HUMAN ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT NUMBER : 01
TOPIC: System Of Sense organs
SUBMITTED TO :
Harika mam
GIET School of Pharmacy

SUBMITTED BY:
Seva. Haarshya Vardhini
GIET School of Pharmacy
Rajahmundry
Reference :
Byju’s
BD . Chaurasia
 Sense Organs
The knowledge that human beings need to understand the operations of the outside world
depends on their modes of sensitivity. As such, the human sensory organs are categorized
into vision, hearing, taste, touch and smell. The sense organs are made of specialized cellular
configurations that accept specific stimuli. The senses are all critical in the functioning of
human receptions to stimuli.

However, the measure of importance of every sense organ differs. In this regard, the sight is
the most imperative sensory organs followed by hearing. Touch comes in thereafter since it
also plays a critical role in determining the effects of soreness as well as necessitation of
therapeutic attention.

In organisms, a sensory organ consists of a group of interrelated sensory cells that respond to

a specific type of physical stimulus. Via cranial and spinal nerves (nerves of the Central and
Peripheral nervous systems that relay sensory information to and from the brain and body),
the different types of sensory receptor cells (such
as mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors) in sensory organs
transduct sensory information from these organs towards the central nervous system, finally
arriving at the sensory cortices in the brain, where sensory signals are processed and
interpreted (perceived).
 Eye
Humans have two eyes, situated on the left and the right of the face. The eyes sit in bony
cavities called the orbits, in the skull. There are six extraocular muscles that control eye
movements. The front visible part of the eye is made up of the whitish sclera, a coloured iris,
and the pupil. A thin layer called the conjunctiva sits on top of this. The front part is also
called the anterior segment of the eye.
The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece unit, composed of
an anterior (front) segment and the posterior (back) segment. The anterior segment is made up
of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is transparent and more curved and is linked to the
larger posterior segment, composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white shell
called the sclera. 
 An area termed the limbus connects the cornea and sclera. The iris is the pigmented circular
structure concentrically surrounding the centre of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be
black. The size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted
by the iris' dilator and sphincter muscles.
Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the pupil and then through the lens.
The lens shape is changed for near focus (accommodation) and is controlled by the ciliary
muscle. Photons of light falling on the light-sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor cones
and rods) are converted into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic
nerve and interpreted as sight and vision.
Structures surrounding the eye :
Each eye has seven extraocular muscles located in its orbit. Six of
these muscles control the eye movements, the seventh controls the movement of the
upper eyelid. The six muscles are four recti muscles – the lateral rectus, the medial rectus,
the inferior rectus, and the superior rectus, and two oblique muscles the inferior oblique, and
the superior oblique. The seventh muscle is the levator palpebrae superioris muscle. When the
muscles exert different tensions, a torque is exerted on the globe that causes it to turn, in
almost pure rotation, with only about one millimeter of translation. Thus, the eye can be
considered as undergoing rotations about a single point in the centre of the eye.


Eye and orbit anatomy with motor nerves

Image showing orbita with eye and nerves visible (periocular fat removed)

Image showing orbita with eye and periocular fat

Normal anatomy of the human eye and orbit, anterior view

Disorders of Eye :
1. Cataract — the lens becomes opaque

2. Myopia - close object appears clearly , but far ones doesn't

3. Hypermetropia - Nearby objects appears blurry

4. Presbyopia - inability to focus on nearby objects

5. Esotropia — the tendency for eyes to become cross-eyed

6. Exotropia — the tendency for eyes to look outward

7. Hypermetropia (Farsightedness) — the inability to focus on near

objects (and in extreme cases, any objects)
 8. Myopia (Nearsightedness) — distant objects appear blurred
 Ear
An ear is the organ that enables hearing and, in mammals, body balance using the vestibular
system. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear,
the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since
the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers
to the external part alone.The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles.
The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several
senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving;
the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which
enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of
the head, an arrangement that aids sound localization.
The human ear consists of three parts—the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.The ear
canal of the outer ear is separated from the air-filled tympanic cavity of the middle ear by
the eardrum. The middle ear contains the three small bones—the ossicles—involved in the
transmission of sound, and is connected to the throat at the nasopharynx, via the pharyngeal
opening of the Eustachian tube. The inner ear contains the otolith organs—
the utricle and saccule—and the semicircular canals belonging to the vestibular system, as
well as the cochlea of the auditory system
Outer ear
The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the fleshy visible pinna (also
called the auricle), the ear canal, and the outer layer of the eardrum (also called the tympanic
membrane).  formed by the pinna and the external auditory canal, which receives sounds and
directs them to the middle ear.

