict the lung disease types accurately
  Electronic noses, or eNoses, provide an easy and inexpensive way to analyze gas
samples. Thus, this device may be used for diagnosis, monitoring or phenotyping
diseases according to specific breathprints (breath profile).
 The purpose of this breath detection system was to help physicians to quickly screen
for rapid screening Asthma disease

CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM DESIGN
4.1. System Architecture
 Training Phase Testing Phase

Classified File Prediction E-Nose Data

Classification Localization

Feature Extraction Notification

Test in Charge

Clustering

Preprocessing

ResDep Doctor
ar

Voc Data Set

Guardian

Server Admin

4.2. Block Diagram

 CHAPTER 5
BLOCK DESCRIPTION
The electronic nose has a housing retaining an array of metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS)
gas sensors retained in the chamber of the housing. These sensors are capable of being
saturated by a target gas to then produce a voltage drop across the sensors resulting in an
output response in volts (V). The MOS-based sensors are capable of detecting gas
concentrations in parts-per-million (ppm) of CO, acetone, and alcohol.
Referring to Figure B1, circuitry of the first Arduino Uno microcontroller electrically
connects to the MOS-based MQ-2, MQ-135, MQ-137 and MQ-135 gas sensors.The
microcontrollers are electrically wired to a 5V power source being an electronic device such
as a computer. The electronic device has a graphic user interface configured for a
programmer to calibrate the gas sensors, to define threshold values, and to collect data
pertaining to the detected gas signature.
To create an e-Nose system, some devices are usedwhich are end-device (ESP8266, Atmega
GAS Sensors),Access point, and server. In the server, some activities wereperformed to
process the exhaled breath data. Exhaled breathwas recorded and saved to the database in the
server.
After the gasses emitted from the simulated breath sample solution saturate the sensors within
the internal bladder of the electronic nose, the analogue signal from the MQ-2, MQ-137, MQ-
138 and MQ-135 sensors are transmitted to a LM393 High Precision Comparator configured
to digitize the signal. The comparator determines when the threshold values set by the
potentiometer of the sensors have been met. The sensors of the electronic nose interface with
a microcontroller Arduino Uno and the sensor values of CO, alcohol, acetone concentrations
are displayed on a serial monitor within approximately 27 seconds from the initial sample
introduction. The Arduino Uno code converts the digital signal from output response (V) into
concentration (ppm) based on the resistance ratio (RS/R0) of the resistance change when the
sensor is exposed to a target gas (RS) in relation to the stable sensor resistance of the sensor
in clean air (R0). Thus, a detected target gas of a sample may be detected and measured to
indicate the approximate concentration in ppm.
In a multivariate analysis, we identified a characteristic breathprint for COVID-19. Wecould
differentiate between ASTHMA DISEASEand non-ASTHMA DISEASEARDS with
accuracy of 93% (sensitivity: 90%, specificity:94%, area under the receiver operating
characteristic curve: 0-94-0-98, after cross-validation). The fourmost prominent volatile
compounds in ASTHMA DISEASEpatients were methylpent-2-enal, 2,4-octadiene 1-
chloroheptane,and nonanal.Theserver’s data analysis was done through some pre-
processingstages and sensor modelling, training, and classifying. Covid 19 and Non Covid 19
breath normally and blow the air into the airbag. Theexhaled breath gets through the end-
device after the airbagfully contained with air. It constantly flows to end-device everytime
subject breathing. The airbag is one time used for everysubject to avoid the interference
exhaled breath from previousmeasurement.

E-Nose Sensing Unit Description

 MQ-2
MQ2 gas sensor is an electronic sensor used for sensing the concentration of gases in the air
such as LPG, propane, methane, hydrogen, alcohol, smoke and carbon monoxide.

