Bos 50518

Referencer for Quick
Revision
Foundation Course Paper-2:
Business Laws & Business
Correspondence and Reporting
A compendium of subject-wise capsules published in the
monthly journal “The Chartered Accountant Student”
Board of Studies
(Academic)
ICAI
INDEX
Edition of
Paper Page
Subject Students’ Topics
No. No.
Journal
Concepts related to
July 2020, entering of contract under
1-9
August 2020 The Indian Contract Act,
1872
Concepts related to
performance and breach of
January
10-14 contract and special
2021
contract under The Indian
2A Business Laws Contract Act, 1872
July 2021,
The Sale of Goods Act,
15-26 December
1930
2021
The Indian Partnership
27-30 August 2022 Act, 1932 – General Nature
of Partnership
January Limited Liability
31-36
2023 Partnership Act, 2008
September
37-42 General Overview
2021
Sentence Types, Active-
43-48 May 2023 Passive Voice and Direct-
Indirect Speech
Business
Introduction to Basics of
2B Correspondence 49-50 March 2022
Writing
and Reporting 50-51 March 2022 Precis writing
52-53 April 2023 Article Writing
53-54 April 2023 Report Writing
Formal Letters and Official
55-57 April 2023
Communication
BUSINESS LAWS
Paper 2(SECTION A): Business Laws
This capsule on Paper 2-Section A: Business Laws at Foundation, have been dealt with important concepts related to the
formation of the valid contract under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. In this capsule, we have touched upon significant
concepts that are required for making valid contract and the related concepts supported with relevant case laws to have
conceptual understanding of the subject. This chapter is important from examination perspective as its form base for the
understanding of the nature of the contract which constitutes unit 1 of Chapter 1 of the said paper in the Foundation course.
Considering this capsule as summarised version of the unit 1 of chapter 1 will certainly benefit the students to recapitulate
the important points while studying the subject.
concepts related to entering of contract under

the Indian Contract Act, 1872
I. Nature of Contract
Law defines the term offer/proposal as –
When one person signifies to another his willingness
to do, or to abstain from doing anything
with a view to obtain the assent of that other
to such act or abstinence
(2) Essentials of the offer/proposal:
Essentials of valid
Offer/proposal
The above situation talks about formation of an agreement. An

agreement is the result of a proposal by one party and its acceptance
by another with the consideration forming the foundation of any
At least two expression of with a view
contract. Therefore, such an offer and its acceptance gives rise to parties-offeror willingness of to obtain the
right & obligation against each other. & offeree parties ‘to do’ assent of the
An Agreement in order to be a Contract, must satisfy the or ‘not to do’ other party
conditions as specified under section 10 of the Indian Contract something
Act, 1872.
Requirement for an agreement to be a contract (3) Mode of offers

made by the free consent Words Written
Act
between parties competent to contract, Oral
Offer Conduct
for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and
can be
are not hereby expressly declared to be void made
by
Since section 10 is not complete and exhaustive, so there are certain Omission/Abstinence
others sections which also contains requirements for an agreement
to be enforceable.
Not given by Section 10 but are also considered essentials (4) Classification of Offer
of valid contracts
• Two parties
• Intention to create legal relationship Counter Standing
• Fulfillment of legal formalities General Offer Offer
• Certainty of meaning Offer
• Possibility of performance
Cross
Specific Offer
(1) Meaning of offer/proposal
Offer
As offer is the starting point in the making of an agreement. An offer
is also called as proposal. Thus, for a valid offer, the party making it
must express his willingness 'to do' or 'not to do' something.
28 July 2020 The Chartered Accountant Student
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BUSINESS LAWS
General offer Name of the Facts of the case Decision
offer made to public at large and anyone can accept by performing case laws
the desired act
When he came to know
Special/specific offer of the reward, which
had been announced in
offer made to a specific / ascertained person, & can be accepted his absence, he brought
only by that specified person an action against the
Cross offer defendant to claim this
reward. It was held that
2 parties exchange identical offers in ignorance of each other's since the plaintiff was
offer at the same time. It is not binding ignorant of the offer of
reward, his act of bringing
Counter offer
the lost boy did not
offeree offers to qualified acceptance of the offer subject to amount to the acceptance
modifications and variations in the terms of original offer. Counter- of the offer and therefore
offer amounts to rejection of the original offer he was not entitled to
claim the reward.
Standing / continuing / open offer
An offer of continuous nature which remains open for acceptance Boulton Vs. Boulton had taken Held: Jones is not liable
over a period of time Jones over the business of to pay for the good. It is
one Brocklehurst,
a rule of law that offer
with whom Jones had
Important case laws previous dealings. made to a specific /
Jones sent an order for ascertained person can
Name of the Facts of the case Decision
goods to Brocklehurst, be accepted only by that
case laws
which Boulton supplied specified person.
Carlill Vs. In this famous case, Held, she could recover without informing
Carbolic Carbolic smoke Ball Co. the amount as by using Jones that the business
Smoke Ball advertised in several the smoke balls she had changed hands.
Co. newspapers that a had accepted the offer. When Jones found
reward of £100 would be In terms of Sec. 8 of the out that the goods
given to any person who Indian Contract Act, had not come from
contracted influenza anyone performing the Brocklehurst, he
after using the smoke conditions of the offer refused to pay for
balls produced by the can be considered to them and was sued by
Carbolic Smoke Ball have accepted the offer. Boulton for the price.
Company according Until the general offer is
to printed directions. retracted or withdrawn, (5) Difference between Offer and Invitation to Offer, and
One lady, Mrs. Carlill, it can be accepted by Invitation to Treat
used the smoke balls anyone at any time as it is
as per the directions of a continuing offer. Case laws Facts of the case Decision
company and even then Harvey Vs. In this case, Privy Council Held that the mere
suffered from influenza. Facie briefly explained the statement of the lowest
Lalman Gauri Dutt sent his Held, he was not entitled distinction between an price at which the vendor
Shukla Vs. servant Lalman to trace to the reward, as he offer and an invitation to would sell contained no
Gauri Dutt his missing nephew. He did not know the offer. offer. In the given case, implied contract to sell
then announced that Section 4 of the Indian the plaintiffs through to the person who had
anybody who traced Contract Act states that a telegram asked the enquired about the price.
his nephew would be the communication of defendants two questions
entitled to a certain a proposal is complete namely,
reward. Lalman traced when it comes to the (i) Will you sell us
the boy in ignorance knowledge of the person Bumper Hall Pen? and
of this announcement. to whom it is made. (ii) Telegraph lowest cash
Subsequently when he price.
In Lalman case, the The defendants replied
came to know of the defendant’s nephew
reward, he claimed it. through telegram that the
absconded from home. “lowest price for Bumper
The plaintiff who was Hall Pen is ₤900”. The
defendant’s servant was plaintiffs sent another
sent to search for the telegram stating “we agree
missing boy.
to buy Bumper Hall Pen
After the plaintiff had left at ₤900”. However, the
in search of the boy, the defendants refused to sell
defendant announced the property at the price.
a reward of Rs. 501 to The plaintiffs sued the
anyone who might find defendants contending that
out the boy. The plaintiff they had made an offer to
who was unaware of this sell the property at ₤900
reward, was successful in and therefore they are
searching the boy. bound by the offer.
The Chartered Accountant Student July 2020 29

2
BUSINESS LAWS
(8) Acceptance of an offer
Case laws Facts of the case Decision
General Rule- Offer can be Accepted only by the person or
Mac Pherson The owner of the property It was held that this persons to whom it is made
Vs. Appanna had said that he would not statement did not indicate
accept less than ` 6000/- any offer but indicated Specific Offer-accepted only by that definite person or
for it. only an invitation to offer.
particular group of persons to whom it has been made
Harris Vs. An auctioneer advertised It was held that plaintiff
Nickerson in a newspaper that a sale cannot file a suit against General Offer-Accepted by any person by complying with
of office furniture will be the auctioneer for the terms of the Offer
held on a particular day. his loss of time and
Plaintiff (Harris) with the expenses because the (9) Legal rules for a valid acceptance
intention to buy furniture advertisement was merely
came from a distant place a declaration of intention Absolute and Unqualified
for auction but the auction to hold auction and
was cancelled. not an offer to sell. The Communicated to Offeror
auctioneer (Nickerson) Prescribed Mode
does not contract with
any one who attends the
sale. The auction is only Time limit
an advertisement to sell
but the items are not put Before the lapse of Offer
for sale though persons
who have come to the Relevant Case laws
auction may have the
intention to purchase. Case laws Facts Decision
Pharma- The goods were displayed In this case, it was held Felthouse F offered by letter to buy a Held, F could not
ceutical in the shop for sale with that display of goods Vs. Bindley nephews horse, saying:” If I succeed as his nephew
Society price tags attached on alongwith price tags hear no more about it, I shall had not communicated
of Great each article and self- merely amounts to consider the horse mine. ”The acceptance and there
Britain Vs. service system was there. invitation to treat and nephew did not reply but he was no contract.
Boots Cash One customer selected therefore if an intending told an auctioneer not to sell
Chemists Ltd the goods but the owner buyer is willing to that particular horse as he had
refused to sell. purchase the goods at a sold it to his uncle. By mistake,
price mentioned on the the auctioneer sold the horse.
tag, he makes an offer F sued for conversion against
to buy the goods. Thus, his nephew.
the shopkeeper has the
Carlill Vs. In this famous case In case of a general
right to accept or reject
the same. The contract
Carbolic Carbolic smoke Ball Co. offer, it is not necessary
would arise only when the & Smoke advertised in several to communicate the
offer is accepted. Hence Balls newspapers that a reward acceptance if it is made
there was no contract and Co. of £100 would be given to by acting upon the
customer had no rights to any person who contracted terms of the offer.
sue the owner. influenza after using the
smoke balls produced
by the Carbolic Smoke
(6) Rules as to Valid Offer Company according to
printed directions. One
Intention to create Legal Relationship
lady, Mrs. Carlill, used
the smoke balls as per the
Certain, Definite and not Vague. directions of company and
even then suffered from
Expressed or Implied influenza.
Here company took the
Different from an Invitation to Offer defend that there was
no communication of
Offer must be communicated acceptance of an offer by
Mrs. Carlill and so there
was no contract between
Offer may be conditional.
them.
No term of the non compliance amounting to Acceptance Neale Vs. M offered to sell his land It was held that N
Merret to N for £280. N replied could not enforce his
(7) Acceptance purporting to accept the acceptance because it
offer but enclosed a cheque was not an unqualified
for £ 80 only. He promised one
to pay the balance of £ 200
person to whom Signifies his Proposal is said by monthly installments of
the Proposal is Assent thereto to be Accepted £ 50 each.
made
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BUSINESS LAWS
Case laws Facts Decision (12) When is communication of acceptance complete?
Brogden vs. Brogden a supplier, sent a Held, that there was As against the Proposer-
Metropolitan draft agreement relating no contract as the
to the supply of coal to the when put in course of transmission to the Proposer
manager had not
Railway Co. manager of railway Co. viz, communicated his As against the Acceptor
Metropolitian railway for acceptance to the
his acceptance. when it comes to the knowledge of the Proposer
The manager wrote the supplier, Brogden.
word “Approved” on the (13) Communication of acceptance by post
same and put the draft
agreement in the drawer As against the Proposer- As against the Acceptor
of the table
Intending to send it to when the letter of when the letter reaches the
the company’s solicitors acceptance is posted proposer
for a formal contract to
be drawn up. By an over
sight the draft agreement (14) Acceptance over telephone or telex or fax
remained in drawer.
Offer is made by instantaneous communication-
(10) Rules for Communication of Offer and Acceptance Contract is completed
For Valid Offer and Acceptance When the Acceptance is The Contract is made at the
• Offer must be communicated to the Offeree received by the Offeror, place where the Acceptance is
• Acceptance must be communicated to the received
Offeror
(15) When revocation of offer and acceptance is complete
(11)When communication of offer is complete?
comes to the knowledge of as against the person • when it is put into a
the person to whom it is made who makes it- course of transmission
Communication as against the person • when it comes to his
of an offer is either by words spoken or to whom it is made- knowledge.
complete written, or it may be inferred
from the conduct of the
parties (16) When a Proposal and Acceptance can be revoked?
Relevant Case laws
Proposal Acceptance
Case laws Facts Decision
may be revoked at may be revoked at
Lilly Plaintiff delivered Held, the terms were any time before the any time before the
White Vs. some clothes to unreasonable and communication of its communication of the
Mannuswamy drycleaner for which Plaintiff was entitled acceptance is complete acceptance is complete
she received a laundry to recover full value as against the proposer as against the acceptor
of the saree from the
receipt containing drycleaner.
a condition that in
case of loss, customer The receipt carries
would be entitled special conditions (17)Modes of revocation of offer by
to claim 15% of the and are to be treated
market price of value as having been duly
communicated to the Lapse of Death or Non
of the article, Plaintiff customer and therein a Notice of specified Insanity fulfilment Counter
lost her new saree. tacit acceptance of these Revoca- or of the of Offer
conditions is implied tion reason- Conditions
by the customer’s parties
able time of Offer
acceptance of the receipt

