Cognitive and Affective BCIs For Enhanced Learning Capabilities

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELAGAVI, KARNATAKA
A TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

ON
“COGNITIVIE AND AFFECTIVE BRAIN-COMPUTER

INTERFACES FOR ENHANCED LEARNING
CAPABILITES”
A report submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
Information Science & Engineering
Submitted by
NALLAGATLA SATYA VENKATA NARASIMHA (1SG19IS058)
Under the guidance of

Prof. GAYATHRI R
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

SAPTHAGIRI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bengaluru-57
2022-23
SRI SRINIVASA EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE TRUST®
SAPTHAGIRI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi and Approved by
AICTE, New Delhi)
(Accredited by NAAC with “A” grade) (NBA Accredited-CSE, ECE, EEE, ISE, ME)
(An ISO 9001:2015 & ISO 14001:2015 Certified)
DEPARTMENT OF ISE
Department of Information Science & Engineering
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the Technical Seminar (18CSS84) entitled Cognitive and Affective Brain
Computer Interface for Enhanced Learning Capabilities carried out by Mr.Nallagatla
th
Satya Venkata Narasimha (1SG19IS058),bonafide students of 8 semester,

Department of Information Science & Engineering carried out at our college Sapthagiri
College of Engineering, Bengaluru in partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelor of
Engineering in Information Science & Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi during the year 2022-23. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated
for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the Report deposited in the departmental library.
The technical seminar report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect
of Technical Seminar prescribed for the said Degree.
Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD Signature of the Principal

Prof. Gayathri R Dr. H.R. Ranganatha Dr. H Ramakrishna
Assistant Professor Professor & Head Principal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Any achievement doesn’t depend solely on the individual efforts but on the guidance,
encouragement and co-operation of intellectuals, elders and friends. A number of personalities
have helped us. We would like to take this opportunity to thank them all.
We would like to express our heart-felt gratitude to Management of Sapthagiri College

of Engineering, Bengaluru, for his help and inspiration during the tenure of the course.
We would like to express our heart-felt gratitude to Dr. H Ramakrishna, Principal,

Sapthagiri College of Engineering, Bengaluru, for his help and inspiration during the tenure of
the course.
It is great privilege to extend our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. H R Ranganatha, Head
of the Department, Information Science and Engineering, Sapthagiri College of Engineering,
Bengaluru, who patronized throughout our career, for his constant support and encouragement
and for the facilities provided to carry out this work successfully.
We also extend our thanks to Prof. Nandini Gowda P and Prof. Swetha K B,
Technical Seminar Coordinators, Dept. of ISE, S.C.E., Bengaluru for their kind cooperation
and the entire faculty of the Department of ISE, S.C.E, Bengaluru, who have encouraged us
throughout the course of Bachelor Degree.
With profound sense of gratitude, we acknowledge the guidance and support extended
by Prof. Gayathri R, Assistant Professor, Department of Information Science & Engineering,
S.C.E., Bengaluru. Her incessant encouragement and valuable technical support have been of
immense help in realizing this project. Her guidance gave us the environment to enhance our
knowledge, skills and to reach the pinnacle with sheer determination, dedication and hard work.
We also extend our sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to all faculty members and
non-teaching staff members of Information Science and Engineering, Sapthagiri College of
Engineering, Bengaluru and Parents and Siblings for their views and encouraging ideas.
NSV Narasimha
1SG19IS058
ABSTRACT
Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has the potential to positively contribute to

the educational learning environment, which faces many challenges and shortcomings. Cognitive
and affective BCIs can offer a deep understanding of brain mechanisms, which may improve
learning strategies and increase brain-based skills. They can offer a better empirical foundation
for teaching–learning methodologies, including adjusting learning content based on brain
workload, measuring student interest of a topic, or even helping students focus on specific tasks.
The latest findings from emerging BCI technology, neuroscience, cognitive sciences, and
psychology could be used in learning and teaching strategies to improve student abilities in
education. This study investigates and analyzes the research on BCI patterns and its
implementation for enhancing cognitive capabilities of students. The results showed that there is
insufficient literature on BCI that addresses students with disabilities in the learning process.
Further, our analysis revealed a bias toward the significance of cognitive process factors
compared with other influential factors, such as the learning environment and emotions that
influence learning. Finally, we concluded that BCI technology could improve students’ learning
and cognitive skills when consistently associated with the different pedagogical teaching
learning strategies for better academic achievement.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE
NO. NO.
1 INTRODUCTION 1-3
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 4-14
3 METHODLOGIES 15-21
3.1 Search Strategy 15
3.2 Selection Criteria 16
3.3 Data Extraction 17
3.3.1 Signal Acquisition 17
3.3.2 Feature Extraction 17

3.3.3 Signal Processing 18
3.4 Data Recording and Preprocessing 18
3.5 Approaches 19
3.6 Working Principle 20
3.7 Learning Effect 21
3.8 Findings 21
4 CONCLUSION & FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 23-24

4.1 Conclusion 23
4.2 Future Enhancement 24

5 REFERENCES 25
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No FIGURE NAME PAGE NO.
1.1 Representation of BCI 02