MQ2 Gas sensor MQ2 Gas sensor Pinout

MQ2 Equivalent sensors:
MQ-6, AQ-2, MQ-306A, AQ-3
MQ-2 Sensors to detect gas:
Using an MQ sensor it detects a gas is very easy. You can either use the digital pin or the
analog pin to accomplish this. Simply power the module with 5V and you should notice the
power LED on the module to glow and when no gas it detected the output LED will remain
turned off meaning the digital output pin will be 0V. Remember that these sensors have to be
kept on for pre-heating time (mentioned in features above) before you can actually work with
it. Now, introduce the sensor to the gas you want to detect and you should see the output LED
to go high along with the digital pin, if not use the potentiometer until the output gets high.
Now every time your sensor gets introduced to this gas at this particular concentration the
digital pin will go high (5V) else will remain low (0V).
You can also use the analog pin to achieve the same thing. Read the analog values (0-5V)
using a microcontroller, this value will be directly proportional to the concentration of the gas
to which the sensor detects. You can experiment with this values and check how the sensor
reacts to different concentration of gas and develop your program accordingly.
MQ-2 sensor to measure PPM:
If you are looking for some accuracy with your readings then measuring the PPM would be
the best way to go with it. It can also help you to distinguish one gas from another. So to
measure PPM you can directly use a module. A basic wiring for the sensor from datasheet is
shown below.

The procedure to measure PPM using MQ sensor is the same but few constant values will
vary based on the type of MQ sensor used. Basically, we need to look into the (Rs/Ro) VS
PPM graph given in the datasheet (also shown below).
The value of Ro is the value of resistance in fresh air and the value of Rs is the value of
resistance in Gas concentration. First, you should calibrate the sensor by finding the values of
Ro in fresh air and then use that value to find Rs using the formulae

Once we calculate Rs and Ro we can find the ratio and then use the graph shown above we
can calculate the equivalent value of PPM for that particular gas. 

 MQ-135
The MQ135 gas sensor has high sensitivity in ammonia, sulphide, benzene steam, smoke, and
in other harm full gas. It is low cost and suitable for different applications.

MQ-135 Gas Sensor/Module MQ-135 Gas Sensor Module Pinout

MQ-135 Gas sensor

The MQ-135 Gas sensors are used in air quality control equipment’s and are suitable for
detecting or measuring of NH3, NOx, Alcohol, Benzene, Smoke, CO2. The MQ-135 sensor
module comes with a Digital Pin which makes this sensor to operate even without a
microcontroller and that comes in handy when you are only trying to detect one particular
gas.  If you need to measure the gases in PPM the analogy pin needs to be used. The analogy
pin is TTL driven and works on 5V and so can be used with most common microcontrollers.
If you are looking for a sensor to detect or measure common air quality gases such as CO2,
Smoke, NH3, NOx, Alcohol, Benzene then this sensor might be the right choice for you.
 MQ-135 Sensors to detect gases
You can either use the digital pin or the analogue pin to do this. Simply power the module
with 5V and you should notice the power LED on the module to glow and when no gas it
detected the output LED will remain turned off meaning the digital output pin will be 0V.
Remember that these sensors have to be kept on for pre-heating time (mentioned in features
above) before you can actually work with it. Now, introduce the sensor to the gas you want to
detect and you should see the output LED to go high along with the digital pin, if not use
the potentiometer until the output gets high. Now every time your sensor gets introduced to
this gas at this particular concentration the digital pin will go high (5V) else will remain low
(0V).
You can also use the analogue pin to achieve the same thing. Read the analogue values (0-
5V) using a microcontroller, this value will be directly proportional to the concentration of
the gas to which the sensor detects. You can experiment with this value and check how the
sensor reacts to different concentration of gas and develop your program accordingly.
 MQ-135 sensor to measure PPM
MQ-135 gas sensor applies SnO2 which has a higher resistance in the clear air as a gas-
sensing material. When there is an increase in polluting gases, the resistance of the gas sensor
decreases along with that. To measure PPM using MQ-135 sensor we need to look into the
(Rs/Ro) v/s PPM graph taken from the MQ135 datasheet.

The above figure shows the typical sensitivity characteristics of the MQ-135 for several
gases. in their: Temp: 20, Humidity: 65%, O2 concentration 21%, RL=20kΩ,
Ro: sensor resistance at 100ppm of NH3 in the clean air.
Rs: sensor resistance at various concentrations of gases.
The value of Ro is the value of resistance in fresh air (or the air with we are comparing) and
the value of Rs is the value of resistance in Gas concentration. First you should calibrate the
sensor by finding the values of Ro in fresh air and then use that value to find Rs using the
below formula:
Once we calculate Rs and Ro we can find the ratio and then using the graph shown above we
can calculate the equivalent value of PPM for that particular gas.

 MQ-137
The MQ-137 is an Ammonia (NH₃) gas sensor. The sensing element is SnO2, which has
lower conductivity in clean air. When NH₃ (Ammonia) gas exists, the sensor’s conductivity
gets higher along with the gas concentration rising. A simple circuit makes measuring this
change in conductivity and turning it into data fairly straight-forward, but does require some
calibration.

