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Module Title: War and Insurgency in The Middle East since 1945

Module Code:
7SSWN013
(e.g. 5AAOB000)

Hezbollah’s strategy to liberate southern Lebanon between 1985-

Assignment:
2000
(may be abbreviated)

Assignment tutor/group: Dr. Ahron Bregman

Deadline: January 20,2023

Date Submitted: January 20,2023

Word Count: 2854

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Essay Question-Assess Hezbollah’s strategy to liberate southern Lebanon between 1985 and

2000.

Hezbollah meaning the “party of Allah or god” is a Shiite Muslim political party and a

militant group which is based in Lebanon and with its organizational structure and social

programs along with military might is sometimes referred as a “state within a state”1.The

group has grown under the tutelage of the Iranian government and is thought by many to act

as a proxy of the Iranian government. In this essay we will look at how the group used

political and military means, unconventional warfare to force Israel to drive out from

southern Lebanon in the year 2000.The paper focuses on the strategy used by the

organization from the period of 1985-2000 to achieve its aims. It was successful because of

the Hezbollah’s ability to adapt to the changing conditions, tactical proficiency, and

pragmatism.

First, let us look at the factors which led to the birth of Hezbollah. Ever since Lebanon gained

its independence from France in the year 1943, the country’s Shia community felt alienated

due to inadequate political say in the government. Beginning in the 1960s leaders like Musa-

al Sadr started organizing the community and demanding a greater say in Lebanon’s affairs

and with the Lebanese civil war, these groups started to arm themselves, but Sadr’s Amal

remained a weak player2. Although Hizballah evolved from Lebanon's civil war, its roots run

much deeper, dipping into generations of poverty and desperation in Lebanon's Shia majority

1
Kali Robinson, “What Is Hezbollah?,” Council on Foreign Relations, September 1, 2020,
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-hezbollah.
2
Daniel Byman, “The Birth of a Monster,” A High Price, June 15, 2011, 209–21,
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780195391824.003.0015.
Israel launched “Operation Litani” in 1978 against the Palestine Liberation Organization in

southern Lebanon. Israel erected a security cordon along Lebanon's border, which was

controlled by an Israeli-backed militia, making it the first time most of the southern Lebanese

were living under occupation3.Finally, the Iranian revolution of 1979 energized the Shiite

community, “Many young clerics had studied in the same seminaries (often in Iraq) that had

educated Iran’s new leadership4.” Despite the major role of the local Shiite community the

tension between them and Palestinians remained high and when Israelis first came into

southern Lebanon they were greeted by ‘flowers’. There was a dire need of an strong

organisation which would take up the issue of Shiite community. The Lebanese clerics and

the Iranian clergy were already talking about importing the revolution to Lebanon and

creating an armed struggle against Israel. The final push happened with Israel launching

“Operation Peace for Galilee” in 1982 which aimed at establishing a pro-Israeli government.

It also allowed for the deployment of 1,500 Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps into what

quickly became a Shi'ite hotspot. Former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak stated that,

“When we entered Lebanon… there was no Hezbollah. We were accepted with perfumed rice

and flowers by the Shia in the south. It was our presence that created Hezbollah5.”

The period from 1982-1985 saw Hezbollah in its nascent stage without official political

goals. Still the organization was surprisingly successful and effective which led to the retreat

of Israel from large parts of Lebanon and the complete withdrawal of the Multinational force

3
Nicholas Blanford, “Lebanon: The Shiite Dimension | Wilson Center,”
www.wilsoncenter.org, July 13, 2022, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/lebanon-the-
shiite-dimension.
4
Daniel Byman, “The Birth of a Monster,” A High Price, June 15, 2011, 209–21,
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780195391824.003.0015.
5
David Sousa, “Three Phases of Resistance: How Hezbollah Pushed Israel out of Lebanon,”
E-International Relations, April 28, 2014, https://www.e-ir.info/2014/04/28/three-phases-of-
resistance-how-hezbollah-pushed-israel-out-of-lebanon/.
in Lebanon by 1984. So, Hezbollah strategy in this period also warrants a look. The

organization lacked a grand strategy in this period and was yet to achieve political unity and

was mainly operating under the directives of its Iranian handlers. Suicide bombings

particularly proved to be very effective and helped in bridging the tactical gap between the

organization and the superior IDF. Naim Qassem who was the deputy secretary general of

Hezbollah said that the martyrdom operations were not an end but a means to reach