2.1 Neuro feedback based Educational BCI system 11
3.1 Flowchart of the PRISMA phases 15
3.2 Selection criteria for the relation between BCI and Education 16
3.3 Activation Patterns Obtained 19
3.4 BCI Approaches 19
3.5 Working Principle Of BCI 20
3.6 Doughnut chart showing the fraction of published articles 22
categorized by the methods used to measure the influence

factor
Cognitive and Affective BCI for Enhanced Learning Capabilities
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Learning is the cognitive process of acquiring knowledge, values, and skills through formal or
informal education and instruction. It is one of the most effective brain processes that not only
helps people develop economically, socially, and intellectually but also allows one to obtain
careers that help sustain a certain quality of life. The process of learning starts in early childhood
and is a continuous, lifelong process because the brain is constantly growing and changing in real-
time as it adapts to new information and circumstances. Formal education is considered to have
specific impacts on the development of skills, talents, potential, and knowledge. One fundamental
purpose of education is providing students with the skills relate to problem-solving, logical and
creative thinking, and succeeding in life. Measuring such awareness and skills is essential for
monitoring the growth of students and their educational performance. Educators use various
measurements throughout the learning process, including student achievement in particular
subjects, working memory capacity, attention, and cognitive skills.
Several factors, such as students’ mental health and motivation, influence formal learning. For
instance, mental health disorders or even simple stress may hinder the cognitive learning process.
An ill-adjusted child finds it impossible to focus, which requires mental wellbeing and a lack of
mental tension or difficulty. Some students face difficulties studying for examinations solely
because of various anxiety and panic paranoia. There is broad scientific evidence that a relaxed
and healthy mind can reduce stress and negative effects on learning. However, a lack of
motivation will hamper productivity and result in dissatisfaction and annoyance. In the absence of
inspiration, a student may not be motivated to learn. Students’ involvement in learning is triggered
by desires, chosen by interest, and guided by actions. Incentives could play an essential role in
motivating students in the learning process.
Presently, sensor technologies increasingly offer new approaches in education. Promising

research has been produced on brain–computer interface (BCI), and it is starting to be used in
other domains, such as education. The control of a computer by thoughts using invasive or non-
invasive brain measurements is primarily used in clinical applications— for example, the
engagement and communication between paralyzed patients and the outside world. In recent
years, growing numbers of consumer goods and applications, which focus not only on individuals
who are disabled but also on education to measure stress and concentration, have
Dept. of ISE, SCE 2022-23 Page|1

Cognitive and Affective BCI for Enhancing Student Learning Capabilities
been introduced. The brain activity can be invasively or non-invasively measured and tested
with different brain waves, such as alpha, beta, and theta waves with various BCI frequencies.
These different waves can reflect the mental states of a person. Attaching the sensor at the
prefrontal lobe helps collect information to best interpret the workings of the mind and
determine actions or behavior, as the prefrontal lobe is hugely relevant and related to the human
abilities of thinking and cognition. The research shows that when the relationship among brain
cells is amended, there can be a positive change in the transition in brain cells that improve
human functions. Using BCI as cognitive tools, the human brain can be investigated to analyze,
understand, and improve the learning process. In this paper, we focus on cognitive and affective
BCIs that reveal neural information about the affective (e.g., emotions and moods) and cognitive
(e.g., learning and memory) states of a student and that the interaction between students and
teachers can be aided by recognizing those user states.
It conducts a systematic literature review (SLR) to answer the following research questions
(RQs):
• RQ1. What are the key influencing factors for enhanced learning in education using BCI
technology?
• RQ2. What are the participants exposed to in cognitive and affective BCIs to measure the
influencing factors in the field of education and what directions have neuroscientists and neuro
education researchers pursued to assess the effectiveness of BCI applications in improving
learning strategies and enhancing cognitive capabilities?
This SLR aims to identify the different types of participants and the experimental task
procedures used to measure the learning influence components reported in literature
Figure 1.1: Representation of BCI

Brain Computer Interface (BCI) is the latest advancement of Human Computer Interaction
(HCI). BCI enables either direct generated com mands between external software applications and
human brain (active BCI) or the communication between subjects and machines that lead to a
seamless and beneficial experience for the user (passive BCI). With the help of BCI applications,
the brain can interact seamlessly with a mechanical device and is therefore considered a fast-
growing technology especially beneficial for fields such as Artificial and Computational
Intelligence.
There are many factors that have contributed positively to this development such as the
increased knowledge of neurobiological processes and machine learning algorithms (Al-Nafjan et
al., 2017). Human brain with more than 100 billion nerve cells is responsible for many complex
executive functions, like reasoning, planning of tasks and processing thoughts (Haider and Fazel-
Rezai, 2017).
As a result, the brain generates a great amount of neural activity, that can be given as input in
many BCI applications especially designed for non-disabled people. These applications can train
higher integrative abilities such as thinking, learning, production, and understanding of speech,
memory, emotion. BCI applications exist mainly as an alternative to natural communication and
control by processing the activity, which derives directly from brain generated activity and not
from the interaction with the peripheral nervous system.
For example, they can serve as a medium of communication for people who are not able to
control manually a PC, by con verting their thought, intention, or decision to a command for an
external machine, such as a computer or phone. Moreover, subjects' mental states being monitored
using an Electroencephalogram (EEG) can be analyzed with the help of a motor imagery BCI.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Student’s cognitive abilities
Description: The evaluation of cognitive ability is one of the most important aspects of the
learning process. Cognitive abilities are based on brain functions and required for all activities,
from the easiest to the most challenging. They are especially involved with the activities of
learning, remembering, and problem-solving, as well as paying attention (Plomin, 1999).
Cognitive capacities are thought of as the accelerator for goal-oriented learning, with a positive
influence on academic achievement (Winne & Nesbit, 2010). Since teacher instruction and
feedback are the key sources of information for students in the acquisition of their cognitive
skills and practices, teachers are believed, by implication, to be aware of their students’ cognitive
skills. It is therefore imperative that unfavorable information be avoided, while rapid evaluations
and actions are anticipated to stimulate the development of cognitive capacities. To realize this
imperative, instructors need to pay close attention to monitor the development of their students’
cognitive abilities, which may vary from student to student. To better comprehend students’
specific needs, investigators have started to focus on how students learn in an online setting, with
special emphasis on student involvement in online learning (Chiu, 2022), students’ memory
(Giusti et al., 2021), and their emotional and behavioral patterns throughout their academic
careers (Hewson, 2018).
One critical goal in remote learning is maintaining the student’s attention, which is the initial
stage in the learning process. While the human brain is extremely effective at processing
information, it has a finite capacity, which means it cannot respond to all external inputs and
memories simultaneously.
Time management and organizing the study environment are key to focus one’s mind on the
academic subject at hand, to avoid distractions while performing the task required to achieve the
academic goal (Kwon et al., 2018).
The pandemics has made it hard for students to participate in class face-to-face with their
teacher. One commonly adopted alternative was to provide recorded lectures for the students to
listen to later offline or in an online learning setting.