MQ-137 - Ammonia Gas Sensor-MQ-137 - Ammonia, CO Gas Sensor Pinout

MQ-137 Gas sensor
The MQ-137 Gas sensor can detect or measure gasses like Ammonia (NH3) and Carbon
Mono-oxide (CO). The module version of this sensor comes with a Digital Pin which makes
this sensor to operate even without a microcontroller and that comes in handy when you are
only trying to detect one particular gas. When it comes to measuring the gas in ppm the
analogy pin has to be used, the analogy pin is also TTL driven and works on 5V and hence
can be used with most common microcontrollers.
MQ-137 Sensors to detect gas
Using a MQ sensor to detect a gas is very easy. You can either use the digital pin or the
analogy pin to accomplish this. Simply power the module with 5V and you should notice the
power LED on the module to glow and when no gas it detected the output LED will remain
turned off meaning the digital output pin will be 0V. Remember that these sensors have to be
kept on for pre-heating time (mentioned in features above) before you can actually work with
it. Now, introduce the sensor to the gas you want to detect and you should see the output LED
to go high along with the digital pin, if not use the potentiometer until the output gets high.
Now every time your sensor gets introduced to this gas at this particular concentration the
digital pin will go high (5V) else will remain low (0V).
You can also use the analogy pin to achieve the same thing. Read the analogy values (0-5V)
using a microcontroller, this value will be directly proportional to the concentration of the gas
to which the sensor detects. You can experiment with this value and check how the sensor
reacts to different concentration of gas and develop your program accordingly.
MQ-137 sensor to measure PPM
If you are looking for some accuracy with your readings then measuring the PPM would be
the best way to go with it. It can also help you to distinguish one gas from another. So to
measure PPM you can directly use a module. A basic wiring for the sensor from datasheet is
shown below.

The procedure to measure PPM using MQ sensor is the same but few constant values will
vary based on the type of MQ sensor used. Basically, we need to look into the (Rs/Ro) VS
PPM graph given in the datasheet (also shown below).

The value of Ro is the value of resistance in fresh air and the value of Rs is the value of
resistance in Gas concentration. First you should calibrate the sensor by finding the values of
Ro in fresh air and then use that value to find Rs using the formula:
Once we calculate Rs and Ro we can find the ratio and then using the graph shown above we
can calculate the equivalent value of PPM for that particular gas.

 MQ-138
MQ138 gas sensor has a high sensitivity to Toluene, Acetone, Ethanol, and Formaldehyde,
also to other organic steam. The sensor could be used to detect different organic steam, it is
with low cost and suitable for different application.

MQ-138 gas sensor

Features
 Module with MQ138 gas sensor and circuitry to enable easy plug and use, just
connect power and the module is ready to interface with microcontroller.
 Working voltage: DC 5V
 Comes with power and digital signal LED indicator
 2-way signal output (analog output, and TTL-level output)
 TTL output valid signal is low; (low output signal light, which can be accessed
microcontroller IO port)
 Analog output increases with the concentration, the higher the voltage the higher the
concentration Aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, aromatic compounds with high
sensitivity
 With a long life and reliable stability
 Fast response characteristics
 With mounting holes for easy permanent installation
 Main chip: LM393, formaldehyde-sensing probe

 ESP8266 Wi-Fi Module

The ESP8266 is a System on a Chip (SoC), manufactured by the Chinese company Espressif.
It consists of a Tensilica L106 32-bit micro controller unit (MCU) and a Wi-Fi transceiver. It
has 11 GPIO pins* (General Purpose Input/Output pins), and an analogue input as well. This
means that you can program it like any normal Arduino or other microcontroller. And on top
of that, you get Wi-Fi communication, so you can use it to connect to your Wi-Fi network,
connect to the Internet, host a web server with real web pages, let your smartphone connect to
it, etc ... The possibilities are endless! It's no wonder that this chip has become the most
popular IOT device available.
Introduction
ESP8266 is Wi-Fi enabled system on chip (SoC) module developed by Espressif system. It is
mostly used for development of IoT (Internet of Things) embedded applications.