4
BUSINESS LAWS
PAPER 2(SECTION A): BUSINESS LAWS
"This capsule on Paper 2(Section A): Business Laws at the Foundation Level, is in continuation to previous issue of July
month of the Student Journal. In that issue, we have covered important concepts related to "Offer and Acceptance". In
this issue, we are covering other important requirements necessitated for the formation of valid contract under the Indian
Contract Act, 1872. These concepts in summarized forms with supported case laws, will help students to recapitulate
important points while revision of the subject."
CONCEPTS RELATED TO THE ENTERING OF CONTRACT UNDER THE

INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872
I. Consideration
(1) Importance of consideration
Caselaws Facts Decision
Chinnayya An old lady made a It was held that there was
No Consideration,
Rule of Law No Contract vs. Ramayya gift of her property sufficient consideration
to her daughter with for the uncle to recover
a direction to pay a the money from the
certain sum of money daughter.
to the maternal uncle by
(2) Meaning of consideration way of annuity. On the
same day, the daughter
executed a writing in
When at the desire favour of the maternal
of the Promisor- uncle and agreeing
to pay him annuity.
The daughter did
the Promisee, or any Other Person, not, however, pay the
annuity and the uncle
sued to recover it.
has done or promises to do (4) Suit by a Third Party on an Agreement (Doctrine of Privity
abstained from does or abstains or abstain from
from doing, or of Contract)
doing, or doing something,
General rule
Such an Act or Abstinence or Promise is called A stranger to a contract cannot sue
Consideration for the Promise
Exceptions to the said rule

(3) Requirements of valid consideration
move at the promisee or

past or present adequacy of
desire of the any other
or future. consideration
promisor person
trusts
not be unlawful, other than the
real and not
immoral, or opposed Promisor’s existing illusory
to public policy obligation
family Acknowledgement
settlement of liability /
Estoppel
Relevant Case Law
Suit can be filed by
Third Party in following
Caselaws Facts Decision circumstances
Durga D (defendant) promised D was not bound to pay
Prasad v. to pay to P (plaintiff) a commission as it was covenant
Baldeo certain commission on without consideration assignment running
of a contract with land
articles which would and hence void.
be sold through their
agency in a market.
Market was constructed contract by
agent
by P at the desire of the
C (Collector), and not
at the desire of the D
(Promisor)
The Chartered Accountant Student August 2020 27

5
BUSINESS LAWS
(5) Contracts without consideration
Case Law Facts Decision
Mohori Bibi A, a minor borrowed It was held that a
vs. Dharmo R20,000 from B and as mortgage by a minor
Das Ghose a security for the same was void and B was not
executed a mortgage in entitled to repayment of
Conditions • Agreements made on his favour. He became money.
where account of natural love a major a few months
contract and affection later and filed a suit for
without • Promise to pay time the declaration that the
consideration, barred debt mortgage executed by
is enforceable • Promise to compensate him during his minority
• Completed gift was void and should be
• Bailment cancelled.
• Charity
• Agency Sain Das vs. Where there was a It was held that the
Ram Chand joint purchase by two vendor could enforce
purchaser, one of them the contract against the
was a minor major purchaser and not
the minor
Relevant CaseLaw : In Kedarnath Vs. Gorie Mohammad , it was

held that if a promisee undertakes the liability on the promise (3) Position of person of sound mind
of the person to contribute to charity , there the contract shall
be valid. Person who is usually of Unsound Mind but occasionally of
Sound Mind
II. Competency of parties may make a Contract when he is of Sound Mind.
(1) Persons eligible to make a contract
Person who is usually of Sound Mind but occasionally of

Unsound Mind
may not make a Contract when he is of Unsound Mind

Major
(4) Position of agreements with persons of unsound mind
While he is of Unsound Mind While he is of sound mind

sound
mind
• Cannot enter into any • Can enter into a valid
not otherwise Contract contract
disqualified • Contract entered during • Liable for such contracts
from this period is altogether
contracting Void
• Cannot be held Liable
thereon
(2) Law relating to Minor’s agreement/ Position of minor (5) Positions of agreements in case of persons of permanently
unsound mind (in case of Idiots)
A person who is permanently of unsound mind

Agreement No estoppel Minor can
is void ab to plead on be admitted
initio minority to benefit of Any agreement
partnership Cannot enter into and not liable
entered is
any contract thereon
altogether void
In case of supply of
No ratification necessaries claim to
on attaining be reimbursed from (6) Positions of agreements in case of Drunken/Intoxicated
majority property of minor person
A Sane Person who is delirious from fever or who is so drunk

Contract by In case of Fraudulent
Guardian Representation of age, cannot contract during such state because
under a minor can plead his
exceptions are minority but required to • cannot understand the terms of a contract,
valid contract return the benefit
• cannot form a rational judgment as to its effect on his interest
28 August 2020 The Chartered Accountant Student
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BUSINESS LAWS
(7) Persons disqualified by law (6) Effect of undue influence
contracts by such person are Void. when agreement caused by undue influence-
• contract is voidable at the option of the party
- Alien enemies whose consent was obtained
Statutes • contract may be set aside
disqualify - Foreign ambassadors
certain persons - Convicts
to enter into - Insolvents Relevant Case Law
contract
- Corporations In Kirpa Ram vs. Sami-Ud-din Ad. Khan, a youth of 18 years of
- Etc. age, spend thrift and a drunkard, borrowed Rs. 90,000 on a bond
bearing compound interest at 2% per mensem (p.m.). It was held
by the court that the transaction is unconscionable, the rate of
III. Free Consent interest charged being so exorbitant.
(1) Meaning of consent

(7) Fraud
In absence of
consent- Fraud includes any of the following acts-
Agreement is
Two or void ab initio suggestion, active promise Any other act or
more as to a fact concealment made act fitted to omission
persons are • they agree upon the which is not of a fact without any deceive as to law
said to have same thing true intention specially
consented, • in the same sense of declared
when- performing to be
it fraudulent
(2) Free Consent
(8) By whom and when fraud is said to be exercised?
Fraud
Undue
Influence
Misrepresentation
Fraud can be
committed by- { •
•
•
a party to a contract, or
with his connivance or
by his agent
Consent is said
{
Coercion to be free Mistake • another party thereto or
when it is not Act when done
• his agent, or
caused by with intent
• to induce him to enter
to deceive-
into the contract
(3) Agreement caused by coercion

(9) Effects of fraud
• Committing of any act which is
An agreement is forbidden by the IPC
said to be caused • Threatening to commit any act which Right to
by Coercion if is forbidden by the IPC Rescind
there is- • Unlawful detaining of any property
• Threatening to detain any property
Voidable Remedies Right to

contract available performance
(4) Consequences of Coercion
the agreement is a contract

Contract Right to claim
voidable at the option of
induced by damages
the party whose consent
Coercion
was so obtained.
(10) Does mere silence amount to fraud ?
(5) Undue influence General Rule- Mere silence as to facts,
• which is likely to affect the willingness of a person,

Contract • Relations subsisting between the Parties • to enter into a contract, -is no fraud
is said to are such that,
be induced • One of the Parties is in a position to
by Undue Dominate the will of the other, and Exceptions-Mere silence as to facts,
Influence • The Dominant Party uses that position to
when- obtain an Unfair Advantage over the other • where it is the duty of a person to speak, or
• his silence is equivalent to speech, -silence amounts to fraud

7
BUSINESS LAWS
Relevant Case Law (14) Types of mistake
Caselaws Facts Decision

Mistake
Word vs. H sold to W some Held there was no fraud.
Hobbs pigs which were to his
knowledge suffering from
fever. The pigs were sold Mistake of Law Mistake of Fact
‘with all faults’ and H did
not disclose the fact of
fever to W.
Mistake of Bilateral
Peek vs The prospectus issued Held the suppression of Indian Law Mistake
Gurney by a company did not truth amounted to fraud.
refer to the existence of
a document disclosing Mistake of Unilateral
liabilities. The impression Foreign Law Mistake
thereby created was
that the company was a
prosperous one, which (15) Bilateral Mistake
actually was not the case.
Regier V. A broker was asked to buy Held that the client was As to Subject
Campbell shares for client. He sold entitled to avoid the Matter
Staurt his own shares without contract or affirm it with
disclosing this fact. a right to claim secret
profit made by broker on
the transaction since the
relationship between the As to the As to the As to the As to the As to the As to the
broker and the client was Existence Quantity Quality Price Identity Title
relationship of utmost
good faith.
(11) Misrepresentation (16) Unilateral Mistake
When a person positively states that a fact