Middle ear
formed by the tympanic cavity and membrane, the auditory ossicles, the mastoid antrum and
air cells and the Eustachian tube.
Inner ear
 located inside the temporal bone, it is divided into the bony labyrinth and the membranous
labyrinth. Its main function is to transport the electric impulses received to the brain in the
form of sound.

The most common ear disorders

 Otitis media: an inflammation of the inner ear caused by a bacteria or virus that causes
fluid to accumulate behind the eardrum. It is not serious if treated correctly and does
not return repeatedly.
 Otosclerosis: the abnormal growth of the small bones in the middle ear. It is one of the
 most common causes of gradual hearing loss in adults, but hearing can be recovered
with surgery.
 Tinnitus: a sensation of noise in the head, such as a constant ringing or buzzing. There
is currently no scientific treatment or cure for this condition.
 Hearing loss, impairment or anacusis (deafness): the difficulty to hear due to partial,
unilateral, bilateral or total hearing loss. It may be hereditary or the consequence of an
illness, traumatism, long-term exposure to noise or aggressive medication for the
auditory nerve. Hearing aids or cochlear implants can be used to correct hearing
impairment.

Nose
The human nose is the most protruding part of the face. It bears the nostrils and is the first
organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the olfactory system. The
shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages, including
the nasal septum which separates the nostrils and divides the nasal cavity into two. On
average the nose of a male is larger than that of a female.
The nose has an important function in breathing. The nasal mucosa lining the nasal cavity and
the paranasal sinuses carries out the necessary conditioning of inhaled air by warming and
moistening it. Nasal conchae, shell-like bones in the walls of the cavities, play a major part in
this process. Filtering of the air by nasal hair in the nostrils prevents large particles from
entering the lungs. Sneezing is a reflex to expel unwanted particles from the nose that irritate
the mucosal lining. Sneezing can transmit infections, because aerosols are created in which
the droplets can harbour pathogens.
Structure:
Several bones and cartilages make up the bony-cartilaginous framework of the nose, and the
internal structure.[1] The nose is also made up of types of soft tissue such
as skin, epithelia, mucous membrane, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. In the skin there
are sebaceous glands, and in the mucous membrane there are nasal glands.The bones and
cartilages provide strong protection for the internal structures of the nose. There are several
muscles that are involved in movements of the nose. The arrangement of the cartilages allows
flexibility through muscle control to enable airflow to be modified.

.
The bony structure of the nose is provided by the maxilla, frontal bone, and a numbe The
topmost bony part of the nose is formed by the nasal part of the frontal bone, which lies
between the brow ridges, and ends in a serrated nasal notch. A left and a right nasal bone join
with the nasal part of the frontal bone at either side; and these at the side with the
small lacrimal bones and the frontal process of each maxilla. The internal roof of the nasal
cavity is composed of the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone through
which pass sensory fibres of the olfactory nerve. Below and behind the cribriform plate,
sloping down at an angle, is the face of the sphenoid bone.
The wall separating the two cavities of the nose, the nasal septum, is made up of bone inside
and cartilage closer to the tip of the nose.The bony part is formed by the perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid bone at the top, and the vomer bone below. The floor of the nose is made up of
the incisive bone and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones, and this makes up the hard
palate of the roof of the mouth. The two horizontal plates join at the midline and form
the posterior nasal spine that gives attachment to the musculus uvulae in the uvula. The two
maxilla bones join at the base of the nose at the lower nasal midline between the nostrils, and
at the top of the philtrum to form the anterior nasal spine. This thin projection of bone holds
the cartilaginous center of the nose.It is also an important cephalometric landmark.

Function:
Respiration
The nose is the first organ of the upper respiratory tract in the respiratory system. Its main
respiratory function is the supply and conditioning, by warming, moisturising and filtering
of particulates of inhaled air.Nasal hair in the. nostrils traps large particles preventing their
entry into the lungs
Sense of smell
The nose also plays the major part in the olfactory system. It contains an area of specialised
cells, olfactory receptor neurons responsible for the sense of smell (olfaction). Olfactory
mucosa in the upper nasal cavity, contains a type of nasal gland called olfactory glands or
Bowman's glands which help in olfaction. The nasal conchae also help in olfaction function,
by directing air-flow to the olfactory region

Nose and Sinus Disorders

1. Allergic rhinitis – an inflammation of the membranes lining the nose

Cerebral spinal fluid leaks
2. Chronic sinusitis with polyps – an inflammation of the sinuses that lasts more than 12
weeks and is associated with nasal polyps

3. Nasal fractures
4. Nasal masses and nasal tumors
5. Nosebleeds: Watch our video about what to do during a nosebleed(link is external)
6. Triad asthma – a clinical syndrome defined by three conditions that exist together: asthma,
aspirin sensitivity and nasal polyps
 Mouth
The mouth consists of two regions: the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the
area between the teeth, lips and cheeks. The oral cavity is bounded at the sides and in front by
the alveolar process (containing the teeth) and at the back by the isthmus of the fauces. Its roof is
formed by the hard palate at the front, and the soft palate at the back. The uvula projects
downwards from the middle of the soft palate at its back. The floor is formed by the mylohyoid
muscles and is occupied mainly by the tongue. A mucous membrane – the oral mucosa, lines the
sides and under surface of the tongue to the gums, and lines the inner aspect of the jaw
(mandible). It receives secretions from the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands.
Lips

A closed human mouth.