ESP8266-01 Wi-Fi Module

ESP8266 comes with capabilities of
 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n, supporting WPA/WPA2),
 general-purpose input/output (16 GPIO),
 Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C) serial communication protocol,
 analog-to-digital conversion (10-bit ADC)
 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) serial communication protocol,
 I²S (Inter-IC Sound) interfaces with DMA (Direct Memory Access) (sharing pins with
GPIO),
 UART (on dedicated pins, plus a transmit-only UART can be enabled on GPIO2), and
 pulse-width modulation (PWM).
It employs a 32-bit RISC CPU based on the TensilicaXtensa L106 running at 80 MHz (or
overclocked to 160 MHz). It has a 64 KB boot ROM, 64 KB instruction RAM and 96 KB
data RAM. External flash memory can be accessed through SPI. ESP8266 module is low-cost
standalone wireless transceiver that can be used for end-point IoT developments. To
communicate with the ESP8266 module, microcontroller needs to use set of AT commands.
Microcontroller communicates with ESP8266-01 module using UART having specified Baud
rate. There are many third-party manufacturers that produce different modules based on this
chip. So, the module comes with different pin availability options like,
 ESP-01 comes with 8 pins (2 GPIO pins) – PCB trace antenna. (shown in above
figure)
 ESP-02 comes with 8 pins, (3 GPIO pins) – U-FL antenna connector.
 ESP-03 comes with 14 pins, (7 GPIO pins) – Ceramic antenna.
 ESP-04 comes with 14 pins, (7 GPIO pins) – No ant.etc.
ESP8266-01 Module Pin Description

ESP8266-01 Module Pins

3V3: - 3.3 V Power Pin.
GND: - Ground Pin.
RST: - Active Low Reset Pin.
EN: - Active High Enable Pin.
TX: - Serial Transmit Pin of UART.
RX: - Serial Receive Pin of UART.
GPIO0 & GPIO2: - General Purpose I/O Pins. These pins decide what mode (boot or
normal) the module starts up in. It also decides whether the TX/RX pins are used for
Programming the module or for serial I/O purpose.
 Arduino Uno R3
The Arduino Uno R3 is a microcontroller board based on a removable, dual-inline-package
(DIP) ATmega328 AVR microcontroller. It has 20 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can
be used as PWM outputs and 6 can be used as analog inputs). Programs can be loaded on to it
from the easy-to-use Arduino computer program. The Arduino has an extensive support
community, which makes it a very easy way to get started working with embedded
electronics. The R3 is the third, and latest, revision of the Arduino Uno.
Arduino Board Pinout

The 14-digital input/output pins can be used as input or output pins by using pinMode (),
digitalRead () and digitalWrite () functions in Arduino programming. Each pin operates at 5V
and can provide or receive a maximum of 40mA current, and has an internal pull-up resistor
of 20-50 KOhms which are disconnected by default.  Out of these 14 pins, some pins have
specific functions as listed below:
 Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx): Rx and Tx pins are used to receive and transmit TTL
serial data. They are connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to TTL
serial chip.
 External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3: These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt
on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9 and 11: These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output by using
analogWrite() function.
 SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK): These pins are used for
SPI communication.
  In-built LED Pin 13: This pin is connected with a built-in LED, when pin 13 is
HIGH – LED is on and when pin 13 is LOW, its off.
Along with 14 Digital pins, there are 6 analog input pins, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution, i.e., 1024 different values. They measure from 0 to 5 volts but this limit can be
increased by using AREF pin with analog Reference () function.  
 Analog pin 4 (SDA) and pin 5 (SCA) also used for TWI communication using Wire
library.
Arduino Uno has a couple of other pins as explained below:
 AREF: Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with analogReference ()
function.
 Reset Pin: Making this pin LOW, resets the microcontroller.

CHAPTER 6
SYSTEM SPECIFICATION
6.1 Hardware specification
 Processors: Intel® Core™ i5 processor 4300M at 2.60 GHz or 2.59 GHz (1
socket, 2 cores, 2 threads per core), 8 GB of DRAM
 Disk space: 320 GB
 Operating systems: Windows® 10, macOS*, and Linux*
6.2 Software specification
 PHP 5 or Python 3.2
 MySQL
 WAMP Server 2.0
 Macromedia Dreamviewer 8 IDE
 Embedded C
 Arduino IDE
6.3. Smart Bandage Unit
 Arduino UNO.
 Level Sensor
 Nano GPS
 Esp8266
 OLED Display.

E-Nose Sensing Units

 MQ-2
 MQ-135
 MQ-137
 MQ-138
 ATmega328P
 ESP8266
 Power
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
ARDUION IDE

What is Arduino?