Where only A Contract is not Voidable merely
is true when his information does not
one party to the because it was caused by one of the
warrant it to be so
agreement is parties to it being under a Mistake as to
under a mistake Matter of Fact.
When there is a breach of duty by a person
without intention to deceive which brings an
advantage to him, and loss to the other; The agreement is void where a unilateral
mistake relates to the-
When a party causes the other party to Exception, • Identity of the person contracted
the agreement to make a mistake as to the with, or
subject matter. • Nature of the contract.
(12) Consequences of misrepresentation

(17) Effects of mistake
Voidable Nature of Mistake and the nature of Agreement
contract
In Bilateral Mistake - The agreement is void.
In Unilateral Mistake -
Remedies • As to identity of the person • The agreement is void.
available contracted with
• As to the nature of • The agreement is void.
contract.
• As to other matter. • The agreement is not void.
Right to Rescind Right to insist upon
the contract performance
(18) Remedies under mistake
(13) Mistake
Obligation of He must restore any benefit received by
When both the parties aggrieved party him under the contract to the other party
to an agreement - from whom the benefit had been received
[Section 64].
Obligation of The person to whom money has been paid

other party or anything delivered by mistake must
are under to a matter of fact the agreement is repay or return it. [Section 72]
a mistake essential to the altogether void.
agreement
8
BUSINESS LAWS
(19) Differences IV. Legality of Object and Consideration
Coercion and Undue influence (1) When there is an unlawful object & unlawful consideration
in an agreement, its effect
Basis of difference Coercion Undue Influence
Nature of action It involves the It involves moral or Consideration or Object of an agreement is unlawful, if-
physical force or mental pressure. forbidden defeats If it is involves immoral
threat. by law provision fraudulent or implies or
Involvement of It involves No such illegal act of any law injury to a opposed
criminal action committing or is committed or a person or to public
threatening to threat is given. property policy
commit any act of another
forbidden by The The The The The
Indian Penal Code Agreement agreement agreement agreement agreement
or detaining or is Void. is void. is void. is void is void.
threatening to detain
property unlawfully. (2) Agreements against Public policy
R e l a t i o n s h i p It is not necessary Some sort of
between parties that there must relationship between Interfering with
Trading with the Course of Brokerage
be some sort the parties is
Enemy Justice Contracts
of relationship absolutely necessary.
between the parties.
Exercised by Coercion need not Undue influence Restraint
whom proceed from the is always exercised Stifling Creating of Legal
promisor nor need it between parties to Prosecution Monopoly Proceedings
be directed against the contract.
the promisor. It
Maintenance Sale/Transfer of
can be used even Restraint of
and Public Offices
by a stranger to the Champerty and Titles. Trade
contract.
Enforceability The contract is Where the consent
voidable at the is induced by undue Restraint Restrained
of Personal of Parental Restraint of
option of the party influence, the Marriage
Liberty Rights
whose consent has contract is either
been obtained by voidable or the
V. Agreements which are expressly declared void
the coercion. court may set aside
or enforce it in a
(1) Law declares following agreement to be either illegal or void
modified form.
Fraud and misrepresentation Agreements by Agreements in Agreements, the
Incompetent Restraint of Legal Meaning of which
Basis of difference Fraud Misrepresentation Parties Proceeding is not Certain
Intention To deceive the other There is no such
party by hiding the intention to deceive Reciprocal
truth. the other party. Agreements made Agreements
Promises to do
under a Mutual in Restraint of
Knowledge of The person making The person making things Legal
Mistake of Fact Trade and also Illegal
truth the suggestion the statement
believes that the believes it to be
statement is untrue. true, although it is Agreements, the Agreements Agreements
not true. Consideration or
made without Contingent on
Object of which
Recission of The injured party The injured party is is Unlawful Consideration Impossible Events
the contract can repudiate the entitled to repudiate
and claim for contract and claim the contract or sue
damages damages. for restitution but Agreements Agreements
in Restraint of in Restraint of Agreements by
cannot claim the way of wager
damages. Trade Marriage
Means to The party using Party can always
discover the the fraudulent act plead that the (2) Consequences of agreement expressly declared void
truth cannot secure or injured party
protect himself had the means to
Agreements
by saying that the discover the truth. expressly
injured party had declared void Void- ab- initio
means to discover / illegal by the
the truth. Contract Act

9
BUSINESS LAWS
CA FOUNDATION - PAPER 2 (SECTION A) - BUSINESS LAWS
This Capsule deals with the significant concepts covered under units 4, 5 & 6 of Chapter 1 of the Study material of Foundation
Paper 2 - Section A -Business Laws. It is in continuation to units 1, 2, & 3 of the chapter 1 published earlier in July 2020 and
August 2020 edition of the Student Journal. This capsule itemize significant concepts related to “Performance and Breach
of Contract”, and “Special Contracts discussing Contingent and Quasi Contract under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. In
order to have understanding of the related concepts, this capsule will help to revise and retain the important facet of the
legal provisions.
CONCEPTS RELATED TO PERFORMANCE AND BREACH OF CONTRACT AND

SPECIAL CONTRACT UNDER THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872
I. Performance of Contract
(1) Meaning of Performance (5) Who may perform the contract
A contract is said
Legal
to be performed Promisor himself Promisor’s Agent
-Either perform, or
Representatives
when the
parties
to the -Offer to
contract
perform their
promises
Third persons Joint promisors

(2) Types of performance of the Contract
Actual performance Attempted Performance

(6) Liability of joint promisor
• Where a Promisor, • Where a Promisor,
• made an offer of • made an offer,
performance, • to the Promisee, General rule-If two or more persons have made a joint promise,
• to Promisee, • and the offer has not been all of them must jointly fulfill the promise.
• and the offer has been accepted by the Promisee
accepted by the Promisee
After death of any one of After the death of the last
them- survivor-
(3) Effects of the performance of the contract his legal representative jointly the legal representatives of all
with the survivor/survivors the original co-promisors
Actual • Liability of the Promisor comes to an end

with the performance of the Act, and
Performance • there remains nothing to be done by him (7) Rules as to time and place for performance of the promise
Case where Rule as to performance
Time not specified Within the reasonable time

Attempted • the Promisor is not responsible for non-
Time specified but promise During the usual business
Performance performance, and
• have right to claim. is to be performed without hours on that particular day
promisee’s application
Time specified but promise is The promisee must apply for

(4) Who may demand performance of contract to performed on promisee’s performance at a proper place
application and within usual business
hours
Legal Place not specified The promisor must apply

Third Joint
Promisee Represent- Party Promisees to the promisee to appoint
ative
a reasonable place for the
performance and to perform
the promise at such place.
Manner for performance The promise must be

performed in the manner and
at the time prescribed by the
30 January 2021 The Chartered Accountant Student promisee.
10
BUSINESS LAWS
(8) Is time an essence of Contract? (12) Supervening impossibility
Cases, where- When time is essence of Case Effects

contract Where an act becomes The contract becomes void when
impossible after the contract is the act becomes impossible.
Parties have Expressly agreed Time is considered to be essence made
of Contract Where an act becomes The contract becomes void
Non-performance at the Time is considered to be unlawful by reason of some when the act becomes
specified time results in an essence of Contract event beyond the control of unlawful.
injury to the Party promisor
Where the promisor alone Promisor must compensate
Nature and necessity requires Time is considered to be knows about the impossibility the promisee for any loss
the performance of the essence of Contract which might have suffered on
Contract within the specified account of non-performance
time of the promise.
Where an agreement is Any person who has received
(9) Consequences of Non-performance within the specified time discovered to be void or where any benefit under such
a contract becomes void agreement or contract is
Cases where time is essence Cases where time is not bound to restore it or to make
of the contract essence of a contract compensation to the person
from whom he received it.
• Contract becomes Voidable • Contract does not become
at the option of the Promisee voidable at the option of the
Promisee (13) Discharge of a contract
• If performance beyond the • The Promisee is entitled Discharge by performance

specified time is accepted to claim compensation for
by the Promisee- any loss occasioned to him
The Promisee cannot claim by non-performance of the Discharge by mutual agreement
compensation for any loss promise at the agreed time.
caused by non-performance
at the agreed time, unless Discharge by impossibility of performance
at the time of acceptance
,he has given a notice to the
Promisor of his intention to Discharge by lapse of time
claim compensation.
Discharge by operation of law

(10) Impossibility of performance
A contract to do an act which, after the contract Discharge by breach of contract

is made, becomes-
impossible, or, unlawful

by reason of some event which the promisor II. Breach of contract
could not prevent, - becomes void when the act (1) When breach of contract take place?
becomes impossible or unlawful and parties
discharged from performance.
Breach of contract occurs, if any party-
makes
Fails to perform
it impossible
refuses, or his part of the By his act
(11) Impossibility existing at the time of contract or Initial to perform his
contract, or
Impossibility obligation
Case Effects
If the impossibility is known to Such an agreement is void-ab- (2) Effects of the Breach of Contract
the parties initio
If unknown to the parties Such an agreement is void on
the ground of mutual mistake The aggrieved party is
If known to the promisor only Such promisor must gets a right to proceed
relieved from performing
against the party at fault
compensate for any loss his obligation, and
which such promisee sustains
through the non performance
of the promise.
The Chartered Accountant Student January 2021 31
11
BUSINESS LAWS
(3) Types of breach of contract
Breach of contract Gibbons A business man whose In the case, it was held
Vs. West credit has suffered will that a non-trader cannot
Minister get exemplary damages get heavy damages in
Bank even if he has sustained the like circumstances,
Anticipatory breach Actual breach no pecuniary loss. unless the damages are
alleged and proved as
special damages.
breach occuring
before time fixed Refusal to perform
for performance has promise on the
arrived scheduled date III. Special types of Contract
Contingent
(4) Liability for Damages Quasi-Contracts
Contracts
Ordinary
damages
Rules Relating to
Cases deemed as
Pre-fixed Special
Enforcement of
Quasi -Contracts
damages damages Contingent Contracts
Damages for Vindictive or (1) Contingent Contract

deterioration exemplary
caused by delay damages
Contingent contract is
Nominal
damages
(5) Remedies Available

a contract to do or if some event, collateral
not to to such contract, does or
Rescission of Contract do something, does not happen.
Suit upon Quantum Meruit (2) Essentials of a Contingent Contract
Suit for Specific Performance (a) Dependence on future event
Suit for Injunction Dependence on a future event
The performance of a contingent contract is