Hezbollah aims6. The bloody incidents of the bombing of IDF headquarters in Tyre which

killed 75 Israeli officials and the attacks on the United States embassy, followed by

simultaneous attacks on both U.S marine barracks and headquarters of French paratroopers

shook the western psyche as this novel tactic of suicide bombing inspired fear as this was an

alien concept before that time.  “Over 600 Israeli servicemen were killed in suicide car bomb

attacks between 1982 and 1985, almost three times as many would be killed in the ensuing 15

years”7. Within, a few months this grand tactic paid off which led to the withdrawal of

American and French troops. This and the retreat by the Israeli forces to the ‘security zone’, a

narrow strip of 328 sq. miles boosted the image of Hezbollah among the Shiite population

and made them the main player in the resilience against Israel beating out their rivals. The

disarray caused by fragmentation of Beirut into two administrations provided an opportunity

for the militization of the country. Hezbollah “used the political turmoil as a window of

opportunity to gain traction also in the form of a political movement striving to carry on “the

6
Iver Gabrielsen, “Hezbollah’s Strategy and Tactics in the Security Zone from 1985 to 2000 |
Small Wars Journal,” smallwarsjournal.com, November 7, 2013,
https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/hezbollahs-strategy-and-tactics-in-the-security-zone-
from-1985-to-2000.
7
Dassa Dalia Kyle. “The Israeli Decision to Withdraw from Southern Lebanon:
Political Leadership and Security Policy.” Political Science Quarterly 117 (2002):
568-71
resistance” against the ongoing Israeli occupation”8.So, the organisation in this period carried

out guerrilla warfare attacks and in-spite of a lack of a clear vision was able to achieve its

objectives. A grand strategy was lacking in this period, although an alliance with Iran was

guaranteed which provided the organisation with both arms and funding to fund its operation.

This alliance proved to be extremely helpful to Hezbollah and provided Iran with a way to

make play in the region.

The second period to focus on is from 1985-1990 which marked a shift in the policy of

Hezbollah with it formally recognizing its existence with the publication of manifesto titled

“Open Letter “and stated its ideological goals very clearly. The four fundamental objectives

were the expulsion of the American and French forces, bringing an Islamic system to govern

in Lebanon, expulsion of Israel from Lebanon and bringing the Phalangists to justice for their

crimes against Muslims. These goals were progressive in nature and were a prelude to a

greater Islamic state and obliteration of Israel in totality. The organisation till now had no

interest in sectarian rights of the Shiite community because of its preoccupation with Israel in

the period9.The neglection of Shiite community and the preoccupation with Israel stemmed

from a clever move by the Hezbollah that makes it difficult for critics to mark their resistance

as just one being for political legitimacy and gaining power. The organisation continued with

suicide bombings and used direct attacks on both the IDF and the SLA. These direct attacks

proved to very costly for the Hezbollah against the much tactically superior opponents and

were described as amateur. By 1987, Hezbollah had to reassess this tactic of direct

confrontation with the enemy due to the high casualties which the organisation couldn’t

8
“23 a Report on Recent Developments in the Middle East and the Muslim World,” 2016,
https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/419768fb702cb9b7c2e8a6230de78e8957cdeea154ca3.pdf.
9
Amal,Saad-Ghorayeb. Hizbu'llah : Politics and Religion. London: Pluto Press, 2001.
Accessed January 17, 2023. ProQuest Ebook Central. 115
afford10.The organisation adopted a new tactic of kidnapping and hijackings which was aimed

mostly at the westerners and helped in giving Hezbollah a bargaining chip, and securing the

release of prisoners and served as a political tool as well. In 1984,more than 100 people were

kidnapped by the group11. In one case in 1986 , “it was revealed that the US was willing to

trade arms to Iran in return for the release of Americans being held by Hezbollah in

Lebanon”12. These kidnappings signalled to the public that the government in the centre is

helpless and weak and they should support the organisation as well. On the domestic front,

After the armistice between Amal and PLO in 1988,all-out war broke between Amal and

Hezbollah. Hezbollah lost a considerable number of men in these clashes and the group was

expelled from southern Lebanon and came back six months later and was successful in

gaining back their areas from Amal13.In the end a deal was negotiated by their sponsors Iran

and Syria which left Hezbollah with the task of fighting Israel alone with a promise of not

entering domestic political stage and leaving the aim of establishing a Islamic state.