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and

software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a

Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED,

publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of

instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino programming

language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing.

Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday objects to

complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students, hobbyists,

artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-source platform, their

contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge that can be of

great help to novices and experts alike.

Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast prototyping,

aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming. As soon as it

reached a wider community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new needs and

challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT applications,

wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments. All Arduino boards are completely
open-source, empowering users to build them independently and eventually adapt them to

their particular needs. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing through the

contributions of users worldwide.

Why Arduino?

Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino has been used in thousands of

different projects and applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet

flexible enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Teachers and

students use it to build low-cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics

principles, or to get started with programming and robotics. Designers and architects build

interactive prototypes, musicians and artists use it for installations and to experiment with

new musical instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many of the projects exhibited at
the Maker Faire, for example. Arduino is a key tool to learn new things. Anyone - children,

hobbyists, artists, programmers - can start tinkering just following the step-by-step

instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online with other members of the Arduino community.

There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for physical

computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handy board, and

many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of

microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also

simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for

teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems:

Writing Sketches

Programs written using Arduino Software (IDE) are called sketches. These sketches are

written in the text editor and are saved with the file extension. Ino. The editor has features for

cutting/pasting and for searching/replacing text. The message area gives feedback while

saving and exporting and also displays errors. The console displays text output by the

Arduino Software (IDE), including complete error messages and other information. The

bottom righthand corner of the window displays the configured board and serial port. The

toolbar buttons allow you to verify and upload programs, create, open, and save sketches, and

open the serial monitor.

NB: Versions of the Arduino Software (IDE) prior to 1.0 saved sketches with the extension.

pde. It is possible to open these files with version 1.0, you will be prompted to save the

sketch with the. ino extension on save.

 Verify-Checks your code for errors compiling it.

 Opens the current sketch folder.

 Include Library

Adds a library to your sketch by inserting #include statements at the start of your

code. For more details, see libraries below. Additionally, from this menu item you can

access the Library Manager and import new libraries from .zip files.

 Add File...

Adds a source file to the sketch (it will be copied from its current location). The new
 file appears in a new tab in the sketch window. Files can be removed from the sketch

using the tab menu accessible clicking on the small triangle icon below the serial

monitor one on the right-side of the toolbar.

Tools

 Auto Format

This formats your code nicely: i.e. indents it so that opening and closing curly braces

line up, and that the statements inside curly braces are indented more.

 Archive Sketch

Archives a copy of the current sketch in .zip format. The archive is placed in the same

directory as the sketch.

 Fix Encoding & Reload

Fixes possible discrepancies between the editor char map encoding and other

operating systems char maps.

 Serial Monitor

Opens the serial monitor window and initiates the exchange of data with any

connected board on the currently selected Port. This usually resets the board, if the

board supports Reset over serial port opening.

 Board

Select the board that you're using. See below for descriptions of the various boards.

 Port

This menu contains all the serial devices (real or virtual) on your machine. It should

automatically refresh every time you open the top-level tools menu.

 Programmer

For selecting a hardware programmer when programming a board or chip and not

using the onboard USB-serial connection. Normally you won't need this, but if

you're burning a bootloader to a new microcontroller, you will use this.

 BurnBootloader
The items in this menu allow you to burn a bootloader onto the microcontroller on an
Arduino board. This is not required for normal use of an Arduino or Genuino board
 but is useful if you purchase a new ATmega microcontroller (which normally come
without a bootloader). Ensure that you've selected the correct board from
the Board’s menu before burning the bootloader on the target board. This command
also set the right fuses.
Help

Here you find easy access to a number of documents that come with the Arduino Software

(IDE). You have access to Getting Started, Reference, this guide to the IDE and other

documents locally, without an internet connection. The documents are a local copy of the

online ones and may link back to our online website.

 Find in Reference

This is the only interactive function of the Help menu: it directly selects the relevant

page in the local copy of the Reference for the function or command under the cursor.

Sketchbook

The Arduino Software (IDE) uses the concept of a sketchbook: a standard place to store your

programs (or sketches). The sketches in your sketchbook can be opened from the File >

Sketchbook menu or from the Open button on the toolbar. The first time you run the Arduino

software, it will automatically create a directory for your sketchbook. You can view or

change the location of the sketchbook location from with the Preferences dialog.