Limitations: There are several limitations that can affect student cognitive abilities. Here are
some of the most common ones:
 Genetics: Cognitive abilities are partly determined by genetics, so some students may be
naturally limited in their cognitive abilities.
 Environmental factors: Environmental factors such as poverty, malnutrition, and
exposure to toxins can negatively impact cognitive abilities. Students who grow up in
disadvantaged environments may be more likely to experience limitations in their
cognitive abilities.
 Health issues: Health issues such as chronic illnesses, sleep disorders, and mental health
conditions can affect cognitive abilities. Students who struggle with these issues may
have difficulty focusing, learning, and retaining information.
 Learning disabilities: Learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and autism can
impact cognitive abilities in specific ways. Students with learning disabilities may
struggle with certain types of tasks or information, which can limit their academic
performance.
 Lack of exposure to diverse experiences: Students who have limited exposure to diverse
experiences and perspectives may have limited cognitive abilities in areas such as
creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking.
 Lack of motivation: Lack of motivation or engagement in learning can also limit
cognitive abilities. Students who are not interested in or invested in their learning may
not fully engage with the material, which can limit their ability to learn and retain
information.
2.2 Measuring students’ cognitive abilities

Description: There are specific techniques for measuring the students’ cognitive abilities,
ranging from subjective to direct and indirect objective measures (Martin, 2014). The most
common subjective measures currently in use are: (a) questionnaires for self-reports by students,
(b) questionnaires to teachers about students, and (c) performance tests (Duckworth &
Yeager, 2015). Self-reporting and questionnaires are the simplest and quickest data collection
methods. A large body of evidence accumulated in social and cognitive psychology research
reveals that people are generally adept at conveying their real thoughts when filling
questionnaires, assuming they have answers to those questions and are satisfied reporting them
truthfully (Krosnick, 1999).

However, the subjective measures have some limitations. Self-reports are susceptible to
biases, such as stemming from the perceived pressures of social desirability, in which students
feel the need to appear good while answering the questions. Thus, students may provide a
socially acceptable response rather than the truth. Similarly, there are biases associated with
teachers’ questionnaires. For example, teachers, unlike parents who see the students in every
situation outside school, only observe the students in the classroom and may misinterpret student
actions because of their limited perceptions (Achenbach et al., 1987).
Examples of objective measures include eye-tracking and brain activity measures employing
neuroimaging techniques, such as Functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), Functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), electrocorticography (ECoG), magnetoencephalography
(MEG), and EEG (Dahlstrom-Hakki et al., 2019). The fNIRS is non-invasive, with its sensors
detecting even the smallest variations in the light to quantify changes in the concentration of
oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin. However, this method is incapable of providing
information on brain anatomy, and the inter-subject variation of the sensitivity of fNIRS might
be affected by differences in the thickness of the skull and the composition of sculp tissues,
especially in adults (Chen et al., 2020). fMRI also detects changes in blood oxygenation levels
between the states of different activations of the brain. However, it is sensitive to brain activity
at any depth and has good enough spatial resolution to locate regions of activity. fMRI has
become the primary imaging tool to identify areas of the brain that are activated in response to
performing a particular cognitive activity. However, fMRI is expensive, and it is very
susceptible to imaging artifacts from the small movements.
The MEG detects changes in the magnetic fields created by neural activity in the brain can
be used, as fMRI, to create a functional map of the brain and exactly pinpoint the areas of the
highest brain activity, but with much higher temporal resolution than in fMRI. However, this
method is similarly expensive and sensitive to movement artifacts. In contrast, ECoG and EEG
are much less expensive and both are used to monitor the gross average activity of millions of
neurons with high temporal and low spatial resolution, with the results often presented in the
form of temporal variations of oscillatory waves. However, ECoG is invasive, requiring surgery
to place the ECoG electrode array underneath the scalp. Because of this, ECoG is not
appropriate for students who do not already have an appointment set for a medical procedure
that includes opening the scalp.

