UNIT IV

1. Room Acoustics
- Behaviour of sound in enclosed space
2. Ray- Diagram
3. Sound Paths
4. Effects of Geometry and Shape
5. Sound Absorption
6. Sound Absorption Coefficient
7. Sabine’s Formula
8. Resonant Panels

ROOM ACOUSTICS:
The shaping and equipping of an enclosed space to obtain the best possible conditions for faithful hearing
of wanted sound and the reduction of unwanted sound.

Room Acoustics deal primarily with the control of sound which originates within a single enclosure, rather
than its transmission between rooms. Sound has three stages,
1. Generation,
2. Propagation and
3. Reception.

THE BEHAVIOR OF SOUND IN ENCLOSURES:

When the sound waves strike the surface of room three things happen
1. Some of the sound is reflected back in the room.
2. Some of the sound energy is absorbed by the surfaces and listeners of the room/hall .
3. And some of the sound is transmitted out of the room through vibrations of floors, walls and
ceilings.

Note:
1. The amount of sound reflected and absorbed depends upon the different surfaces of room.
2. The sound transmitted outside the room will depend upon the sound insulation properties of walls,
floors and ceiling etc.

The physical aspects of sound in an enclosed space have been studied for almost a century. Research in
subjective room acoustics begins after World War II, and its results up to now are mainly tentative.

So far, the concept of wave propagation has been discussed without the consideration of boundaries. As
sound can be altered by its immediate environment and any further physical mediums it passes through
after initial excitation. In order to understand this better, let us consider an example of how sound
propagates in an enclosed space.
At one end of an empty room a balloon is popped which is heard by a listener at the opposite end of the
room. There are three key aspects to how the sound behaves which explain how it is perceived by the
listener.
1. After the excitation of the bang, the listener hears the direct sound after a short delay. This sound will
have travelled the shortest distance possible from the source to the listener and contains the highest
intensity.

2. Shortly after the arrival of the direct sound, waves that have been reflected (bounced) off one or more
surfaces will be heard. These are known as early reflections, and would vary in the same room depending
on the positions of the source and the listener. Early reflections provide information to listener that is used
to perceive the size of the space and the location of the source. If reflections are long, i.e. have further to
travel, they are perceived as an echo effect. They are separate from the direct sound and as such can add
changes to the timbre of the overall sound.

3. Finally, after the early reflections have arrived, sound from many other reflection paths in all directions
reach the listener.

As there are so many possible paths the effect is of a dense build up of reflections, which smears the overall
sound together. This effect is called reverberation and is a coveted feature in music sound as it adds depth
and space to sound.

The time taken for reverberation to occur is relative to the size of the room as a smaller room has a
shorter distance for all the reflections to travel. This time between the direct sound and the reverberation is
commonly known as pre-delay, the delay prior to reverberation. Sound Intensity is lost on each impact of
reflection and subsequently the reverberation decays over a duration known as the reverberation time.
When sound is generated in a room it is reflected, absorbed and transmitted in various proportions in
accordance with the nature of the construction. Fig. above attempts to analyze the ways in which this
occurs, and the following schedule is numbered to read with the drawing.

1. Sound absorbed in the air, also applicable to reflected sound.

2. Sound reflected from the wall surface.
3. Sound absorbed at the wall surface or its surface finish.
4. Sound conducted by the wall to other parts of the structure.
5. Sound emitted by resonance of the wall in both directions.
6. Sound inter-reflected between bounding surfaces, setting up reverberation.
7. Resonance of the enclosed volume of air by direct cross reflection.

Reflections from a flat surface

Fig 7 illustrates the geometry of sound reflections from a flat surface. The reflected wave fronts are
spherical and their center of curvature is the ‘image’ of the source of sound. The image is on a line
normal to the surface and at the same distance from the surface as the source.
Reflected sound rays

The first drawing in fig 8 shows that a reflected ‘sound ray’ is on a radial from the image in the case of a flat
surface. The angle of reflection of the ray is equal to the angle of its incidence to the surface.