The lips come together to close the opening of the mouth, forming a line between the upper and
lower lip. In facial expression, this mouth line is iconically shaped like an up-open parabola in
a smile, and like a down-open parabola in a frown. A down-turned mouth means a mouth line
forming a down-turned parabola, and when permanent can be normal. Also, a down-turned
mouth can be part of the presentation of Prader–Willi syndrome.

Function :
The mouth plays an important role in eating, drinking, and speaking. Mouth breathing refers to
the act of breathing through the mouth (as a temporary backup system) if there is an obstruction
to breathing through the nose, which is the designated breathing organ for the human body.
Infants are born with a sucking reflex, by which they instinctively know to suck for nourishment
using their lips and jaw. The mouth also helps in chewing and biting food.
For some disabled people, especially many disabled artists, who through illness, accident or
congenital disability have lost dexterity, their mouths take the place of their hands, when typing,
texting, writing, making drawings, paintings and other works of art by maneuvering brushes and
other tools, in addition to the basic oral functions. Mouth painters hold the brush in their mouth
or between their teeth and maneuver it with their tongue and cheek muscles, but mouth painting
can be strenuous for neck and jaw muscles since the head has to perform the same back and forth
movement as a hand does when painting

 Tooth Problems
1.toothache
2.stained teeth
3.cavities
4.chipped tooth
5.cracked teeth
 Skin
The human skin is the outer covering of the body and is the largest organ of the integumentary
system. The skin has up to seven layers
of ectodermal tissue guarding muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs. Human skin is
similar to most of the other mammals' skin, and it is very similar to pig skin. Though nearly all
human skin is covered with hair follicles, it can appear hairless. There are two general types of
skin, hairy and glabrous skin (hairless). The adjective cutaneous literally means "of the skin" 
Skin plays an important immunity role in protecting the body against pathogens and
excessive water loss. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation,
synthesis of vitamin D, and the protection of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to
heal by forming scar tissue. This is often discoloured and depigmented.
Structure :
Skin has mesodermal cells, pigmentation, such as melanin provided by melanocytes, which
absorb some of the potentially dangerous ultraviolet radiation (UV) in sunlight. It also
contains DNA repair enzymes that help reverse UV damage, such that people lacking
the genes for these enzymes have high rates of skin cancer. One form predominantly produced by
UV light, malignant melanoma, is particularly invasive, causing it to spread quickly, and can
often be deadly. Human skin pigmentation varies among populations in a striking manner. This
has led to the classification of people(s) on the basis of skin colour

Layers
The skin has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue and guards the
underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs.[8] The epidermis is divided into several
layers, where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata
changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. After
reaching the top layer stratum corneum they are eventually 'sloughed off', or desquamated. This
process is called keratinization and takes place within weeks.
It was previously believed that the stratum corneum was "a simple, biologically inactive, outer
epidermal layer comprising a fibrillar lattice of dead keratin".[9] It is now understood that this is
not true, and that the stratum corneum should be considered to be a live tissue.[10] While it is true
that the stratum corneum is mainly composed of terminally
differentiated keratinocytes called corneocytes that are anucleated, these cells remain alive and
metabolically functional until desquamated

Skin disease :
In medicine, a dermatosis is a generic term for disease of the skin. The plural is dermatoses. It
should be distinguished from dermatitis, which is inflammation of the skin (the two terms are
related but not identical). Dermotoses covers all skin diseases, many of which are not contagious.
Dermatitis is a description of symptoms (inflammation) of some dermatoses.
Many systemic diseases express symptoms through the skin such as measles, and rubella, but
these are not categorized as dermatoses.
Skin diseases, or dermatoses, include, skin
cancer, eczema, psoriasis, acne, impetigo, scabies, sunburn, warts, fifth disease (also
called erythema infectiosum or "slapped face disease"), tinea, herpes, ulcers, and pruritis.
Some skin disorders are caused by absorption of material through the skin. Failure to use proper
skin protection (gloves, aprons, overalls etc.) can result in irritation or even poisoning.