2.2.1 Measuring cognitive abilities with EEG

Neuroscience research is being conducted in a wide range of cognitive areas. Learning
involves several neurocognitive processes, including memory, information processing, and
attention, which play a role in determining the results of educational activity. BCIs can be used
to get direct access to the neurocognitive processes involved in learning and have the potential
to monitor these processes and help bring educational procedures to entirely new levels. One
example is BCIs being used to determine students’ cognitive load by measuring their cognitive
states. EEG, the most widely used technology for assessing brain activity, has been used with
consistent success in the investigation of cognitive load (Hsu, 2021; Pi et al., 2021; Liu, 2021).
Independently, Li et al. (2010) identified students’ level of attention based on alpha and
theta waves in EEG records using k-nearest neighbor (kNN) and naive Bayesian
classification. In yet another approach, Sethi (2018) developed a tool to improve a student’s
attention using EEG-based neurofeedback while the subject was performing a reading
task.
In addition to attention, student interaction is another important influence factors in any style
of learning, particularly in e-learning Bernard et al. (2009). When an individual is engaged in
cognitive processing activities, synchronous neural activity is firmly established. Hyper scanning
(data collection methods that relate the neural activity of two individual brain areas) has been
used to demonstrate that face-to-face interactions modulate the association between social
variables and brain-to-brain synchrony Jiang et al. (2015); Scholkmann et al. (2013). Among
two interacting individuals, the coordination patterns of interaction reveal theta and alpha wave
synchronization in the same temporal and lateral-parietal areas of the two persons Kawasaki
et al. (2013). The degree of synchronization was examined for both couples and two strangers by
Kinreich et al. (2017) who reported that the synchronized release of adrenaline established a
paradigm for partner engagement.
Inter-brain synchronization was also discovered in another interpersonal behavioral experiment
that involved cooperative and competitive activity, showing that the inter-brain synchronization
between two individuals was much higher when two cooperated than when they competed Davis
et al. (2016). Similarly, to investigate social interaction between teachers and students in the
classroom, Bevilacqua et al. (2019) used EEG in task-based biology sessions and reported that
students with more social closeness to the instructor had better brain-to-brain synchronization
and a resemblance between brain regions during the social interaction. Taken together, these
studies suggest that the teacher can enhance their teaching methods by directly or indirectly
engaging with the students to understand their involvement and engagement with the content.

2.2.2 Measuring cognitive abilities with eye-tracking

The most widely used technique for automated attention tracking is eye tracking. Research
has solidly established that attention is associated with eye movements, gaze direction, and
visual fixation. For instance, a student’s gaze following the teacher’s directions likely indicates
that the student is cognitively engaged in the learning process. Eye-tracking was applied to
monitor the visual fixation of the student’s gaze while answering multiple-choice questions on
the computer (Tsai et al., 2012). The result showed that the students who successfully solved the
tasks were more visually concentrated on areas of diagrams related to the problem. Meanwhile,
in a study to monitor students’ attention during a lecture, Moreno-Esteva & Hannula (2015) used
gaze tracking to explore how students’ gaze shifted in response to the teacher’s gaze, voice, and
gesture signals. In a similar study, Hutt et al. (2017) used consumer-grade eye-tracking to
monitor students’ mind wandering while viewing a recorded lecture.
Limitations: Measuring student cognitive abilities is an important part of assessing their

academic performance and potential. However, there are several limitations to measuring student
cognitive abilities. Here are some of the most common ones:
 Limited scope: Cognitive ability tests typically focus on a specific set of abilities, such as
verbal reasoning or spatial intelligence. This limited scope may not fully capture the range
of cognitive abilities that students possess.
 Cultural bias: Cognitive ability tests may be biased towards certain cultural norms and
experiences, which can affect the accuracy of the results. Students from different cultural
backgrounds may have different cognitive strengths and weaknesses that are not reflected in
the test.
 Testing environment: The testing environment can have a significant impact on cognitive
ability test scores. Factors such as noise levels, distractions, and test anxiety can affect
student performance and skew the results.
 Test-taking skills: Test-taking skills can affect cognitive ability test scores, as students who
are more familiar with test-taking strategies may perform better on the test.
 Limitations of the test itself: The test may have limitations such as being too short or not
providing an adequate range of questions, which can limit the accuracy of the results.
 It is important to be aware of these limitations when using cognitive ability tests to assess
student performance. Other methods of assessment, such as teacher observation, project-
based assessments, and portfolios, can be used in conjunction with cognitive ability tests to
provide a more complete picture of student cognitive abilities.

2.3 Improve students’ cognitive abilities
Description: A student’s ability to learn may be improved by proper instruction, which can also
help students learn more effectively. In this regard, well-organized training has proven to be
most beneficial. Training of cognitive abilities that is both efficient and effective involves
undivided attention and the provision of instant feedback. One of the training techniques to
improve students’ cognition is repetition. Memory performance can be enhanced and maintained
for a long time after repetitive learning Ebbinghaus et al. (1913). A cognitive skill, with enough
repetition, can eventually become a stored routine. The student understands what skill they lack
and focuses on activities that will help them develop that skill. When a skill is practiced or
rehearsed time and again, the activities become easier and more convenient to perform and
become permanently stored for recall anduse.
Previous research has found that repetition enhancement occurs during memory encoding and
retrieval. Jape et al. (2022) believed the repetition approach using the flashcard could improve
the skills of medical students, while some other researcher showed that repetition using
interactive multimedia increased the student learning outcome (Sutarno et al., 2018). Each time
the number of repetitions increased, at least one aspect of knowledge exhibited significant
improvements (Webb, 2007). According to fndings from behavioral research, once students
were taught words and word pairs three or six times (repetition), their associative recognition
skills greatly improved (Yang et al., 2016).
Feedback is also one of the techniques to increase students’ cognitive abilities. The brain values
and prioritizes immediate associations. Items that are closely and repeatedly associated has
stronger mental connections. These types of proximity associations can be provided by
immediate feedback. Positive feedback and corrective feedback are required for good brain
training and are critical components of effective learning by providing clear guidance on how to
improve their knowledge. Students actively engaging with feedback are expected to increase
their learning and assessment performance (Race, 2001).
Teachers have been identified as key facilitators in improving student feed¬ back through
curriculum design, mentoring, and coaching (Carless & Boud, 2018). Yang & Lu (2021) have
shown that students who are willing to spend time to read the feedback on their
misunderstandings are more likely to improve their learning effectiveness.