Relevant case laws made dependent upon the happening or non-
happening of some event. A contract may be
subject to a condition precedent or subsequent.
Hadley Vs. The crankshaft of P’s The court held that P
Baxendale flour mill had broken. He was entitled only to
(b) 'Event' referred is collateral to the contract
gives it to D, a common ordinary damages and
carrier who promised to D was not liable for the
deliver it to the foundry loss of profits because Collateral
in 2 days where the new the only information Event
shaft was to be made. The given by P to D was that The event on which the
mill stopped working, the article to be carried performance is made
D delayed the delivery was the broken shaft of a to depend, is an event
of the crankshaft so the mill and it was not made collateral to the contract.
mill remained idle for known to them that the
another 5 days. P received delay would result in
the repaired crankshaft 7 loss of profits.
days later than he would (c) The event must be uncertain
have otherwise received.
Consequently, P sued D Uncertain Event
for damages not only for
the delay in the delivering
of the broken part but
also for loss of profits The contingent event must be uncertain and should
suffered by the mill for not be the mere will of the promisor.
not having been worked.
32 January 2021 The Chartered Accountant Student
12
BUSINESS LAWS
(3) Rules regarding Contingent contracts
Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6

Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3
Contract Contracts Agreement
Enforcement Enforcement Contract
contingent upon contingent contingent
of contracts of contracts contingent
the happening upon the non- on impossible
contingent contingent on upon the future
of an uncertain happening of event.
on an event an event 'not- conduct of a
specified event an uncertain
'happening’ happening’ living person
within a fixed specified event
time within a fixed time
(a) Rule 1 regarding contingent contracts (e) Rule 5 regarding contingent contracts
Enforcement of contracts contingent on an

Contract contingent upon the non-happening of an
event 'happening‘ uncertain specified event within a fixed time;
Where a contingent contract is made to do or not to do • Such contract can be enforced by law if before the
anything if an uncertain future event happens, expiry of fixed time-
• Such event does not happen ,or
• it cannot be enforced by law unless and until that • It become certain that such event will not happen.
event has happened.
• If the event becomes impossible, such contracts
become void.
(f) Rule 6 regarding contingent contracts
(b) Rule 2 regarding contingent contracts Agreement contingent on impossible event.
Enforcement of contracts contingent on an event 'not- • A contingent agreement to do or not to do anything, if

happening‘ an impossible event happens, is void.
• The impossibility of the event may be or may not be
known to the parties to the agreement at the time
• Where a contingent contract is made to do or not do
when they entered into it.
anything
• if an uncertain future event does not happen
• it can be enforced only when the happening of that
event becomes impossible and not before. IV. Quasi-Contract
(1) Meaning
Quasi
Contract
(c) Rule 3 regarding contingent contracts
Contract contingent upon the future conduct of a In the

living person absence
upon
person for of a
• Where, the future event on which a contract is contract.
the benefit
contingent is the way in which a person will act at an An of another.
unspecified time. obligation
• In such a case, the event shall be considered to have imposed by
become impossible when such person does anything law.
which renders it impossible that he should so act
within any definite time or otherwise than under
further contingencies. (2) Features of a Quasi- Contract
Imposed by Law
(d) Rule 4 regarding contingent contracts Obligation is a duty and not the promise of a party
The right is always a right to money

Contract contingent upon the happening of an
uncertain specified event within a fixed time;
Right is available against specific person
• Such type of contracts become void if before the
expiry of fixed time- Suit for breach may be filed same as of a complete contract
• Such event does not happen, or
• Such events becomes impossible.

13
BUSINESS LAWS
(3) Difference between quasi contracts and Contingent (d) Type iv of quasi-contracts
contract
Basis of Quasi- Contract Contingent Contract • A person who finds goods
distinction Responsibility belonging to another, and takes
of a finder them into his custody
Essential The essentials for the Present of goods • there such person is subject to the
for the valid formation of a valid same responsibility as a bailee
contract contract are absent
Obligation Imposed by law Created by the consent of
the parties (e) Type v of quasi-contracts
Liability for money paid or thing delivered

(4) Types of quasi-contracts by mistake or under coercion
• A person to whom money has been paid, or anything
i Claim for necessaries supplied to persons incapable of delivered by mistake, or
contracting • under coercion
• must repay or return it.
ii Right to recover money paid for another person
(5) Remedy on breach of quasi-contract

iii Obligation of a person enjoying benefits of non-gratuitous act
When the • there the injured party is entitled

iv Responsibility of a finder of goods obligation to receive the compensation same
created by the as defaulted party had contracted
quasi-contract is to discharge as it had broken his
Liability for money paid or thing delivered by mistake or not discharged- contract.
v under coercion
(a) Type i of quasi-contracts

Relevant case laws
• If necessaries are supplied to Case laws Facts Decision
Claim for
a person who is incapable of
necessaries ShyamLal ‘S’ a government servant The appeal was
contracting, e.g. minor or a person
supplied to vs. State of was compulsorily retired decided in favour of
of unsound mind-
persons U.P by the government. He the government and ‘S’
• the supplier is entitled to claim
incapable of filed a writ petition and was directed to return
their price from the property of
contracting- obtained an injunction the salary paid to him
such a person.
against the order. He was during the period of
reinstated and was paid reinstatement
salary but was given no
(b) Type ii of quasi-contracts
work and in the mean
time government went on
appeal.
Right to recover money paid for another person
Hollins vs. H’ picked up a diamond Held that ‘F’ must return
• A person who has paid a sum of money which another Howler L. R. on the floor of ‘F’s shop the diamond to ‘H’ as he
is obliged to pay- & H. L., and handed over the was entitled to retain
• Such person is entitled to be reimbursed by that other same to ‘F’ to keep till the goods found against
person. the owner was found. In everybody except the
spite of the best efforts, true owner.
Provided, the payment has been made by him to the true owner could
protect his own interest not be traced. After the
lapse of some weeks, ‘H’
tendered to ‘F’ the lawful
(c) Type iii of quasi-contracts expenses incurred by him
and requested to return
Obligation of a person enjoying benefits of the diamond to him. ‘F’
non-gratuitous act refused to do so.
• Such an obligation/right to recover arises “where a Trikamdas T’ was traveling without The suit was decreed in
person lawfully does anything for another person, vs. Bombay ticket in a tram car and his favour.
or delivers anything to him not intending to do so Municipal on checking he was asked
gratuitously and such other person enjoys the benefit Corporation to pay R5/- as penalty to
thereof, compound transaction.
• the latter is bound to make compensation to the T filed a suit against the
former in respect of, or to restore, the thing so done corporation for recovery
or delivered. on the ground that it was
extorted from him.
14
BUSINESS LAWS
CA Foundation - Paper 2A - Business Laws
In this capsule, we have summarized the important concepts of the Unit 1 and 2 of the Chapter 2: The Sale of Goods
Act, 1930. From Examination point of view, this chapter comprises of around 12 to 14 marks of the paper. In this
chapter, students are tested with conceptual understanding of the legal provisions, as well application of the important
concepts in the simple practical scenarios. This capsule will help the students to revise and retain essentials of some
of the important definitions and various requirements in the formation of the Contract of Sale.
The Sale of Goods Act, 1930

2. Goods [Section 2(7)] and related terms
Primer to the Sale of Goods Act, 1930
Other Also
Goods includes
than
• Sale of goods is one of the specific forms of contracts recognized
and regulated by law in India. M e a n s Actionable Stock &
• It is an Act to define and amend the laws relating to the sale of every kind claims Shares
goods. of movable
property
• It came into force on 1st July, 1930. Growing
• The provisions of the Act are applicable to the sale of ONLY crops
movable properties and the Act is not applicable to immovable “Goods” include both Money in
properties. tangible goods and circulation Grass, and
• It extends to the whole of India. intangible goods
T h i n g s
attached to
‘Actionable claims’ are claims, which or forming
can be enforced only by an action / suit. part of land
Formation of the Contract of Sale Ex: debt. A debt is not a movable which agreed
property or goods. to be severed
Framework
3. Classification of Goods
Contract of Sale
Broadly classified as Goods
Transfer of Essentials of Existing Future Contingent

Agreement Goods Price Valid contract Goods Goods Goods
property
Specific Ascertained Unascertained

Buyer Seller Existing Future Contingent
Goods Goods Goods
Specific classification of goods
Money
Immediate Yet to be consideration
transfer transferred
(sale) (Agreement Goods in existence
to sale) Specific Ascertained Unascertained at the time of the
contract of sale;
Existing Goods
(Section 6) or
Goods owned /
Important Terminologies possessed/ acquired by
the seller at the time of
1. Buyer and Seller Types of existing contract of sale
goods
A person who buys or agrees to buy goods [Section
2(1)].
Buyer • Goods identified & agreed upon at the time a
Specific contract of sale is made
Goods • Ex: Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge, IFB washing
• A person who sells or agrees to sell goods machine of 7 kg
[Section 2(13)].
Seller • Ex: On 1st June 2021, A agrees to sell 100 bales of • Goods which are identified in accordance with the
cotton to B for Rs. 1000. Here, A is a Seller and B agreement after the contract of sale is made.
Ascertained • Ex: “A” owns 10 Maruti Cars. “B” contracts with
is a Buyer. Goods “A” to buy one out of them. After the contract,
“A” keeps out one car to be given to “B”.
• Goods which are not specifically identified
or ascertained at the time of making of the
Unascertained
contract
goods • Ex: “A” owns 10 Maruti Cars. “B” contracts with
“A” to buy any one car out of them.
15
BUSINESS LAWS
Future Goods Contingent Goods 7. Property [Section 2(11)]
[Section 2 (6)]. [Section 6(2)] Property means
• Goods to be • The acquisition of which
 manufactured or • by the seller
 produced or • depends upon an uncertain ownership in goods/ and not merely
 acquired contingency (uncertain event) General Property a special property
• by the seller after making • Ex: P contracts to sell 500
the contract of sale pieces of particular item 8. Price [Section 2(10)]
• Ex: 1000 quintals of provided the ship which is
potatoes to be grown in Mr. bringing them reaches the
A's field. port safely. Money consideration for a sale of goods
4. Delivery – Meaning [Section 2(2)]

Essential
It is the value expressed in requirement to
of goods monetary terms make a contract
voluntary from one of sale of goods
transfer of person to Delivery
possession another
Sale and agreement to sell [Section 4]
1.Meaning of Contract of Sale of goods
5. Types of Delivery
It is a
(i) the seller transfers, or (ii) agrees to transfer
contract
- the property in goods to the buyer for a price
whereby
Constructive
delivery 2. Mode for contract of sale of goods
• Goods physically • delivery of a
delivered to the • without any thing in token A contract for the sale of goods may be either through
buyer. change in of a transfer of
• Ex: A shop- the custody something else Where the transfer
keeper sold one or actual • Ex: Key of a Where the of the property in
Apple Smart possession of warehouse property in the goods
watch to B. the thing. containing the goods
• Ex: A ware- goods is handed Agreement take place at
Sale to sell a future time
houseman over to buyer. is transferred
holding the from the subject to
goods of A seller to the fulfillment of
agrees to hold buyer some condition
them on behalf
of B, at A’s
request. Symbolic An agreement to sell becomes a sale-
Actual delivery
delivery when the time elapses or the conditions are
fulfilled subject to which the property in the
goods is to be transferred. [Section 4(4)]
3. Differences in Sale and Agreement to Sell

6. Document of title to goods [Section 2(4)]
Basis of difference Sale Agreement to sell
either by Transfer of Immediately Future Date or
endorsement or property fulfillment of condition
by delivery,
Nature of contract Executed Executory
the possessor of Remedies for Sue for price Sue for damages only
for authorizing the document to breach and not for price
or purporting to transfer or receive Liability of parties Liability of the buyer Liability of the seller
authorize, goods thereby
represented Burden of risk Buyer Seller
“Document Nature of rights Jus in rem Jus in personam
of title to Right of resale Seller cannot re-sell Seller may re-sell
goods Ex: Bill of lading, dock the goods
Proof of the
warrant, warehouse
possession or Insolvency of Official Assignee Official Assignee
keeper’s certificate,
control of goods seller • not be able to take • acquire control
or wharfinger’s certificate,
over the goods over the goods
railway receipt, warrant,
• will recover the • the price will not be
an order of delivery of
price from the recoverable.
goods
buyer.
Insolvency of Official Assignee Official Assignee
buyer • control over the • no control over the
goods. goods.