The second drawing shows that rays striking a curved surface are each reflected so that the angle of
reflection is equal to the angle of incidence along the dotted radials drawn at their points of contact. Each
ray will in effect have its own image, the wave front will not be spherical, and must be obtained by drawing
each ray of equal total length and joining their ends.

Reflections from curved surfaces

Figs 9, 10 and 11 make a direct comparison between the reflections from flat, convex and concave surfaces.
The distance from the source to the reflector is the same in each case, the cone of sound considered is the
same, and the time interval at which the wave fronts are drawn is the same.
It will be seen, however, that the wave front from the convex surface is considerably bigger than that from
the flat surface, and the wave front from the concave surface is considerably smaller.

If follows then that sound waves reflected from convex surfaces are more attenuated (and therefore
weaker) and sound waves reflected from concave surfaces are more condensed (and therefore stronger)
than is the case with a flat surface.

Dispersion

Sound striking a modelled surface will be broken up into a number of small and weak waves, providing the
modelling of the surface is bold enough. The first drawing in fig 12 shows this, and it should be noted that
the distance between the breaks in the surface must be at least a tenth of the wave length of the sound
considered. Thus a surface with 6-inch breaks will disperse sound of 220 cycles per second and above, but
will act like a flat reflector for sounds of lower frequency.

The scattering effect of dispersive surfaces can be employed to assist in the prevention of echoes or
unwanted cross reflections.

Reflections from re-entrant angles

Sound entering a right-angled corner of a room will be reflected back towards the source, as shown in Fig
12 (A), if the adjacent surfaces are of reflective material.

In cases where this is undesirable the corner may be treated in any of the three ways shown:

B. it may be made other than a right angle,

C. one surface may be made absorbent, or
D. one surface may be made dispersive.

Sound shadows

When sound is interrupted by an obstruction a sound ‘shadow’ is formed behind it, similar to a light
shadow. Just as with light, however, diffraction occurs at the edge of the obstruction (E in fig 13), but
because of the much greater wavelengths of sound, this diffraction is considerable and wave ‘fringes’ are
formed, as shown in the drawing. Sound shadows are, however, sufficiently well-defined to cause areas of
poor audibility under the overhang of deep galleries
Sound absorption

Sound generated in an auditorium is absorbed in four ways:

1. in the air,
2. at bounding surfaces,
3. in furnishings,
4. by the audience

Air absorption
A small amount of sound is absorbed in the passage of direct and reflected sound through the air of a room.
This is caused by the frication of the oscillating molecules or air and, although negligible at low frequencies,
should be taken into a count at frequencies above 1000 cycles per second when calculating reverberation
periods.

Surface absorption
Absorption takes place whenever sound waves strike the bounding walls or surfaces or a room, and it
occurs in a number of different ways, as follows:
1. by friction at the surface,
2. by ‘penetration’ in porous materials,
3. by molecular friction in resilient materials,
4. by molecular friction in a material during resonance,
5. by transmission ‘through’ the wall by resonance,
6. by conduction through the structure.
It follows that smooth, hard, dense and heavy materials absorb least sound, and rough, soft, porous and
light materials absorb most.

Absorption by furnishings

Sound is also absorbed by furniture, curtains and any other such items which are present in the room.
Coefficients of absorption are published for a limited range of furnishings, and manufacturers of theatre
seats in some cases publish figures for the seat as a whole.

Absorption by the audience

The absorption of the audience itself is in most cases the largest single factor of a absorption in a room, and
is mainly due to the absorption of their clothing.
Because of this, room acoustics change perceptibly in accordance with the number of people present on
various occasions. Since, however, each member of the audience is covering, and making inoperative, the
absorption of a seat, a well upholstered seat will partly take his place acoustically, when he is absent. The
introduction of highly absorbent seating will thus greatly reduce the variation in acoustic conditions due to
changing numbers of audience.

The measurement of absorption

The unit of absorption still used in calculations is that devised by Professor Sabine towards the end of the
nineteenth century. It is the amount of sound absorbed by an opening of one square foot, to which he gave
the name ‘open-window-unit’ (later called a ‘sabin’). The relation between percentage absorption, open-
window-unit and coefficient of absorption is explained by the three examples shown in fig 14.