Limitations: Improving student cognitive abilities can be challenging, and there are several
limitations to consider. Here are some of the most common ones:
 Genetics: As mentioned earlier, genetics play a role in cognitive abilities, so some students
may have a natural limit to how much their cognitive abilities can be improved.
 Environmental factors: Environmental factors such as poverty, malnutrition, and exposure
to toxins can negatively impact cognitive abilities, and addressing these factors may be
necessary before any improvement can be made.
 Learning disabilities: Students with learning disabilities may require specific interventions
and accommodations to improve their cognitive abilities. While these interventions can be
effective, they may not fully overcome the limitations caused by the disability.
 Motivation: Improving cognitive abilities requires effort and motivation on the part of the
student. Students who are not motivated to learn or who do not see the value in improving
their cognitive abilities may not be receptive to interventions.
 Limited resources: Schools and educators may have limited resources to devote to
improving student cognitive abilities. Interventions such as tutoring or providing exposure
to diverse experiences can be expensive and time-consuming.
 Developmental stage: Students' cognitive abilities may vary depending on their
developmental stage, and interventions that are effective for younger students may not be
effective for older students.
2.4 Education
Description: There are a number of different educational theories that have been proposed and
developed over the years. Each theory has its benefits and drawbacks, and each has been
influential in shaping the way education is delivered today. The basic education theory is
cognitivism, behaviorism, and constructivism (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). Cognitivism is a theory
that focuses on the cognitive aspects of learning. This theory emphasizes the importance of
understanding and remembering information, and it believes that students can learn most
effectively by studying material relevant to their interests and experiences. Behaviorism is a
theory that emphasizes the role of conditioning in learning. It suggests that all behavior is a
result of conditioning and that behavior can be controlled through the use of rewards and
punishments. Constructivism is a theory that emphasizes individuals’ role in shaping their
learning experience. It suggests that knowledge is not static and that it can be modified through
the use of feedback and collaboration. Three theories have their strengths and weaknesses, and it
is important to weigh them against each other before deciding which education theory to use.

Figure 2.1: Neurofeedback-based educational BCI system
There are a number of advantages to using online methods of learning. First, students can get the
same quality of instruction they would receive in a traditional classroom setting, but without the
inconvenience of having to travel to class or miss important work commitments. Second, online
courses are often less expensive than traditional college courses (Yuhanna et al., 2020). Finally,
online learning allows students unable to attend classes in person to receive a quality education
still.
Despite these advantages, there are some drawbacks to online learning. First, many online
courses do not offer the same level of interactivity and feedback available in traditional
classrooms (Dumford & Miller, 2018). Second, students may feel less engaged when they
cannot engage directly with the instructor or other classmates. Finally, many online courses do
not have an equivalent curriculum to traditional courses, making it difficult for students to know
what they are taking and how it will contribute to their overall education.
Limitations: There are several limitations to education as a system of learning and knowledge
dissemination. Here are some of the most common ones:
 Inequality: Education systems can perpetuate inequality by providing unequal access to
resources and opportunities based on factors such as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
and geography. This can result in a disparity of educational outcomes for different groups of
students.
 Standardization: Education systems often emphasize standardization, which can limit the
flexibility and creativity of teaching and learning. This can result in a one-size-fits-all
approach that does not meet the needs of all students.

 Testing culture: Education systems often place a heavy emphasis on testing and assessment,
which can lead to a culture of teaching to the test and a focus on rote memorization rather
than deeper learning and understanding.
 Resource constraints: Education systems may be constrained by limited resources, including
funding, materials, and qualified teachers. This can limit the quality of education that
students receive.
 Outdated curriculum: Education systems may use outdated curriculum that does not reflect
the needs of a changing society, including new technologies, social and cultural changes,
and emerging fields of study.
 Lack of teacher training: Teachers may not receive adequate training or professional
development opportunities to keep up with changing educational practices and needs. This
can limit their ability to effectively engage and teach students.
 Unpreparedness for real-world challenges: Education systems may not adequately prepare
students for real-world challenges, including workforce readiness, financial literacy, and
civic engagement.
2.5 Cognitive design of educational brain-computerinterfaces

Description: At the present stage of development, the use of most brain-computer interfaces
aims to train skills and develop cognitive abilities, as well as collect user data to overcome
illiteracy and improve technology. It is also worth noting the success of the introduction of
brain-computer interfaces to track well-being, and self-care, as well as combating the complex
of hyperactivity or lack of attention of children. The brain-computer interface is also used for
navigation and space mastery experiments, consciousness loading, and neuroaesthetics
research. The most important task, that the educational environments enforced with the brain-
computer interface can solve is human-computer interaction skills development and training.
Also, such networks can provide platforms for needed and implemented workforce abilities of
new trends such as neuromanagement. The central subject of those research is the decision-
making process and one of the last popular directions of this approach is an implementation of
skills and increasing of efficiency of working activity by self-development and training. The
feature of human mental action is neuroplasticity, which allows to increase own activity in
work and daily life by consciousness augmentation, which influence is so expected nearest
time. The brain-computer literacy becomes really needed to create abilities and to develop
neuroplasticity moderation and using it for improving the efficiency of own activities and one
of the obvious ways its implementation is educational environments, where students can
combine training of special and new skills.