Beginning with version 1.0, files are saved with a .ino file extension. Previous versions use
the. pde extension. You may still open. pde named files in version 1.0 and later, the software

will automatically rename the extension to. ino.

Tabs, Multiple Files, and Compilation

Allows you to manage sketches with more than one file (each of which appears in its own

tab). These can be normal Arduino code files (no visible extension), C files (.c extension), C+

+ files (.cpp), or header files (.h).

Uploading

Before uploading your sketch, you need to select the correct items from the Tools >

Board and Tools > Port menus. The boards are described below. On the Mac, the serial port

is probably something like /dev/tty.usbmodem241 (for an Uno or Mega2560 or Leonardo)

or /dev/tty.usbserial-1B1 (for a Duemilanove or earlier USB board),

or /dev/tty.USA19QW1b1P1.1 (for a serial board connected with a Keyspan USB-to-Serial

adapter). On Windows, it's probably COM1 or COM2 (for a serial board)

or COM4, COM5, COM7, or higher (for a USB board) - to find out, you look for USB serial

device in the port section of the Windows Device Manager. On Linux, it should

be /dev/ttyACMx, /dev/ttyUSBx or similar. Once you've selected the correct serial port and

board, press the upload button in the toolbar or select the Upload item from the Sketch menu.

Current Arduino boards will reset automatically and begin the upload. With older boards

(pre-Diecimila) that lack auto-reset, you'll need to press the reset button on the board just

before starting the upload. On most boards, you'll see the RX and TX LEDs blink as the

sketch is uploaded. The Arduino Software (IDE) will display a message when the upload is

complete, or show an error.

When you upload a sketch, you're using the Arduino bootloader, a small program that has

been loaded on to the microcontroller on your board. It allows you to upload code without

using any additional hardware. The bootloader is active for a few seconds when the board

resets; then it starts whichever sketch was most recently uploaded to the microcontroller. The

bootloader will blink the on-board (pin 13) LED when it starts (i.e., when the board resets).

Libraries
Libraries provide extra functionality for use in sketches, e.g., working with hardware or

manipulating data. To use a library in a sketch, select it from the Sketch > Import

Library menu. This will insert one or more #include statements at the top of the sketch and

compile the library with your sketch. Because libraries are uploaded to the board with your

sketch, they increase the amount of space it takes up. If a sketch no longer needs a library,

simply delete its #include statements from the top of your code.

There is a list of libraries in the reference. Some libraries are included with the Arduino

software. Others can be downloaded from a variety of sources or through the Library

Manager. Starting with version 1.0.5 of the IDE, you do can import a library from a zip file

and use it in an open sketch. See these instructions for installing a third-party library.

To write your own library, see this tutorial.

Third-Party Hardware

Support for third-party hardware can be added to the hardware directory of your sketchbook

directory. Platforms installed there may include board definitions (which appear in the board

menu), core libraries, bootloaders, and programmer definitions. To install, create

the hardware directory, then unzip the third-party platform into its own sub-directory. (Don't

use "arduino" as the sub-directory name or you'll override the built-in Arduino platform.) To

uninstall, simply delete its directory.

For details on creating packages for third-party hardware, see the Arduino IDE 1.5 3rd party

Hardware specification.

Serial Monitor

This displays serial sent from the Arduino or Genuino board over USB or serial connector.

To send data to the board, enter text and click on the "send" button or press enter. Choose the

baud rate from the drop-down menu that matches the rate passed to Serial. Begin in your

sketch. Note that on Windows, Mac or Linux the board will reset (it will rerun your sketch)

when you connect with the serial monitor. Please note that the Serial Monitor does not

process control characters; if your sketch needs a complete management of the serial

communication with control characters, you can use an external terminal program and

connect it to the COM port assigned to your Arduino board.

You can also talk to the board from Processing, Flash, MaxMSP, etc (see the interfacing

page for details).

Preferences

Some preferences can be set in the preferences dialog (found under the Arduino menu on the

Mac, or File on Windows and Linux). The rest can be found in the preferences file, whose

location is shown in the preference dialog.

Language Support
Since version 1.0.1 , the Arduino Software (IDE) has been translated into 30+ different

languages. By default, the IDE loads in the language selected by your operating system.

(Note: on Windows and possibly Linux, this is determined by the locale setting which

controls currency and date formats, not by the language the operating system is displayed in.)