The total absorption of a given space may therefore be measured:

1. by multiplying the volume of air in the room by the coefficient of absorption per cubic foot,
2. by multiplying the total areas of all the various surfaces by their respective coefficients of
absorption,
 3. by multiplying the number of unoccupied seats by the coefficient of absorption for each person,
4. by multiplying the number of people present in the room on any occasion by the average coefficient
for each person.

And then, by totalling these values,, the total absorption of the room can be stated in open-window-units.
open

REVERBERATION
The perpetuation off reflected sound within a space after the source has ceased is called reverberation. The
time interval between reflections is usually so short that distinct echoes are not heard. Instead, this series of
reflections will blend with the direct sound to add "depth". Reverberation is a basic acoustic property of a
room. It can enrich speech and music in all areas -- or it can slur speech and generate higher noise levels
throughout a room, depending upon the room volume, timing, and absorption.
absorption

THE SHAPE OFF A SPACE DETERMINES THE SOUND PATH WITHIN THE SPACE

• Parallel reflective surfaces generates unwanted reverberation

• Reverberation time must match room function:
function
(a) Pure speech requires short reverberation time
(b) Symphony blends notes with long reverberation time
The lower part of the band is best for rooms intended primarily for speech, the upper part is better for
music rooms, and the middle portion is recommended for general purpose rooms.

STUDIES BASED ON THE AUDIBILITY of speech and music reveal that the most desirable reverberation
times generally fall within the ranges shown below. These values are based on a sound frequency of 500 Hz
(approximate pitch of male speech).

Speech Reverberation time in seconds

Small offices 0.50 to 0.75
Classrooms/lecture rooms 0.75 to 1.00
Work rooms 1.00 to 2.00
Music
Rehearsal rooms 0.80 to 1.00
Chamber music 1.00 to 1.50
Orchestral/Choral/ Average church music 1.50 to 2.00
Large organ/liturgical choir 2.00 to 2.25

A classification of typical rooms by acoustical environments

"Dead”: Very Absorptive or “Live“: Highly Reflective

SOME COMMON MATERIAL TYPES:

Absorbing Materials
• Carpet
• Soft ceiling tile
• Rigid foam
• People

Reflecting Materials
• Masonry
• Wood – smooth panels
• Smooth concrete
• Glass

Live
• Auditoriums, theaters (for music)
• Obtain proper reverberation time to enhance musical quality.
• Provide reflective surfaces near source to reinforce sound; absorptive surfaces toward rear.

Medium Live

• Conference and board rooms

• Normal speech must be heard over distances up to about 35 ft (10.66mts).
• Allow middle section of ceiling to act as a reinforcing sound-reflector.
 • Apply absorbent to periphery of ceiling or to wall surfaces (not both) because additional treatment
will contribute little to noise reduction.

Medium Dead

• Elementary-grade classrooms
• Teacher must be heard distinctly;
• Reduce noise level produced by children.
• Acoustical ceiling essential.
• Supplementary acoustical space units on upper rear and side walls are desirable.

Music rehearsal rooms

• Unlike music hall, instructor must hear individual notes distinctly;

• Minimum reverberation desired.
• Entire ceiling, sidewalls, and wall facing musicians would be treated;
• Wall behind musicians may be left sound-reflective for proper hearing.
• Room should be located away from normal use rooms.

Factors affecting reverberation

Generally speaking, however, it will be seen that the duration of reverberation depends upon:
1. the loudness of the original sound,
2. the absorbency of the bounding surfaces, furnishings and people,
3. the volume of the room and thus the length of the sound paths.

Loudness of sound tends to increase the period of reverberation, absorbent materials tend to reduce it,
and greater volume tends to increase it.