16
BUSINESS LAWS
4. Contract of sale – elements must co-exist
Procedure for conduct of Contract of Sale
[Section 5]
Nature of 1. Process
Two parties: Consideration: contract of sale:
Buyer & Seller Price in money May be absolute
or conditional a contract of sale is made by
Delivery of
Fulfil other an offer to by acceptance
goods: Transfer for a price
Subject matter: essential Buy/sell of such offer
of property i.e
Movable goods elements of a
ownership to
Valid contract
take place
2. Mode of delivery and Payment
Sale Distinguished from other Similar The contract may provide

Contracts
1. Sale and Hire Purchase
Basis of difference Sale Hire- Purchase for the immediate delivery of the goods or immediate
payment of the price or Both
Time of passing Immediately On payment of last
property instalment or
Position of the Buyer is like that of Position of the hirer
party owner is like that of bailee for the delivery or payment by instalments
till final payment
or
Termination of the buyer cannot The hirer may
contract terminate the terminate the
that the delivery or payment or both shall be
contract and bound contract by returning postponed.
to pay price the goods
Burden of Risk of risk of seller Owner takes no risk
insolvency of the and has right to take
buyer back the goods 3. Mode for entering into contract of Sale
Transfer of title The buyer can pass a Hirer cannot pass
good title to a bona any title even to a A contract of
fide purchaser bonafide purchaser sale may be
made in-
Resale The buyer can Hirer cannot, unless
all installments paid
2. Sale and Bailment words of partly in writing implied from

writing mouth and partly by the conduct of
Basis of difference Sale Bailment word of mouth the parties
Transfer of Transferred from Transfer of
property seller to buyer possession of goods
from bailor to bailee
Return of goods Not possible Bailee must return the
goods to the Bailor on Subject matter of Contract of Sale [Section
accomplishment of 6, 7, & 8]
the purpose
Consideration It is the Price in It may be gratuitous 1. Goods which form the subject matter of a contract of sale
terms of money or non-gratuitous.
Existing goods
existing goods that are acquired, owned or possessed by the seller
3. Sale and contract for work and labour
Future goods
Basis of difference Sale Contract for work
the acquisition of which by the seller depends upon a contingency
and labour
which may or may not happen
Nature of Contract It’s a contract in No goods are sold,
which some goods and there is only the Whereby a contract of sale the seller purports to effect a present
are sold or are to be doing or rendering of sale of future goods, the contract operates as an agreement to sell
sold for a price some work of labour. the goods
17
BUSINESS LAWS
2. Nature of contract of sale with respect to perishing goods
Stipulation as to time of Payment and time
Perishing Goods Future Goods of delivery [Section 11]
Where there is a contract for the Stipulation as to the Stipulations as to time
If the future goods time of payment of delivery are usually
sale of specific goods,
are specific and the essence of the
• no knowledge to the seller contract
• at the time when the
• contract was made, goods the destruction are not deemed to be of Delivery of goods
perished or become so damaged of such goods the essence from the terms must be made
• Contract is void amount to of the contract of sale, without delay
supervening unless terms of contract
Where there is an agreement to sell impossibility state otherwise.
specific goods,
• without any fault on the part of
the seller or buyer
• before the risk passes to the buyer
contract Conditions and Warranties with reference
becomes void
• and subsequently the goods to the goods [Section 12]
perishes or become so damaged 1. Meaning -Condition and Warranty
• agreement can be avoided or
becomes void. Condition Warranty
is a stipulation is a stipulation
essential to the main purpose co-lateral to the main purpose
Ascertainment of price [Section 9] of the contract, of the contract,
the breach of which gives rise the breach of which gives rise
fixed by the contract, or
to a right to treat the contract to a claim for damages
as repudiated. but not to a right to reject the
goods and treat the contract
agreed to be fixed in a manner provided by the contract, or
as repudiated.
determined by the course of dealings between the parties. 2. Differences
Point of Condition Warranty

Where price is not determined, the buyer shall pay the seller a differences
reasonable price
Meaning A stipulation A stipulation
essential to the collateral to the
main purpose of the main purpose of the
Agreement to sell at valuation [Section 10] contract. contract.
Right in case of Repudiate or claim Claim only damages
Where there is an breach damages or both
agreement to sell goods on such third party
the terms that the price is cannot or does not Conversion of A breach of condition A breach of warranty
to be fixed by the valuation make such valuation, stipulations may be treated as a cannot be treated as
of third party; and breach of warranty. a breach of condition.
3. Waiver of conditions [Section 13]

if the goods or any
part thereof have
been delivered to, and the agreement is Voluntary Waiver Compulsory Waiver
appropriated by, the buyer, thereby avoided.  Waives performance of contract  Non-severability of contract
he shall pay a reasonable  Elect to treat condition as  Fulfilment of conditions excused
price therefore. warranty by law
Where such third party is the party not in fault

prevented from making may maintain a suit for Mode of Conditions and Warranties
the valuation by the fault damages against the
of the seller or buyer, party in default.
Ex: P is having two bikes. He agrees to sell both of the bikes to may be either
‘Conditions’ and express or
S at a price to be fixed by the Q. He gives delivery of one bike ‘Warranties’
immediately. Q refuses to fix the price. As such P ask S to return implied
the bike already delivered while S claims for the delivery of the
second bike too. In the given instance, buyer S shall pay reasonable
price to P for the bike already taken. As regards the Second bike,
the contract can be avoided.

18
BUSINESS LAWS
1. Express and Implied Conditions-Meaning 5. Sale by sample [Section 17]
• Agreed upon between the parties at the time of Sale by sample
Express contract and
conditions • are expressly provided in the contract.
bulk shall buyer shall have goods shall be free
• Which are presumed by law to be present in the contract. correspond with the a reasonable from any latent
sample in quality opportunity of defect i.e. a hidden
Implied • an implied condition may be negated or waived by an comparing the bulk defect.
conditions express agreement.
with the sample
Ex: A company sold certain shoes made of special sole by sample

2. Implied Conditions-Types for the French Army. The shoes were found to contain paper not
discoverable by ordinary inspection. Held, the buyer was entitled
to the refund of the price plus damages.
Implied Conditions
6. Sale by sample as well as by description [Section 15]

Condition as to title Condition as to description
Sale by sample bulk of the goods supplied shall correspond
as well as by both with the sample and the description
description
Sale by sample Sale by sample as well as In case the goods correspond with the sample
by description but do not tally with description or vice versa
or both, buyer can repudiate the contract.
Condition as to quality
or fitness
Condition as to Ex: A agreed with B to sell certain oil described as refined
merchantability sunflower oil, warranted only equal to sample. The goods tendered
Condition as to
wholesomeness were equal to sample but contained a mixture of hemp oil. B can
reject the goods.
3. Condition as to title [Section 14]

7. Condition as to quality or fitness [Section 16(1)]
Condition as to title-
In every contract of sale, the goods
the first implied condition supplied shall be
on the part of the seller is
reasonably fit for the
purpose for which the
buyer wants them, provided
in case of sale in case of an the stated Condition as to
agreement to sell quality or fitness
are fulfilled
• The buyer should have made known to the seller the
right to sell the particular purpose for which goods are required.
right to sell the goods at the time
goods • The buyer should rely on the skill and judgement of
when the property the seller.
is to pass.
• The goods must be of a description dealt in by the
seller, whether he be a manufacturer or not
Ex: A purchased a tractor from B who had no title to it. After 2
months, the true owner spotted the tractor and demanded it Ex: ‘A’ bought a set of false teeth from ‘B’, a dentist. But the set was
from A. Held that A was bound to hand over the tractor to its not fit for ‘A’s mouth. ‘A’ rejected the set of teeth and claimed the
true owner and that A could sue B, the seller without title, for the refund of price. It was held that ‘A’ was entitled to do so as the only
recovery of the purchase price. purpose for which he wanted the set of teeth was not fulfilled.
4. Sale by description [Section 15]

8. Condition as to Merchantability [Section 16(2)]
Contract of sale of goods the goods shall correspond Condition as to Merchantability
by description with the description
• Goods should be bought by description.
• The seller should be a dealer in goods of that description.
• Exception: If the buyer has examined the goods, there shall be
no implied condition as regards defects which such examination
there is an implied condition that ought to have revealed.
Ex: A ship was contracted to be sold as “copper-fastened vessel”