The Hezbollah came into conflict with Israel in southern part of Lebanon. The local

population which was already suffering from the retaliations by the Israeli forces didn’t

appreciate the imposition of strict Islamic laws on them by the organisation. Even coffee

shops were closed down and the economy was in a dire strait, with no tourists and ban on

10
Iver Gabrielsen, “Hezbollah’s Strategy and Tactics in the Security Zone from 1985 to 2000
| Small Wars Journal,” smallwarsjournal.com, November 7, 2013,
https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/hezbollahs-strategy-and-tactics-in-the-security-zone-
from-1985-to-2000.
11
Nicholas Blanford, “Lebanon: The Shiite Dimension | Wilson Center,”
www.wilsoncenter.org, July 13, 2022, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/lebanon-the-
shiite-dimension.
12
David Sousa, “Three Phases of Resistance: How Hezbollah Pushed Israel out of Lebanon,”
E-International Relations, April 28, 2014, https://www.e-ir.info/2014/04/28/three-phases-of-
resistance-how-hezbollah-pushed-israel-out-of-lebanon/.
13
David Sousa, “Three Phases of Resistance: How Hezbollah Pushed Israel out of Lebanon,”
alcohol and entertinment which alienated the local Shiite population14.The signing of the Taif

accords of 1989 at the end of Lebanese civil war strengthened the position of Hezbollah as all

the other militias were disbanded, as it was seen as a resistance force and not a militia .So, the

organisation on the strategic front faced a lot of difficulties due to the war with Amal and the

alienation of the local population and in the next period would bring along Shiite community

by making reforms and changes to its stance as “support of the local population

being the essential condition for victory in Guerrilla warfare”. It was also marked by the

pragmatism shown by the organisation by signing a deal with the Syrians and the declaration

of objectives. It continued fighting Israel and the SLA using its novel tactics of suicide

bombings, kidnappings and hijackings.

The next period of 1990-2000 showed the adaptability by Hezbollah which perplexed people.

The organisation moved from a revolutionary militant group to a political actor. The political

pragmatism and the dexterity in handling operations like that of a state was one of the salient

features of this period which eventually ended with the withdrawal of Israel from southern

Lebanon in 2000.

As we saw earlier, that the local population wasn’t happy with the strict implementation of

Islamic laws and this meant Hezbollah was risking its key constituent in its fight against

Israel. The party left its hard-line Islamic approach and interference in private life was

avoided for the public’s support in the fight against Israel. Also, as the Shiite population was

among the most downtrodden community in the region, social services played a crucial part

in winning over Shiite population. The organisation replaced the vacuum left by the weak

14
Iver Gabrielsen, “Hezbollah’s Strategy and Tactics in the Security Zone from 1985 to 2000
| Small Wars Journal,” smallwarsjournal.com, November 7, 2013,
https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/hezbollahs-strategy-and-tactics-in-the-security-zone-
from-1985-to-2000.
Lebanese government in the wake of civil war in southern Lebanon by reconstructing every

home that was damaged by the firing of IDF and SLA and providing healthcare as well15.

Even non- Shiite population was sympathetic towards Hezbollah as it provided essential

services to all communities alike. The party even ran the parliamentary elections of 1992

under the new leadership of Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah and won eight seats.

Hezbollah followed a strategy of “walking on the edge” in this period16.This meant that the

organisation was perceived as both a legitimate political player in the Lebanese system while

also maintaining an armed force resisting the occupation of Lebanon by Israel. Militarily the

organisation became more systematic with the focus on quality over quantity. Autonomy was

given to local unit leaders and weapons like the Improvised Explosive Devices(IED) and the

Katyusha rocket proved to be a gamechanger. IEDs created a psychological impact on the

minds of the Israelis and accounted for the majority of IDF casualties. The Katyusha rockets

became a strategic weapon in the hands of Hezbollah as mutual destruction was guaranteed

and acted as a deterrent. The people of northern Israel were living in fear of these rockets and

had a huge impact on the confidence and support Israeli politicians enjoyed in this occupation

of Lebanon. Also, the organisation enjoyed a high level of intelligence accuracy which

helped it in carrying out targeted assassinations and majorly targeted the SLA.

Hezbollah has focussed on propaganda as a way to challenge its superior enemy and gather

support for its cause. A newspaper, a radio station and most important was the TV station

AL-Manar. Media platforms were used to show destruction of homes by Israeli forces and
15
Iver Gabrielsen, “Hezbollah’s Strategy and Tactics in the Security Zone from 1985 to 2000
| Small Wars Journal,” smallwarsjournal.com, November 7, 2013,
https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/hezbollahs-strategy-and-tactics-in-the-security-zone-
from-1985-to-2000.
16
“23 a Report on Recent Developments in the Middle East and the Muslim World,” 2016,
https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/419768fb702cb9b7c2e8a6230de78e8957cdeea154ca3.pdf.
reconstruction of those same houses and various social services undertaken by the Hezbollah.