Calculation of Reverberation Time

Reverberation time is the time required for a steady-state sound to reach one millionth or -60dB of its
original intensity.
There are several models used in calculating the reverberation time but the first and most commonly used
is that of Wallace Sabine (1868-1919). The Sabine equation:

Reverberation time RT60 = k · V / A = 0.049 · V / A (V and A in feet)

Reverberation time RT60 = k · V / A = 0.161 · V / A (V and A in meter)

with the factor k = (24 × ln 10) / c20 = 0.049 (feet) or with k = (24 × ln 10) / c20 = 0.161 (meter)

RT60 = reverberation time in s (reverb time)

V = room volume in m3 or cubic feet
A = α · S = equivalent absorption surface or area in m2 or Sq.ft
α = absorption coefficient or attenuation coefficient
The terms "attenuation coefficient" and "absorption coefficient" are used interchangeably
S = absorbing surface area in m2 or Sq.ft
A = α1 · S1 + α2 · S2 + α3 · S3 + ..
c20 = speed of sound is 343 m/s or 1126 ft/s at 20°C
Examples of Reverberation Times
One way to respond to the question "What is a good range of reverberation times for concert
halls?" is to give examples of some of the most famous halls in the world. For the overall average
reverberation times:

• Vienna, Musikvereinsaal : 2.05 seconds

• Boston, Symphony Hall: 1.8 seconds
• New York, Carnegie Hall: 1.7 seconds
NUMERICAL

How to calculate the reverberation time in a room.

We will observe how changing materials in a room affects reverberation time.

Method
The reverberation time of a room can be calculated using the formula

(1)

where V is the room's volume in m3 and A is the room's absorption in m2, which can be calculated from

(2)

where Si is the surface area in m2 and α; is the absorption coefficient of each room's surface.

Calculation

Consider a classroom with the following properties:

Dimensions: 5m × 8m × 2.5m (V=100 m3)

Materials: laminate flooring
plastered walls and ceiling
In this example, the total absorption A is equal to

Using equation (2) and referring to the table of absorption coefficients given below, the absorption of the
various surfaces can be calculated:
@500 Hz

Hence the total absorption is found,

Using equation (1), the reverberation time is found to be equal to,

@1000 Hz

Table 1.1 Absorption coefficients

Material 125 Hz 250 Hz 500 Hz 1000 Hz

Plasterboard 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04
Laminate flooring 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.1
Thin carpet 0.1 0.15 0.25 0.3
Thick carpet 0.2 0.25 0.35 0.4
Suspended ceiling 0.1 0.25 0.70 0.85
Wall panel (board) 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.4
Resonance

When sound waves strike the enclosing structure of a room it is set into vibration to a greater or less extent
according to its nature. The materials vibrate at the same frequency as the incident sound waves, and in
turn emit sound on both sides of the partition. This is how sound is heard ‘through’ a wall. Walls, partitions,
floors, ceilings, panelling, etc., respond in this way – by sympathetic vibration or resonance. Heavy walls
respond less than light partitions, and partitions less than panelling.
On the other hand, any give material will respond to a varying extent according to the frequency of the sound waves
striking it. All materials have a ‘dominant response frequency’, the frequency at which they respond best, and if
this is too sharply defined it may be disturbing acoustically.

Wood panelling responds over a range of frequencies in the lower register and, if the size of the panels is
varied in a room, this frequency band can be broadened. In rooms for music, advantage is taken of this
characteristic by the employment of extensive areas of wood panelling to give richness of top. In concert
halls it is an essential part of the design.

Because of resonance, music produced on a staged platform will be louder, as well as richer in tone, than if
played on a platform of solid construction. A wood panelled apron to the platform will contribute also to
the total resonance of the construction. Panelling around and near the source of sound will be more
effective than that at a distance, being activated by stronger sound waves.

Finally it should be noted that resonance reinforces sound without appreciably prolonging it, as does
reverberation. It may therefore be usefully employed in multi-purpose halls where a short period of
reverberation is required for speech, yet some substitute for reverberation is desired in the case of music.

Air resonance
In rooms with parallel and plain opposite walls ‘standing waves’ may be set up by sounds of long
wavelength. This occurs when the wavelength coincides with the distance between the walls, or is an exact
fraction of this distance. A resonant effect is then produced which accentuates and prolongs sounds of
certain frequencies, and creates a distortion in the balance of frequencies. Changes in pitch and vibrato
effects may also occur during the decay of reverberation.

In large auditoria, with dimensions greater than about 35 feet (10.66 m) these effects will not be
discernible. In small rooms, parallel and plain opposite walls should be avoided in design, especially where
they flank the source of sound.