Ex: A bought a black velvet cloth from C and found it to be
but actually it was only partly copper-fastened. Held that goods
damaged by white ants. Held, the condition as to merchantability
did not correspond to description and hence could be returned or
was broken.
if buyer took the goods, he could claim damages for breach.
19
BUSINESS LAWS
9. Condition as to wholesomeness 10. Implied Warranties-Types
• In the case of eatables and

provisions, Implied Warranties
• in addition to the implied
Condition as to condition as to merchantability,
wholesomeness • there is another implied
condition that the goods shall warranty as to warranty as to
be wholesome. undisturbed quality or fitness
possession by usage of trade
Ex: A supplied F with milk. The milk contained typhoid germs. F’s Warranty as to non- disclosure of dangerous
wife consumed the milk and was infected and died. Held, there was existence of encumbrances nature of goods
a breach of condition as to fitness and A was liable to pay damages.
11. Implied warranty
Warranty as to Warranty as to Warranty as to Disclosure

undisturbed non-existence of quality or fitness of dangerous
possession encumbrances by usage of trade nature of goods
buyer shall have the goods shall An implied the goods are
and enjoy quiet be free from warranty as to dangerous in
possession of the any charge or quality or fitness nature and
goods. encumbrance for a particular
purpose may
be annexed or the buyer is
attached by the ignorant of the
If the buyer having danger,
in favour of any usage of trade
got possession of
third party not
the goods, is later
declared or known
on disturbed in his the seller must
to the buyer
possession, Ex: Shares warn the buyer
purchased from of the probable
broker expected to danger.
he is entitled to be free from bad
before or at the
sue the seller for deliveries
time the contract If there is a breach
the breach of the
is entered into. of warranty, the
warranty.
seller may be
liable in damages.
Ex: A Purchased
Ex: : S sells a car
a second hand Ex : Lid of
which was given
typewriter which disinfectant
as security by Y
happened to be powder to be
against a loan
stolen opened with care.
2. Required conditions when doctrine is not attracted:

Caveat Emptor [Section 16]
1. Meaning of doctrine • Buyer had made known to the seller
the purpose of his purchase, and
It is the duty Conditions
• buyer relied on the seller’s skill and
of the buyer to be
judgement, and
to examine satisfied
• seller’s business to supply goods of
the goods that description
Let the thoroughly
buyer before he buys
beware General rule them in order to
Caveat 3. Exceptions to Doctrine of caveat Emptor:
satisfy himself
Emptor
that the goods
will be suitable Exceptions
for his purpose • Fitness as to quality or use
Ex: A purchases a horse from B. A needed for which he is • Goods purchased under patent or brand name
the horse for riding but he did not mention buying them. • Goods sold by description
this fact to B. The horse is not suitable for • Goods of Merchantable Quality
riding but is suitable only for being driven in • Sale by sample
the carriage. Caveat emptor rule applies here • Goods by sample as well as description
and so A can neither reject the horse nor can • Trade Usage
claim compensation from B. • Seller actively conceals a defect or is guilty of fraud

20
BUSINESS LAWS
CA FOUNDATION - PAPER 2A - BUSINESS LAWS
In this capsule, we have summarized the important concepts of the Unit 3 and 4 of the Chapter 2: The Sale of Goods
Act, 1930. From Examination point of view, this chapter comprises of around 12 to 14 marks of the paper. In this
chapter, students are tested with conceptual understanding of the legal provisions, as well application of the important
concepts in the simple practical scenarios. This capsule will help the students to revise and retain essentials of some
of the important provisions related to transfer of ownership, delivery of goods and unpaid seller.
The Sale of Goods Act, 1930

(I) Provisions related to transfer of Ownership Different stages of Goods while passing of property under this
[Section 18-26] category:
Specific Goods in Property in goods passes to the buyer
(i) Stages involved in transfer of ownership:
Deliverable Stage when the contract is made
Passing of Delivery Passing of irrespective of time of the payment or

property of Goods Risk delivery or both.
Example: X buys a Washing Machine and asks for home delivery.

Passing of Property The washing machine immediately becomes the property of X.
• Passing of Ownership Specific Goods to be put in Deliverable Stage

• If the property has When there is a contract for the sale of specific
Passing of passed to the buyer, the
property goods;
implies- RISK in the goods sold
is that of the buyer and
NOT of the seller seller is bound to do something to the goods for
putting them into deliverable state;
the property does not pass until such thing is done

and buyer has notice thereof.
Rules regarding transfer of property in goods
Depends on two basic factors:
Identification of goods Intention of parties Example: X purchased a laptop and asks for home delivery but
that laptop does not have a Windows operating system installed.
The property transfers to X only after shopkeeper installed OS
Property in goods is making the laptop ready for delivery and intimated the buyer
Goods must be ascertained
transferred at the time- about it.
in order to pass the
• when parties intend it to
property in goods to buyer
be transferred
Specific Goods • Contract for sale of specific goods

Ascertaing of intention shall • seller is bound to weigh, measure,
Goods must be specific in a Deliverable
be on the basis of- test or do something for purpose of
and ascertained to acquire Stage when
• terms of contract ascertaining price
the ownership right on the seller has to do
• conduct of the parties, and • then the Property in goods passes to
goods by buyer anything to put
• circumstances of the case the buyer
it in deliverable
stage • only when such thing is done and
buyer has notice of it.
Primary Rules: For determination of passing of property from seller
to Buyer
1. Passing of Property in Case of Specific or Ascertained Goods Example: A sold carpets to the Company which were required
to be laid. The carpet was delivered to the company’s premises
Transferred at but was stolen before it could be laid. It was held that the carpet
such time as the was not in deliverable state as it was not laid, which was part of
parties intend it the contract and hence, the property had not passed to the buyer
to be transferred company.
Conduct of
Passing of the Parties
Property in case
of Specific or 2. Sale of Unascertained Goods
Circumstances
Ascertained Goods of the Case
Ascertainment of
intention depends on When there no property is unless the
is a sale of transferred to goods are
Unascertained the buyer ascertained
Goods,
The Chartered Accountant Student December 2021 29

21
BUSINESS LAWS
Rules in respect of passing of property under this category
Sale of unascertained or
future goods by description
The goods to Goods Unconditionally The The assent The assent

match with must be in appropriated appropriation may be may be given
description deliverable (seller does not must be by express or before or
and quality state reserve the right seller with the implied after the
of disposal until assent of the appropriation
certain conditions buyer or vice
are fulfilled, like versa
payment of price)
Delivery to the Carrier Example: X sends furniture to a company by a truck and instructs
the driver not to deliver the furniture to the company until the
payment is made by company to him. The property passes only
Seller delivers the goods when the payment is made.
for the purpose of
to the buyer or carrier or
transmission and
other bailee
Risk Prima Facie passes with Property
the goods are does not reserve the right Until the property therein is transferred to the buyer
appropriated of disposal,
the goods remain at the seller’s risk
Example: A bill of lading of railway parcel is made out in the name

of the buyer and is sent to him, the ownership in the goods passes
from the seller to the buyer. In case the goods are subjected to when the property therein is transferred to the buyer
accidental loss or by theft, the seller will not be liable.
the goods are at the buyer’s risk whether delivery has
been made or not.
3. Goods sent on Approval or “Sale Or Return”
PASSING OF PROPERTY
If delivery is delayed by the fault of the seller or the buyer
When he signifies his approval or acceptance
Retains goods without giving notice of rejection the goods remain at the risk of the party in default
(seller or buyer as per the case)
Does something to the goods which is
equivalent to acceptance
The duties and liabilities of the seller or the buyer as bailee of
goods for other party
Example: A sends to B a water motor on approval or return in will not be affected even when risk has passed.
March, 2020. B to return it after trial in August, 2020. The water
motor has not been returned within a reasonable time, and
therefore, A is not bound to accept it and B must pay the price. Example: A bids for an antique painting at a sale by auction.
After the bid, when the auctioneer struck his hammer to signify
acceptance of the bid, he hit the antique which gets damaged. The
4. Reservation of Right of Disposal loss will have to be borne by the seller, because the ownership of
goods has not yet passed from the seller to the buyer.
the seller may by the terms of
the contract or appropriation,
Where there is a
contract for the sale
of specific goods
or where goods reserve the right of disposal of
are subsequently the goods
appropriated to the
contract
until certain conditions are
fulfilled
30 December 2021 The Chartered Accountant Student
22
BUSINESS LAWS
(II) Transfer of Title by Non Owners (Section 27-30) Types of Delivery
Symbolic
delivery
Where goods are who does not have
buyer does not Actual Constructive
sold by a person the authority or
acquire a Delivery Delivery
who is not the with the consent of
good title
owner; and the owner
Types of
delivery
Example: P, the hirer of vehicle under a hire purchase agreement, Duties of seller and Buyer
sells them to Q. Q, though a bona fide purchaser, does not acquire
the ownership in the vehicle. At the most he acquires the same
right as that of the hirer. Duty of Duty of
the the
seller buyer to accept
to deliver the
and pay for
goods
NEMO DAT Sale by a Mercantile Agent them
QUOD NON
HABET – No one Sale by one of the joint owners
can give what he
has not got. Sale by a person in possession under voidable Rules regarding Delivery of Goods
contract
Exceptions:
Sale by a person who has already sold goods Delivery to
Part Instalment
but continues in possession thereof carrier/
delivery deliveries
wharfinger
Effect of Estoppel
Sale by an unpaid seller

Buyer to apply Delivery of Deterioration
Sale by a buyer obtaining possession before the for delivery wrong quantity during transit
property vested in him
Sale under provisions of other Acts Buyer's right

Expenses of
Place of delivery to examine
delivery
the goods
Examples: 1. A, B, and C are three brothers and joint owners of a
T.V and VCR and with the consent of B and C, the VCR was kept
in possession of A. A sells the T.V and VCR to P who buys it in
Goods in
good faith and without notice that A had no authority to sell. P Time for
possession of a
gets a good title to VCR and TV. delivery
third party
2. During IPL matches, P buys a TV set from R. R agrees to deliver
the same to P after some days. In meanwhile R sells the same to S,
at a higher price, who buys in good faith and without knowledge
about the previous sale. S gets a good title. Examples: 1. Certain goods lying at wharf were sold in a lot. The
seller instructed the wharfinger to deliver them to the buyer who
had paid for them and the buyer, thereafter, accepted them and
took away part. Held, there was delivery of the whole.
(III) Performance of the Contract of Sale (Section 2. A agrees to sell 100 quintals of wheat to B at ` 1,000 per quintal.
31-44) A delivers 1,100 quintals. B may reject the whole lot or accept only
Meaning of delivery 1,000 quintals and reject the rest or accept the whole lot and pay
for them at the contract of sale.
voluntary Rule Related to Acceptance of Delivery of Goods

transfer of
Definition of possession from
Delivery one person to Acceptance is deemed to take
another
place when the buyer-
intimates to the does any act to retains the goods
seller that he the goods, which after the lapse of
had accepted the is inconsistent a reasonable time,
goods; or with the without intimating
ownership of the to the seller that he
seller; or has rejected them.