Limitations: The cognitive design of educational brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) has several
limitations. Here are some of the most common ones:
 Individual variability: There is significant individual variability in cognitive abilities
and learning styles, which makes it difficult to design BCIs that work well for all
students.
 Limited understanding of cognitive processes: While researchers have made progress in
understanding how the brain processes information, there is still much we do not know.
This limits our ability to design BCIs that effectively target specific cognitiveprocesses.
 Ethical concerns: The use of BCIs in education raises ethical concerns, including issues
related to privacy, autonomy, and informed consent. These concerns may limit the
development and adoption of BCIs in educational settings.
 Technical limitations: Current BCIs have technical limitations, including issues related
to accuracy, reliability, and user-friendliness. These limitations may make BCIs less
effective or less accessible to some students.
 Cost: The development and implementation of BCIs can be costly, which may limit
their availability to schools and students who do not have the financial resources to
invest in them.
 Integration with existing educational systems: Integrating BCIs with existing
educational systems can be challenging, particularly if those systems are not designed
with BCIs in mind. This can limit the adoption and effectiveness of BCIs in educational
settings.
2.6 Brain computer interface based applications for training and
rehabilitation of students with neurodevelopmental disorders
Description: According to Ramadan and Vasilakos (2017) BCI is a compact system that
includes software and hardware tools to extract useful information from human signals that are
able to provide control output for several communication devices and computers. Definition
presented in the literature describes the whole range of functions of a BCI in terms of receiving,
editing, sorting and utilizing brain wave signals from a human brain with neuromuscular
deficiencies and degenerative nerve diseases (Schwartz, 2004; Wolpaw and Wolpaw, 2012). BCI
detects a plethora of brain signals, namely Delta within the frequency scale of 0.5–3.5 Hz, Theta
within 3.5–7.5 Hz, Alpha within 7.5–12 Hz, Beta within 12–30Hz and Gamma signals with
frequency range of 31 and up.

EEG activity can be captured from the very beginning of providing a stimulus, which can
generate with a time-delay a noticeable electrical wave in EEG, up until the end when the EEG
will settle down. Forming a BCI system requires the following steps: signal acquisition, signal
pre-processing, signal classification and data manipulation (Rao et al., 2012, Ramadan et al.,
2015; Haider and Fazel- Rezai, 2017; deCharms et al., 2005; Strehl et al., 2006). BCIs primarily
facilitate communication for people with severe motor disability that cannot communicate other
wise but may provide useful communication and rehabilitation of different disorders even for
healthier people or people with less critical movement disorders. BCI research can capitalize
on advances in cogni tive neuroscience when dealing with training tasks, feedback analysis,
accessibility, concentration, exhaustion, stimulation and distress among others (Allison et al.,
2007; Allison, 2009). Li et al.
Limitations: Brain-computer interface (BCI) based applications have shown promise for
training and rehabilitating students with neurodevelopmental disorders. However, there are
several limitations to consider:
 Access and cost: BCI technology can be expensive and may not be accessible to all
students with neurodevelopmental disorders, particularly those from low-income families
or in developing countries.
 Individual differences: Neurodevelopmental disorders are highly variable and present
differently in each individual. BCI applications may need to be personalized and adapted
to meet the specific needs of each student, which can be time-consuming and resource-
intensive.
 Limited evidence base: While there is some evidence supporting the use of BCI
applications for training and rehabilitation of students with neurodevelopmental
disorders, the evidence base is still relatively limited. More research is needed to
understand the efficacy and limitations of BCI-based interventions.
 Technical challenges: BCI technology is still relatively new and developing rapidly.
Technical challenges include issues related to accuracy, reliability, and user-friendliness,
which can limit the effectiveness of BCI-based applications for students with
neurodevelopmental disorders.
 Ethical concerns: As with any technology that interfaces with the brain, BCI-based
applications raise ethical concerns related to privacy, autonomy, and informed consent.
These concerns must be carefully considered and addressed in the development and
implementation of BCI-based interventions.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1. SEARCH STRATEGY
This SLR followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analyses recommendation. An online search was conducted in the following digital
databases: IEEEXplore, Scopus, PubMed, and Science Direct. The search was performed
between July 2020 and early December 2020, covering 10 years of publication (2011–2020),
to capture the most recently used BCI technology in education and the see the future
direction in BCI (http://bnci-horizon-2020.eu/images/bncih2020/FBNCI _Roadmap.pdf).
The search also limited the title of the document to reduce the search result. The primary
search string used to search for relevant literature was the following: (BCI or ‘‘brain–
computer interface’’ or EEG or electroencephalogram*) and (educate* or attention or student
or learn* or concentrat* or ‘‘cognitive activity.’’) The search string was adjusted for each
specific database. After screening the title, we excluded duplicated publications. The titles
and abstracts of all listed literature were screened to identify relevant studies. We retrieved
and screened the full text of all relevant articles using inclusion criteria to determine the
article’s validity as being significant by using the cross checked method between theauthors.
Figure 3.1: Flow chart of the PRISMA phases

3.2. SELECTION CRITERIA

Studies were included in this systematic review if they met the following inclusion
criteria(IC): (IC1) studies in which participants are students or children (normal (i.e,
healthy) or with disabilities) because educational needs are different at different ages,
children with these disabilities such as dylexia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) struggle with learning and that affects their brain functions, particularly paying
attention and memory; (IC2) teacher as a support system for the student in education; and
(IC3) the influencing factors that can enhance learning in education. The primary
influences chosen for this review were attention and concentration, measured by BCI.
However, no limitation was set on the component that can influence learning, such as
learning style, stress, emotion, and the learning environment. The exclusion criteria (EC)
for this review were as follows: (EC1) published before 2011; (EC2) publications that were
neither peer-reviewed or were review; (EC3) non-English articles; (EC4) studies that
recruited subjects unrelated to education; and (EC5) studies that were indirectly related to
education or were out of the scope of the component that can enhance learning. Figure 2
illustrates the stages of the selection process.
Figure 3.2: Selection Criteria for the Relation between BCI and
Education