If you would like to change the language manually, start the Arduino Software (IDE) and

open the Preferences window. Next to the Editor Language there is a dropdown menu of

currently supported languages. Select your preferred language from the menu, and restart the

software to use the selected language. If your operating system language is not supported, the

Arduino Software (IDE) will default to English.

 Arduino Yùn

An ATmega32u4 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 12 Analog In, 20 Digital I/O

and 7 PWM.
 Arduino/Genuino Uno

An ATmega328P running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and

6 PWM.
 Arduino Diecimila or Duemilanove w/ ATmega168

An ATmega168 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset.

 Arduino Nano w/ ATmega328P

An ATmega328P running at 16 MHz with auto-reset. Has eight analog inputs.

 Arduino/Genuino Mega 2560

An ATmega2560 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 16 Analog In, 54 Digital I/O

and 15 PWM.
  LilyPad Arduino

An ATmega168 or ATmega132 running at 8 MHz with auto-reset, 6 Analog In, 14

Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino Pro or Pro Mini (5V, 16 MHz) w/ ATmega328P

An ATmega328P running at 16 MHz with auto-reset. Equivalent to Arduino

Duemilanove or Nano w/ ATmega328P; 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino NG or older w/ ATmega168
Proteus PCB Design and Simulation Software – Introduction
Proteus is a simulation and design software tool developed by Labcenter

Electronics for Electricaland Electronic circuit design. It also possesses 2D CAD drawing

feature. It deserves to bear the tagline “From concept to completion”.

About Proteus

It is a software suite containing schematic, simulation as well as PCB designing.

 ISIS is the software used to draw schematics and simulate the circuits in real time.

The simulation allows human access during run time, thus providing real time

simulation.

 ARES  is used for PCB designing. It has the feature of viewing output in 3D view of

the designed PCB along with components.

 The designer can also develop 2D drawings for the product.

Using PHP

With PHP, it’s a simple matter to embed dynamic activity in web pages. When you give

pages the .php extension, they have instant access to the scripting language. From a

developer’s point of view, all you have to do is write code such as the following: How are

you? The opening command. Outside of this construct, everything is sent to the client as

direct HTML. So, the text “How are you?” is simply output to the browser;

within the PHP tags, the built-in date function displays the current day of the week according

to the server’s system time. The final output of the two parts looks like this: Hello World.

Today is Wednesday. How are you? PHP is a flexible language, and some people prefer to

place the PHP construct directly next to PHP code, like this: Hello World. Today is . How are
you? There are also other ways of formatting and outputting information, which I’ll explain

in the chapters on PHP. The point is that with PHP, web developers have a scripting language

that, although not as fast as compiling your code in C or a similar language, is incredibly

speedy and that also integrates seamlessly with HTML code.

Using PHP, you have unlimited control over your web server. Whether you need to modify

HTML on the fly, process a credit card, add user details to a database, or fetch information

from a third-party website, you can do it all from within the same PHP files in which the

HTML itself resides.

Using MySQL

Of course, there’s not a lot of point to being able to change HTML output dynamically

unless you also have a means to track the changes that users make as they use your website.

In the early days of the Web, many sites used “flat” text files to store data such as usernames

and passwords. But this approach could cause problems if the file wasn’t correctly locked

against corruption from multiple simultaneous accesses. Also, a flat file can get only so big

before it becomes unwieldy to manage—not to mention the difficulty of trying to merge files

and perform complex searches in any kind of reasonable time. That’s where relational

databases with structured querying become essential. And MySQL, being free to use and

installed on vast numbers of Internet web servers, rises superbly to the occasion. It is a robust
and exceptionally fast database management system that uses English-like commands. The

highest level of MySQL structure is a database, within which you can have one or more

tables that contain your data. For example, let’s suppose you are working on a table called

users, within which you have created columns for surname, first name, and email, and you

now wish to add another user. One command that you might use to do this is: INSERT INTO

users VALUES ('Smith', 'John', 'jsmith@mysite.com'); Of course, as mentioned earlier, you

will have issued other commands to create the database and table and to set up all the correct

fields, but the INSERT command here shows how simple it can be to add new data to a

database. The INSERT command is an example of SQL (which stands for Structured Query

Language), a language designed in the early 1970s and reminiscent of one of the oldest

programming languages, COBOL. It is well suited, however, to database queries, which is

why it is still in use after all this time. It’s equally easy to look up data. Let’s assume that you

have an email address for a user and you need to look up that person’s name. To do this, you

could issue a MySQL query such as:

The Apache Web Server

In addition to PHP, MySQL, JavaScript, and CSS, there’s actually a fifth hero in the dynamic

Web: the web server. In the case of this book, that means the Apache web server. We’ve

discussed a little of what a web server does during the HTTP server/client exchange, but it

actually does much more behind the scenes. For example, Apache doesn’t serve up just

HTML files—it handles a wide range of files, from images and Flash files to MP3 audio files,

RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds, and more. Each element a web client encounters in

an HTML page is also requested from the server, which then serves it up. But these objects

don’t have to be static files, such as GIF images. They can all be generated by programs such

as PHP scripts. That’s right: PHP can even create images and other files for you, either on the

fly or in advance to serve up later. To do this, you normally have modules either precompiled

into Apache or PHP or called up at runtime. One such module is the GD library (short for

Graphics Draw), which PHP uses to create and handle graphics.

Apache also supports a huge range of modules of its own. In addition to the PHP module, the.
What Is a WAMP, MAMP, or LAMP?

WAMP, MAMP, and LAMP are abbreviations for “Windows, Apache, MySQL, and PHP,”

“Mac, Apache, MySQL, and PHP,” and “Linux, Apache, MySQL, and PHP,” 13 www.it-

ebooks.info respectively. These abbreviations describe a fully functioning setup used for

developing dynamic Internet web pages. WAMPs, MAMPs, and LAMPs come in the form of

a package that binds the bundled programs together so that you don’t have to install and set

them up separately. This means you can simply download and install a single program and

follow a few easy prompts to get your web development server up and running in the quickest

time with the minimum hassle.

 CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7.1. Evaluation Metrics
Different evaluation metrics are usesto evaluate the performance of different models
regarding the problem at hand. Some evaluation metrics are superior for measuring the
performance of regression models, while others are more suitable for classification models.
As previously mentioned, many different types of evaluation metrics exist, but in this
research, accuracy, recall, precision, F1 score, and specificity were used in evaluating the
models’ performances.
Confusion Matrix

Accuracy
Accuracy is an evaluation metric that is used for measuring the performance of classification
or regression algorithms. Accuracy can be a problematic or misleading performance metric
when used to evaluate a model that is trained on unbalanced data. For this evaluation metric
to provide a good and reliable performance measure, the datato be used in training the model
must be balanced. Accuracy is computed by summing up the true positive (TP) and true
negative (TN) classes divided by the summation of true positive, true negative, false positive
(FP), and false negative (FN) classes, as shown in the formula below.
 Accuracy =TP + TN / TP + TN + FP + FN

Recall
Recall is another evaluation metric that is used to measure the performance of the classifier.
Recall is a correctly classified class from the classification model. Recall is computed by
dividing the true positive class by the sum of the true positive class and false-negative class,
as shown in the formula below.
Recall = TP / TP + FN
Precision
Precision is also an evaluation metric usually used together with the recall evaluation metric
to measure the performance of classification algorithms. Precision is a positive prediction
result that corresponds to the correctly classified class. Precision is computed by dividing the
true positive class by the sum of the true positive and false positive classes, as shown in the
formula below.
Precision = TP / TP + FP
F1 Score
F1 score evaluation metric is used to measure the performance of a classifier by combining
the recall andprecision evaluation metrics as one single performance measure evaluation
metric. F1 score evaluation metric is computed by multiplying the product of the precision
and recall by 2 and dividing by the sum of recall and precision evaluation metrics. 'e formula
below shows how the F1 score evaluation metric is computed.
F1 Score = 2 × (precision × recall)/precision + recall
 CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
8.1. Conclusion
The recent Asthma has exposed the world to very serious challenges in fast diagnostics and
monitoring of the outbreak. Selective sensing approaches that rely on specific and well-
defined targets, such as in PCR, have been adopted toward fast diagnostics, but substantial
pitfalls still exist. Indeed, such detection techniques are very disease-specific and their
adaptation in the case of SARS-CoV-2 mutations requires significant effort and time. On the
other hand, the use of a nonspecific sensing approach, mainly using breath samples, could go
a long way toward healthful, responsible self-care.The e-Nose system was successfully
designedand implemented to classify the exhaled breath. The methodaccuracies were 92%
Support Vector Machine—94.87%.
8.2. Future Enhancement
In future, E-Nose can be used as a platform for other medical conditions as well as meeting
its original goal of monitoring astronaut health and crew cabin air quality.
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