23
BUSINESS LAWS
(IV) Unpaid Seller (Section 45-61) Example: A sold certain goods to B for a price R50,000 and
allowed him to pay the price within one month. B becomes
insolvent during this period of credit. A, the unpaid seller, can
Unpaid Seller exercise his right of lien.
1. The Whole price has not been paid or tendered and the
seller has an immediate right of action for the price (ii)
2. When a bill or exchange or other negotiable instrument
has been received as conditional payment and it has been Buyer or agent
dishonoured. lawfully obtains By waiver
the goods
Example: P sold some goods to R for R60,000 and received

Delivers goods By Estoppel
a cheque for a full price. On presentment, the cheque was
to carrier (by conduct or
dishonoured by the bank. P is an unpaid seller.
or bailee Termination behaviour)
of Lien
Rights of an Unpaid Seller
Rights of an Example: A sold a car to B for R1,00,000 and delivered the same
unpaid Seller to the railways for the purpose of transmission to the buyer. The
railway receipt was taken in the name of B and sent to B. Now A
cannot exercise the right of lien.
Against Goods Against the Buyer
2. Right of stoppage in transit:

(i)
Property in Property in Goods
Suit for Price
Goods has passed has not passed to
Right of the right of
to the buyer the buyer stopping the to regain the to retain them
stoppage
goods while possession till the full
in transit they are in and price is paid
Suit for Damages means transit,
Lien Withholding
Delivery
Suit for Interest (ii)

Stoppage in Right of stoppage in
Lien transit is exercised only
transit
when the following
conditions are fulfilled
Resale Stoppage in
transit
The seller He must The The The
must be have goods are buyer has right is
Resale unpaid. parted in transit. become subject to
with the insolvent. provisions
possession of the Act.
of goods.
Right of Unpaid Seller against the Goods
1. Seller’s Lien
(iii) The goods are deemed to be in
(i) course of transit
RIGHT TO RETAIN
POSSESSION
UNTIL PAYMENT:
Goods in the course
from the time when they are

delivered to a carrier or other bailee
Where goods sold without stipulation
of transit
as to credit (Cash Sales) for the purpose of transmission

to the buyer,
Goods sold on credit, but terms

of credit expired until the buyer or his agent in
that behalf takes delivery of them
Buyer becomes insolvent

(ceases to pay debt in the ordinary from such carrier or other bailee.
course of business)
24
BUSINESS LAWS
(iv)
When does the transit come to an end?
When the buyer Buyer obtains Where the carrier If the carrier Where goods Where the part Where the
or other bailee delivery before or other bailee wrongfully are delivered delivery of the goods are
obtains delivery. the arrival acknowledges to the refuses to to the carrier goods has been delivered to a
of goods at buyer or his agent that deliver the hired by the made to the ship chartered
destination he holds the goods as goods to the buyer buyer, the transit by the buyer,
soon as the goods are buyer. will come to the transit
loaded on the ship, an end for the comes to an
unless the seller has remaining goods end.
reserved the right of which are yet
disposal of the goods. in the course of
transmission.
(v) Rights of Unpaid Seller against the Buyer
Stoppage in Rights of • Suit for price

transit unpaid seller • Suit for damages for non-acceptance
against the • Repudiation of contract before due date
By taking actual
buyer • Suit for interest
possession of goods
by giving notice to the
carrier not to deliver Breach of Contract by Seller
the goods.
Breach of contract by seller, where he-
(vi)
Fails to deliver the goods at the time or in manner prescribed
Exceptions When the seller has assented to the sale,
where unpaid mortgage or other disposition of the goods made
seller’s right by the buyer
of lien and Breach of contract by seller, where he-
stoppage in When a document of title to goods has been
transit are transferred to the buyer and the buyer transfers
defeated the documents to a person who has bought goods
in good faith and for value Repudiates the contract
Example: A entered into a contract to sell cartons in possession of

Breach of contract by seller, where he-
a wharfinger to B and agreed with B that the price will be paid to A
from the sale proceeds recovered from his customers. Now B sold
goods to C and C duly paid to B. But anyhow B failed to make the Deliver non-conforming goods and buyer rejects and
payment to A. A wanted to exercise his right of lien and ordered revokes acceptance
the wharfinger not to make delivery to C. Held that the seller had
assented to the resale of the goods by the buyer to the sub-buyers.
As a result, A’s right to lien is defeated.
Right of Buyer in case of breach of contract by seller
3. Right of re-sale
Damages for
non-delivery
Where an unpaid
Where he gives seller who has
Where the
notice to the buyer exercised his right Suit for specific
goods are of a
of his intention to of lien or stoppage performance
perishable nature
re-sell the goods in transit resells
the goods
Rights of Suit for breach
buyer of warranty
A re-sale by the
seller where a Where the
right of re-sale property in goods Repudiation of
is expressly has not passed to contract before
reserved in a the buyer due date
contract of sale
Suit for
interest

25
BUSINESS LAWS
Legal Rules of Auction Sale
Example: A’ agreed to sell a rare painting of Mughal period to
‘B’. But on the due date of delivery, ‘A’ refused to sell the same. In
this case, ‘B’ may file a suit against ‘A’ for obtaining an order from • Where goods are sold in lots
the Court to compel ‘A’ to perform the contract (i.e. to deliver the • Completion of the contract of sale
painting to ‘B’ at the agreed price). • Right to bid may be reserved
Rules • Where the sale is not notified by the seller
(V) Auction Sale (Section 64) • Reserved price
Meaning • Pretended bidding
Example: P sold a car by auction. It was knocked down to Q who

the was only allowed to take it away on giving a cheque for the price
property and signing an agreement that ownership should not pass until the
mode of cheque was cleared. In the meanwhile till the cheque was cleared,
selling is sold to
the highest Q sold the car to R. It was held that the property was passed on
property by the fall of the hammer and therefore R had a good title to the car.
Auction inviting bids bidder
sale is Both sale and sub sale are valid in favour of Q and R respectively.
publicly and
26
BUSINESS LAWS
CA foundation - Paper 2A - Business Laws
This capsule on Paper 2A: Business Laws at Foundation level covers the concepts of Unit 1 of the Indian Partnership
Act, 1932 which is Chapter 3 of this paper. It covers significant concepts explained in a graspable manner for rational
understanding of legal provisions. This will help the student to understand and retain the important aspects of the legal
provisions. This capsule in fact, is in short notes which aids to revise the subject in the examination condition and can be
referred a day before examination. This is relevant for the November 2022 examination.
Chapter 3: The Indian Partnership Act, 1932

UNIT 1: GENERAL NATURE OF PARTNERSHIP
1. Definition of ‘Partnership’, ‘Partner’, ‘Firm’ and ‘Firm name’
relation who agreed carried on by

of a acting
Partnership between to share the
business
all or any of
for all
persons profits them
individually 'Partners’
Persons who
have entered into 'a firm'
collectively
partnership with one
another are called
the name under

which their business 'firm name'
is carried on
2. Elements of Partnership
• association of 2 or more persons AGREEMENT

ASSOCIATION TO SHARE • Sharing of profits is must
• persons recognised by law can enter into
OF PERSONS an agreement of partnership PROFITS
BUSINESS • Binding contract of mutual agency

• partnership must be the result of an
CARRIED ON BY between the partners
AGREEMENT agreement
ALL OR ANY OF • Partner is the principal as well as the
• Agreement may be express or implied
THEM ACTING agent for all other partners.
• Agreement may be oral or in writing
FOR ALL
BUSINESS • Existence of business

• Acquisition of gains
27
BUSINESS LAWS
3. True Test of Partnership Basis of Partnership Joint Stock Company
difference
Registration For a partnership, firm Company is created
registration is not com- by registration under
agreement pulsory. Companies Act, 2013.
between all Winding up A partnership may be A Company is wind up
the persons dissolved by any part- by NCLT or its name is
concerned ner at any time if all the struck off by the ROC.
partners agree.
Number of Number of partners: Private company:
Existence of membership maximum-100 (As minimum- 2, maxi-
partnership, when per Section 464 of the mum- 200
Companies Act, 2013)
Present limit is 50 Public Company: min-
[As per Companies imum- 7, maximum-
share the profits (Miscellaneous) Rules, No limit
of business 2014]
One person compa-
ny: 1
Duration of Firm does not have Company has perpetual
business was existence perpetual succession. succession.
carried on by all
or any of them II. Partnership Vs Club
Basis of Difference Partnership Club

Objective Profit Not profit
Relationship Partners Members
4. Partnership distinguished from other forms of Interest in the Yes No
Organisation property
I. Partnership Vs Joint Stock Company Dissolution Change in partners Change in members

affect existence don’t affect existence
Basis of Partnership Joint Stock Company
difference III. Partnership Vs Hindu Undivided Family (HUF)
Legal status Not a legal entity Is an artificial legal per- Basis of Partnership HUF
son. (Saloman Vs Salo- difference
man)
Mode of An agreement. Status means its creation
Agency Partner is an agent of A member is not an creation by birth in the family.
firm and other part- agent of company or of
ners. other members. Death of a Ordinarily leads to Does not give rise to
member the dissolution of dissolution of the family
Distribution The profits of the firm There is no such com- partnership. business.
of profits are distributed as per pulsion to distribute
the Partnership Deed. the profits among the Management All the partners are Generally vests in the
members. Dividend is equally entitled to Karta, the governing
declared out of profits. take part. male member or female
member of the family.
Extent of Liability of members is Liability of the mem-
Authority to Every partner can, The Karta or the manager,
liability unlimited. bers can be limited by
bind by his act, bind the has the authority to
shares or by guarantee.
firm. contract for the family
There can be unlimited
business and the other
liability also.
members in the family.
Property The firm’s property is Company’s property is
Liability Liability of a partner Only the liability of the
the “Joint Estate” of all separate from that of
is unlimited. Karta is unlimited, and the
the partners. its members who can
other coparcener are liable
receive it back only in
only to the extent of their
the form of dividends
share in the profits of the
or refund of capital.
family business.
Transfer of A share in Partnership Shares of a private lim-
Calling for A partner can bring On the separation of the
shares cannot be transferred ited company can be
accounts on a suit against the joint family, a member
without the consent of transferred with ease.
closure firm for accounts, is not entitled to ask for
all the partners.
provided he account of the family
Management Partners can take part Only director members also seeks the business.
in management of a can take part in man- dissolution of the
firm. agement. firm.