3.3. DATA EXTRACTION

With the help from a librarian, a full-text article was retrieved for each study that met
the inclusion criteria. We extracted the characteristics of the selected articles, including the
type of participants, component for enhancing the learning, and participants’ task or method
to measure the enhancing factors. We categorized the influencing factors that can enhance
learning into the following four major groups:
• The cognitive process factor, which is related to processes that affect cognition, including
attention, concentration, confusion, memory, engagement in cognitive activity or skills, and
motor skills.
• The individual and behavioral factor, which is how student learns, including learning
style, performance and learning level, sleep, self-efficacy, and learning behavior.
• The affective/emotional factor, which involves feelings that can affect outcomes,
including motivation, emotion, and stress.
• The learning-environment factor, which is the condition and place of the learning process.
3.3.1 SIGNAL ACQUISITION

Signal acquisition is the first step in a BCI process. When we think that the brain
consists of sections that perform different operations, the electrodes that will be placed close
to the relevant section provide information about that region [12]. BCI systems are realized
by analyzing electrodes of different combinations and the electrical signals received from
these electrodes in different ways. There are three ways to detect the electrical reflections of
electrochemical interactions of electrodes and neurons in BCI systems [13]. Figure 3 briefly
shows the computer interfaces and Signal Acquisition methods.
3.3.2 FEATURE EXTRACTION

In order to use the recorded signals purposefully, some features that best express the
signal should be determined and studied with these features. These characteristics are called
‘attribute’ in the literature and are stored in a feature vector. Briefly, the feature extraction
process is defined as the conversion of signals into a form that facilitates the classification.
Another purpose of the feature extraction process is to reduce the size of the data to be
classified. The selection of the attribute is done in such a way as to answer the questions
about which features will be selected and what the amount will be there and there are
different features such as time domain, frequency domain and spatial domain.

3.3.3 SIGNAL PROCESSING

After summarizing the digital brain signal data and extracting some of its features, the
patterns in this information should be scanned and recognized. This is the only way the BCI
system can "understand" which commands to perform. Various classifiers are used to
analyze the properties of the collected data.
Classifiers used in BCI research
• linearclassifiers
• neural networks
• nonlinear Bayes classifiers
• the nearest neighborhood classifiers
• combined classifiers
3.4. DATA RECORDING AND PREPROCESSING

All participants had normal or corrected to normal vision, no reported neurological
disorders and were right-handed (with one exception). 32 electrodes (Acticap brain
products) were used for the recording at a sampling rate of 500 Hz and placed according to
the 10/20 system (Jasper, 1958) with the reference at right mastoid and the ground electrode
at AFz. The data was bandpass filtered between 0.4 - 40 Hz and re-referenced to common
average. To remove artifacts a threshold of 100 µV was chosen and all trials exceeding this
level were discarded, whereas trials including EOG artifacts were corrected using
independent component analysis (ICA), in which artefactual independent components were
removed by visual inspection. After these steps, trials were sorted and more trials were
discarded. The first four trials of each block, for example, as they were always congruent
non-targets, were removed as well as all congruent trials following incongruent trials
because the so called Gratton effect (the effect caused by the incongruence is bigger if the
incongruent trial follows a congruent trial compared to an incongruent trial), should not
influence the analysis. Further all trials in which the subject did not respond correctly to the
n-back task were removed from the dataset. On average this resulted in 215 trials per
subject which could be used for the analysis. More details can be found in the corresponding
publication (Scharinger, Soutschek, et al., 2015).

Figure 3.3: Activation patterns obtained
3.5 APPROACHES
Figure 3.4: BCI Approaches

• Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the grey matter of the brain during
neurosurgery.
• Electrocorticography (ECOG) measures the electrical activity of the brain taken from
beneath the skull in a similar way to non-invasive electroencephalography but the
electrodes are embedded in a thin plastic pad that is placed above the cortex, beneath the
dura mater.
• Electroencephalography in conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained by placing
electrodes on the scalp with a conductive gel or paste, usually after preparing the scalp
area by light abrasion to reduce impedance due to dead skin cells. Many systems
typically use electrodes, each of which is attached to an individual wire.
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG) MEG detects the tiny magnetic fields created as
individual neurons "fire" within the brain. It can pinpoint the active region with a
millimeter, and can follow the movement of brain activity as it travels from region to
region within the brain.

3.6. WORKING PRINCIPLE
Figure 3.5: Working Principle of BCI
 BCIs measure brain activity, process it, and produce control signals that reflect the user’s
intent.
 Any natural form of communication or control requires peripheral nerves and muscles.
 The intent triggers a complex process in which certain brain areas are activated.
 Signals are sent via the peripheral nervous system to the corresponding muscles.
 Activity resulting from this process is often called motor output or efferent output.
 BCI offers an alternative to natural communication and control.
 BCI directly measures brain activity associated with the user’s intent and translates the
recorded brain
 activity into corresponding control signal for BCI applications.
 Since the measured activity originates directly from the brain and not from the peripheral
system or muscles, the system is called Brain-Computer Interface.

3.7. LEARNING EFFECT

To evaluate if the EEG-based learning environment works and how it compares to an
error- adaptive learning environment, we analyzed the learning effect of each subject by pre-
and post-tests. Furthermore, the learning effects between the experimental and control group
were compared.
Table 1: Number of correctly solved trials in the pre-and post-test, as well as the learned
factor for each subject of the experimental group and overall subjects.
Table 2: Number of correctly solved trials in the pre- and post-test, as well as the learned
factor for each subject of the control group and overall subjects.
3.8. FINDINGS
We reviewed numerous studies and retrieved 288 articles, but after screening using
the qualifying criteria, only 40 articles were included. Because certain databases did not
provide particular study type filters, EC3 was employed once again. In addition, some
reviews and survey papers were mislabeled as a type of journal article. This section
summarizes the review’s results and discusses them in separate subsections in responses to
each of the research questions. It was created using the metadata from the publications
included in the SLR. Of 339 keywords, the most occurrences keywords are eye tracking
with 19 times occurrences, followed by e-learning 15 times and students 13 times.
The spelling for the keyword reflects the occurrences. For instance, the keywords “eye
tracking” and “eye-tracking” were counted as different. 54 keywords appear at least 2 times
and 285 keywords only appear once in published articles