Sound transmission
Sound energy produced in a room is in part conducted through the structure to other parts of the building.
A small proportion of sound is lost in this way and may be a nuisance to occupants of other rooms.
Conversely, external noise can be transmitted to the interior of an auditorium by way of the structure or the
foundations, thus reducing the value of good acoustic design.

Heavy structure transmits less sound than light construction. Transmission can also be checked by
structural separation or isolation by absorbent materials. Air-bone sound transmission may equally offset
the value of good acoustic design and should be prevented by the provision of sound-absorbing lobbies,
fixed, and preferably double, glazing. Sound-absorbing screens may often be employed effectively at points
where extraneous sound may leak into an auditorium, but where sound lobbies would be inconvenient.
Reflective Surfaces
porous surfaces, such as plaster, masonry, glass and concrete, absorb generally less
Hard, massive, non-porous
than 5% of the energy of striking sound waves and reflects
reflect the rest. Such materials have heaver absorption
coefficients of 0.05 or less.

Absorptive Surfaces:
Porous materials such as acoustical tile, carpets, draperies and furniture are primarily absorptive. They
permit the penetration of sound waves and are capable of absorbing most of the sound energy. These
materials may have absorption coefficients approaching 1.00 (one sabin per sq. ft.).

Poor acoustical characteristics in

this lecture room.

Reflective surfaces near the

speaker.

In lecture rooms more than 40 feet

long-the
the rear wall should be
absorptive to prevent echoes.

??
Why Sound Conditioning is required??

As sound affects us physiologically, psychologically, cognitively and behaviourally all the time,the
time sound
around us is affecting us even though we're not conscious of it. The objective of sound-conditioning
sound is to
create a desirable space for its occupants,
occupant shielding them from unwanted noise.. With such an environment,
env
individuals show increased productivity
ctivity and property values rise. Therefore, we should not only be
designing for the appearance but also the experience,, so that we have spaces that not only sound good as
they look.
BACKGROUND NOISE:

Acceptable Background Noise Levels

As a rule, we can tolerate, and even welcome, a certain amount of continuous sound before it becomes
noise. An "acceptable" level neither disturbs room occupants nor interferes with the communication of
wanted sound.
Recommended category classification and suggested noise criteria range for steady background noise as
heard in various indoor functional activity areas as indicated in the Preferred Noise Criterion (PNC)Curves.

Type of Space (and acoustical requirements) as per PNC curve:

Type of Space (and acoustical requirements) Noise Criterion Range(as per PNC curve)
Concert halls, opera houses, and recital halls (to be 10 to 20 db
able to listen the faintest musical sounds)
Large auditoriums, large drama theaters, and Not to exceed 20 db
churches (for excellent listening conditions)
Broadcast, television, and recording studios (close Not to exceed 25 db
microphone pickup only)
Small auditoriums, small theaters, small churches, Not to exceed 35 db
musical rehearsal rooms, large meeting and
conference rooms (for good listening), or executive
offices and conference rooms for 50 people (with no
amplification)
Bedrooms, sleeping quarters, hospitals, residences, 25 to 40 db
apartments, hotels, motels, etc. (for sleeping
resting, relaxing)
Private or semiprivate offices, small conference 30 to 40 db
rooms, classrooms, libraries, etc. (for good listening
conditions)

Living rooms and similar spaces in dwellings (for 30 to 40 db

conversing or listening to radio and TV)
Large offices, reception areas, retail shops and 35 to 45 db
stores, cafeterias, restaurants, etc. (for moderately
good listening conditions)
Lobbies, laboratory work spaces, drafting and 40 to 50 db
engineering rooms, general secretarial areas (for
fair listening conditions)
Light maintenance shops, office and computer 45 to 55 db
equipment rooms, kitchens and laundries (for
moderately fair listening conditions)
Levels above PNC-60 are not recommended for communication.
MINIMIZE BACKGROUND NOISE LEVEL:

Overall noise levels which may interfere with wanted communication should always be anticipated and
corrected. Some of the following methods can be used to achieve the same:

1. Elimination of outside noise by sound attenuation in walls, ceilings and floor

2. Use of quiet mechanical equipment wherever possible.
3. Control of remaining noise by absorption-carpeting, upholstery and acoustical treatment
placed above and behind audience.
4. Individual handling of unusual noise sources - for example, isolation of a noisy movie
projector.
5. Electronic amplification of the wanted sound level above the background noise level -usually
done as a last resort.