Combat footage was also shown on the televisions and this helped in creating a mass support

for the group among both the Shiite population and other communities17.Footage and news

was even displayed in Hebrew to strike fear in the eyes of Israeli population across the border

and media was used selectively to present people a certain narrative which installed fear on

one side and provided strength on the other.

All this meant that gradually the Israeli population was losing its support for the continued

occupation of southern Lebanon. An opinion poll conducted in March 2000 revealed that

61% of the Israeli public now desired an immediate withdrawal from the security zone, even

in the absence of peace treaties with Syria and Lebanon18.The psychological impact was such

that the personnel of IDF refused to serve in Lebanon and had to go to prison. The last straw

was the helicopter crash in which 73 IDF personnel were killed and the approval ratings for

the war tanked. Ehud Barak fought his election on the promise of a withdrawal of IDF from

Lebanon by may 2000 and last Israeli soldier left Lebanon by 6:48 am, May 24th, 2000.The

Hezbollah was successful in forcing the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon with the

help of military tactics, psychological warfare and gained political and social legitimacy in

Lebanon by engaging in social services and running in elections. The tactical proficiency of

the organisation greatly improved in this period which can be seen by more favourable

casualty ratio vis-à-vis the SLA and particularly the IDF.

17
23 a Report on Recent Developments in the Middle East and the Muslim World,” 2016,
https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/419768fb702cb9b7c2e8a6230de78e8957cdeea154ca3.pdf.
18
Iver Gabrielsen, “Hezbollah’s Strategy and Tactics in the Security Zone from 1985 to 2000
| Small Wars Journal,” smallwarsjournal.com, November 7, 2013,
https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/hezbollahs-strategy-and-tactics-in-the-security-zone-
from-1985-to-2000.
So, we can see the strategy used by Hezbollah to liberate southern Lebanon from Israeli

occupation. The organisation adaptability is to be commended as while earlier it focussed on

the establishment of a greater Islamic state, it let go of that role to focus on expulsion of

Israelis. The political pragmatism in dealing with the Syrians and Amal problem and

contesting in the parliamentary and municipality election while it earlier rejected the sectarian

style of government in Lebanon. It did so because to garner its base among the local

population as it was marred by the civil war and the oppression by the Israeli forces. The

organisation used novel tactics like suicide bombings and kidnappings to bridge the gap

between it and the superior enemy. New weapons like IED and Katyusha proved to be an

effective deterrent and installed a fear of retaliation in the fear of Israeli population. The use

of these instruments meant that Hezbollah was capable of fighting both a guerrilla war and a

conventional war which it eventually did so in 2006 for 33 days against Israel. So, The

success of Hezbollah can be attributed to its ability to combine the concept of social

mobilisation with nuanced preparation for waging an attrition war against the occupying

forces in the Security Zone19.So Finally, I conclude that Hezbollah was successful in

liberating Lebanon primarily because to its skilfully utilised, and often unique, grand

strategies on the battlefield, as well as its understanding of manipulating the war-weary

Israeli population. Domestically, a combination of social service, infrastructure construction,

and major propaganda efforts ensured the group the popular support it required to carry out

the resistance.

19
23 a Report on Recent Developments in the Middle East and the Muslim World,” 2016,
https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/419768fb702cb9b7c2e8a6230de78e8957cdeea154ca3.pdf.
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https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/419768fb702cb9b7c2e8a6230de78e8957cdeea154ca3.pdf

Blanford, Nicholas. “Lebanon: The Shiite Dimension | Wilson Center.”

www.wilsoncenter.org, July 13, 2022. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/lebanon-
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Gabrielsen, Iver. “Hezbollah’s Strategy and Tactics in the Security Zone from 1985 to 2000 |
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Kaye, Dalia Dassa. “The Israeli Decision to Withdraw from Southern Lebanon: Political
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Press, 2009. Accessed January 18, 2023. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Robinson, Kali. “What Is Hezbollah?” Council on Foreign Relations, September 1, 2020.

https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-hezbollah.

Saad-Ghorayeb, Amal. Hizbu'llah : Politics and Religion. London: Pluto Press, 2001.

Accessed January 20, 2023. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Sousa, David. “Three Phases of Resistance: How Hezbollah Pushed Israel out of Lebanon.”
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