Figure 3.6: Doughnut chart showing the fraction of published articles categorized
by the methods used to measure the infuence factor
Studies have shown that cognitive and affective BCI can improve learning strategies and
enhance student capabilities by providing personalized feedback and training that adapts to the
individual's cognitive and emotional states. For example, one study found that a cognitive BCI
system that provided real-time feedback on attention and engagement levels helped students to
maintain focus and improve their performance on a memory task.
Affective BCI has also been shown to be effective in improving emotional regulation and
reducing stress. For example, a study found that a wearable affective BCI device that monitored
physiological signals and provided real-time feedback helped individuals to regulate their
emotional states and reduce their stress levels.
Moreover, cognitive and affective BCI have potential applications in neurorehabilitation for
patients with brain injuries or neurological disorders. Studies have shown that cognitive and
affective BCI can be used to improve cognitive and emotional functions in these patients and
promote recovery.

CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
This SLR examined various studies concerning the influencing factors in learning processes
using EEG and participant groups. We classified influencing factors into four categories—(i)
cognitive process factor, (ii) individual and behavioral factor, (iii) Affective factor, and (iv)
environment factor—with two groups of participants, namely, (i) normal and (ii) disabled. There
is a positive outcome of developing more BCI applications for education and learning to
measure students’ cognitive abilities. The results showed that the interest in using BCI for
educational purposes is promising, indicated by various measurements of influencing factors to
enhance academic performance. Although the BCI can significantly impact the education field,
its implementation should be driven by following policies for effective education and healthy
pedagogy.
With the current situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, education systems are being disrupted,
and schools and institutions’ closures have impacted the student population worldwide. This
crisis has challenged school systems, and students have had to tap into their own resilience and
resources to continue learning. Teachers also had to adjust to new pedagogical principles and a
flexible style of delivery. Under these circumstances, students can face a negative impact on
wellbeing and emotions. Neuro education could be used as a backbone, especially for teachers,
for understanding the student brain to support future academic success in any circumstance.

FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS
Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) have the potential to revolutionize how we interact with
machines and enable people with disabilities to control devices with their thoughts. Here are
some future enhancements for BCI that could lead to even greater advancements in this
field:
 Increased accuracy: One of the biggest challenges for BCI is achieving high accuracy
in translating brain signals into control signals. Future research may focus on
developing more advanced signal processing techniques and machine learning
algorithms to improve the accuracy of BCI.
 Greater speed: Another challenge for BCI is achieving real-time performance,

especially for applications that require fast response times, such as control of
prosthetic limbs. Future enhancements may include the development of faster and
more efficient signal processing techniques and machine learning algorithms.
 Improved ease of use: BCI systems can be difficult and time-consuming to set up and
calibrate, which can limit their practical use. Future enhancements may focus on
developing more user-friendly and intuitive interfaces, as well as reducing the time
and effort required for calibration.
 Wireless and portable devices: Current BCI systems often require users to be tethered
to a computer, which can limit mobility and practical use. Future enhancements may
include the development of wireless and portable BCI devices that can be used on the
go.
 Multi-modal BCIs: Combining different BCI modalities, such as EEG and fNIRS, can
provide complementary information about brain activity and improve the accuracy
and reliability of the BCI. Future enhancements may focus on the development of
more advanced multi-modal BCIs that can combine multiple modalities in real-time.

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Cognitive and Affective BCIs For Enhanced Learning Capabilities

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Cognitive and Affective BCIs For Enhanced Learning Capabilities

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

A TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

“COGNITIVIE AND AFFECTIVE BRAIN-COMPUTER

Under the guidance of

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

Department of Information Science & Engineering

Satya Venkata Narasimha (1SG19IS058),bonafide students of 8 semester,

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD Signature of the Principal

We would like to express our heart-felt gratitude to Management of Sapthagiri College

We would like to express our heart-felt gratitude to Dr. H Ramakrishna, Principal,

Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has the potential to positively contribute to

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 4-14

3.2 Selection Criteria 16

3.3 Data Extraction 17

3.3.1 Signal Acquisition 17

3.3.2 Feature Extraction 17

3.4 Data Recording and Preprocessing 18

3.6 Working Principle 20

3.7 Learning Effect 21

4 CONCLUSION & FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 23-24

4.2 Future Enhancement 24

1.1 Representation of BCI 02

categorized by the methods used to measure the influence

Presently, sensor technologies increasingly offer new approaches in education. Promising

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Figure 1.1: Representation of BCI

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2.2 Measuring students’ cognitive abilities

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2.2.1 Measuring cognitive abilities with EEG

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2.2.2 Measuring cognitive abilities with eye-tracking

Limitations: Measuring student cognitive abilities is an important part of assessing their

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2.3 Improve students’ cognitive abilities

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Figure 2.1: Neurofeedback-based educational BCI system

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2.5 Cognitive design of educational brain-computerinterfaces

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Figure 3.1: Flow chart of the PRISMA phases

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3.2. SELECTION CRITERIA

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3.3. DATA EXTRACTION

3.3.1 SIGNAL ACQUISITION

3.3.2 FEATURE EXTRACTION

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3.3.3 SIGNAL PROCESSING

3.4. DATA RECORDING AND PREPROCESSING

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Figure 3.3: Activation patterns obtained

Figure 3.4: BCI Approaches

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3.6. WORKING PRINCIPLE

Figure 3.5: Working Principle of BCI

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3.7. LEARNING EFFECT

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