Effects of Geometry and Shape

Shape, dimensions, construction, and contents of any room will determine how sound is transmitted,
reflected and absorbed. The way in which sound behaves in an enclosed space depends on the following
factors:

1. Attenuation due to distance.

2. Audience absorption of direct sound.
3. Surface absorption of direct and reflected sound.
4. Reflection from re-entrant angle - Sound entering right-angled corner of room will be reflected back
towards source if surfaces are acoustically reflective. This can produce echoes in large spaces.

Some Myth & Misconceptions associated with Acoustic treatment:

Myth/Misconceptions
10.Fiberglass or foam placed on a wall will prevent
sound from going through the wall.
9. Carpet on a floor will reduce sound transmission
to a room below.
8. Carpet on a floor will reduce the amount street
noise coming through a window.
7. Paint on the walls affects the acoustics of a room.
Reality
These materials only absorb sound and do not
provide a barrier to it. Heavier building materials
and resilient attachments to structure are the best
methods for isolating sound.
Carpet is a sound absorbing material mainly at high
frequencies, and has very little airborne sound
isolation properties. Carpet does, however, reduce
the amount of impact sound from footfall or things
dropped transmitting to the space below
Once again, because carpet absorbs mainly high
frequency sounds, it has negligible effect at the
mid-and low-frequencies which constitute the
vast majority of exterior sounds.
Paint has no effect on the acoustics of a room.
except, perhaps, a psycho-acoustical
e f f e c t e.g., a brightly-colored room often makes
people perceive the room as more acoustically live)
6. Egg cartons on the wall improve the sound of the
space.
5. Adding insulation to a sheetrock wall will keep all
sound from going through it.
4. A sound attenuator in an air duct will eliminate
all noise from the HVAC system.
3. The colors in a room (walls, furniture,etc.) affect
the acoustics of the space.
2. Wood is good.
1. Soundproofing
While egg cartons do have some sound-absorbing
and diffusing properties, they are concentrated in a
relatively narrow frequency band and do not effect
the quality of speech or music to any significant
degree. They also have negligible sound isolation
properties.
Insulation between stud cavities in a sheetrock
partition does improve the sound isolation value of
a partition and should be used whenever possible.
The improvement, however, is too small to bring
about an appreciable difference in the degree of
isolation, and the insulation should only be thought
of as a partial solution to upgrading the isolation of
a partition
Sound attenuators (also known as “duct silencers”
or “sound-traps”) are one of a number of tools used
for noise reduction in an HVAC system. Depending
on the distance of the air-handling unit to the
diffuser or grille in the occupied space, the ductwork
distribution and the sound levels produced by the
equipment, additional noise control measures,
including internal duct lining and acoustic plenums,
may be required.
Once again, the only effect a color in a room may
have is a psycho-acoustical perceived difference in
the sound quality.
Wood is often considered the best material to use in
a music performance space. This is only true
depending on the application of the wood. It must
be of enough thickness to not absorb low-frequency
sound where this is not desirable. It must also be
appropriately oriented and shaped to provide
reflection and diffusion to the right locations and to
not create late-arriving echoes back to the stage
and front-of-house areas.
This word is the catch-all phrase used by many for
improving anything that has to do with acoustics.
“Soundproofing” implies building a room that will
keep all possible sounds out-side the space from
transferring in, and all sounds generated in the
space from transferring out. Building construction
can be designed to attenuate a fixed degree of
sound, but cannot theoretically prevent all possible
sounds from passing through the boundaries of the
room, except in extremely rare (and expensive)
situations. Better terminology to use when
describing a client’s acoustical needs may perhaps
be “Noise Reduction” (for sound isolation) and
“Sound Enhancement” (for room acoustics).