28
BUSINESS LAWS
Basis of Partnership HUF IV. Partnership Vs Co-Ownership or joint ownership
difference
Basis of Partnership Co-ownership
Governing Governed by the Governed by the Hindu difference
Law Indian Partnership Law.
Act, 1932. Formation It arises out of a Arise either from
contract. agreement or by the
Minor’s A minor cannot A minor becomes a
operation of law, such as
capacity become a partner, member of the ancestral
though he can business by the incidence by inheritance.
be admitted to of birth. He does not
Implied A partner is the agent A co-owner is not the
the benefits of have to wait for attaining
agency of the other partners. agent of other co-owners.
partnership, only majority.
with the consent of Nature of There is community Co-ownership does
all the partners. interest of interest which not necessarily involve
Continuity Subject to a Has the continuity till it is means that profits and sharing of profits and
contract between divided. The status of HUF losses must have to be losses.
the partners, gets is not thereby affected by shared.
dissolved by death the death of a member.
or insolvency of a Transfer of A share in the A co-owner may transfer
partner. interest partnership is his interest or rights in
transferred only by the property without
Number of Should not exceed Unlimited in number. the consent of other the consent of other co-
Members 50. partners. owners.
Share in the Each partner has No coparceners have a
business a defined share definite share.
by virtue of an
agreement between
the partners.
5. Kinds of Partnership
Partnership
With regard to the extent

With regard to duration
of the business
Particular General
Partnership at will Partnership for a fixed period
Partnership Partnership
organised for
no fixed period no provision partnership
comes to an end any particular constituted with
has been agreed made as to the created for a
on the expiry of adventure or respect to the
upon for the determination of particular period
the fixed period undertaking the business in general
duration; and the partnership. of time
partnership
6. Types of Partners
Types of Partners
Active or Outgoing Sleeping or Partner in Incoming Partner by

Nominal Sub-partner
Ostensible Partner Dormant Profits only Partner Holding out
29
BUSINESS LAWS
Active or
Sleeping or
Actual or Nominal Partner in Incoming Outgoing Partner by
Dormant
Ostensible Partner profits only partner partner holding out
Partner
partner
When a person
Lend his represent
admitted as
name to the A partner himself, or
Entitled to a partner
firm who leaves
share the into an
a firm in
become a profits only already
a partner by which the
partner by existing Knowingly
agreement, Without rest of the
agreement, firm with permits
and having any partners
and the consent himself,
real interest continue
of all the
in firm to carry on
existing
business. to be
partners.
represented as
Not entitled Not liable a partner in a
to share the for the firm (when in
profits losses fact he is not)
remains he is liable,
actively does not Does not take Not liable liable to like a partner
participates actively take part in the for any third parties in the firm
in the part in the conduct of the act of the for all acts
conduct conduct business Liable to firm done of the firm
to anyone
of the of the the third before his until public
who on the
partnership partnership parties for admission as notice is
Liable to faith of such
business all acts of a partner. given of his
third parties representation
the profits retirement.
for all acts has given
only credit to the
of the firm
firm.

30
business laws
FOUNDATION-PAPER 2A-BUSINESS LAWS
This capsule on Paper 2A: Business Laws at Foundation level covers the concepts of the Limited Liability Partnership
Act, 2008 which is Chapter 4 of this paper. It covers significant concepts explained in graspable manner for
rational understanding of legal provisions. This will help the student to understand and retain the important
aspects of the legal provisions. This capsule is, in fact are short notes which aids to revise the chapter in the
examination condition and can be referred a day before examination. This is relevant for the May 2023 examination.
Chapter 4: Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008

(iii) Designated Partner [Section 2(j)]
I. Limited Liability Partnership- Meaning
and Concept
1.
“Designated
New form of legal business entity with limited liability partner” any partner
means designated as
such pursuant to
Alternative corporate business vehicle section 7.
Allows the partners the flexibility of organising their

internal stucture (iv) Foreign LLP [Section 2(m)]
LLP itself will be liable for the full extent of its assets
formed,
Foreign
Liability of the partners will be limited LLP Outside
incorporated
means or India
LLP which establishes
a place of business
2. Important Definitions registered within India.
(i) Body Corporate [Section 2(d)]
• a LLP registered under this (v) Limited Liability Partnership [Section 2(n)]:

It means a company Act;
as defined in clause
(20) of section 2 of the • a LLP incorporated outside
Companies Act, India; and
2013 and includes • a company incorporated LLP means
outside India
a partnership formed and registered
under LLP Act, 2008.
• a corporation sole;
• a co-operative society
registered under any law for the
time being in force; and (vi) LLP Agreement [Section 2(o)]:
• any other body corporate (not
but does not being a company as defined in
include between the partners which determines the
clause (20) of section 2 of the of the LLP; or mutual rights and duties
Companies Act, 2013 or a LLP of the partners and
as defined in this Act), which Any
the Central Government may, written
by notification in the Official agreement
Gazette, specify in this behalf.
between the LLP their rights and duties
and its partners in relation to that LLP
(ii) Business [Section 2(e)]
(vii) Partner [Section 2(q)]

• every trade,
• profession,
• service and Partner, in relation to a LLP
“Business” • occupation
includes • except any activity which the Central
Government may, by notification, • means any person who becomes a partner in the LLP
exclude. • in accordance with the LLP agreement
31
business lAws
(viii) Small Limited Liability Partnership [Section 2(ta)] 5. Minimum number of partners (Section 6)
(i)
the contribution of which, does not exceed
`25 Lacs or such higher amount, not exceeding
`5 Crore, as may be prescribed; and Every LLP shall have at least two
partners
Small LLP
means
(ii)
the turnover of which, as per the person,
which meets such the Statement of Accounts and the LLP who is the only
other requirements and Solvency for the carries on partner of the LLP
If at any time during the time
as may be prescribed, immediately preceding F/Y, the number of business for
and fulfils such terms does not exceed `40 Lacs more than 6 shall be liable
partners of a personally for
and conditions as or such higher amount, not LLP is reduced months while
may be prescribed. exceeding `50 Crore, as may the number is the obligations
below 2 of the LLP incurred
be prescribed; or so reduced,
during that
period.
3. N
on-applicability of the Indian Partnership Act, 6. Designated partners (Section 7)
1932
Save as otherwise provided,
the provisions of the Indian
Partnership Act, 1932
Designated partners • in case of LLP,
(Section 7) • where all the partners are
• at least two bodies corporate or
• who are individuals • in which one or more
• at least one of them shall partners are individuals
be a resident in India. and bodies corporate,
shall not apply to a LLP.
• Resident in India: A • at least two individuals
person who has stayed in who are partners of such
India for a period of not LLP or
4. Partners (Section 5) less than 120 days during • nominees of such bodies
the F/Y. corporate
• shall act as designated
Who can be a partner partners.
in LLP?
7. Characteristic of LLP
Any Individual; or Body Corporate
Body Perpetual Separate Mutual

However, an individual Corporate Succession Legal Entity Agency
shall not be capable of
becoming a partner of a
LLP, if—
he has been found to be of LLP Artificial Common Limited

unsound mind by a Court Agreement Legal Person Seal Liability
of competent jurisdiction
and the finding is in force;
Minimum
he is an undischarged Management and Business for
insolvent; or Maximum Investigation
of Business number of Profit Only
Partners
he has applied to be
adjudicated as an insolvent
and his application is
pending Compromise Conversion E-Filing of Foreign
or
Arrangement into LLP Documents LLPs

32
business laws
8. Advantages of LLP form 2. Incorporation by registration (Section 12)
is organized and operates on the basis of an agreement

• The Registrar shall retain the incorporation document
and shall, within a period of 14 days—
• register the incorporation document; and
provides flexibility without imposing detailed legal and • give a certificate that the LLP is incorporated by the
procedural requirements name specified therein.
easy to form
The certificate issued shall be signed by the Registrar
and authenticated by his official seal.
all partners enjoy limited liability
The certificate shall be conclusive evidence that the LLP

is incorporated by the name specified therein
flexible capital structure
easy to dissolve 3. Registered office of LLP and change therein

(Section 13)
Registered Manner of Change in Default
II. Incorporation of LLP office sending Registered office
1. Incorporation Document (Section 11) • All
• change the • LLP and its
• by post place of its every partner
Incorporation Two or more persons associated for carrying on a communications under a registered • shall be liable
document lawful business with a view to profit shall subscribe and notices certificate office and to a penalty
their names to an incorporation document; may be of posting • file the notice of `500 for
• The incorporation document shall be filed in such addressed or of such change each day
manner and with such fees, as may be prescribed • by • with the during which
with the Registrar of the State in which the and shall be
registered Registrar in the default
registered office of the LLP is to be situated; and received. post or such form and continues,
Statement to be filed: • by any manner and • subject to a
â There shall be filed along with the other • subject to such maximum of
incorporation document, a statement in the manner conditions `50,000
prescribed form,
â Made by either an advocate, or a Company
as may be
Secretary or a Chartered Accountant or prescribed and
a Cost Accountant, who is engaged in the • any such
formation of the LLP and change shall
â By any one who subscribed his name to the take effect only
incorporation document, upon such
â That all the requirements of this Act and the filing.
rules made thereunder have been complied with,
â In respect of incorporation and matters
precedent and incidental thereto. 4. Effect of registration (Section 14):
l The incorporation document shall—
• be in a form as may be prescribed;
• state the name of the LLP; suing and
• state the proposed business of the LLP; being sued;
• state the address of the registered office of the LLP;
• state the name and address of each of the
persons who are to be partners of the LLP on
incorporation; doing and
• state the name and address of the persons who acquiring,
suffering such owning, holding
are to be designated partners of the LLP on
incorporation; other acts and On registration, and developing or
• contain such other information concerning the things as body a LLP shall, by disposing of property,
proposed LLP as may be prescribed. corporate may its name, be whether movable or
lawfully do and capable of immovable, tangible
l If a person makes a statement as discussed suffer
above which he— or intangible;
l knows to be false; or
l does not believe to be true, shall be having a
punishable common seal,
â with imprisonment for a term which may if it is decided
extend to 2 years and to have one
â with fine which shall not be less than `10,000 and
but which may extend to `5 Lakhs.
33
business lAws
5. Name (Section 15) 2. Cessation of partnership interest (Section 24)
(i)
Every limited No LLP shall be in accordance with

liability partnership registered by a name an agreement with
shall have either the which, in the opinion the other partners
words as the last of the Central A person may or,
words of its Government cease to be a
name. is— partner of a
LLP
by giving a notice in
writing of not less
“limited liability undesirable; or in the absence of
than 30 days to the
partnership” or agreement with the
identical or too other partners of his
other partners,
nearly resembles intention to resign
the acronym “LLP”
to that of any other as partner.
limited liability
partnership or
(ii)
a company or a
registered trade
mark of any other on his death or
person under the dissolution of the
Trade Marks Act, LLP; or
1999.
A person shall
cease to be a
partner of a LLP—
6. Reservation of name (Section 16)
if he has
A person may apply in applied to be if he is declared
such form and manner and adjudged as to be of
accompanied by such fee • name of a proposed LLP; or unsound mind
an insolvent
as may be prescribed to the • name to which a LLP proposes or declared as by a competent
Registrar for the reservation to change its name. an insolvent. court; or
of a name set out in the
application as—
(iii)
• that the name to be reserved

Registrar may, if he is is not one which may be the person has notice that the former partner has
satisfied, subject to the rules rejected on any ground ceased to be a partner of the LLP; or
prescribed by the Central Former partner
• reserve the name for a period
Government in the matter is to be regarded
of 3 months from the date of
as still being a
intimation by the Registrar.
partner of the
LLP unless— notice that the former partner has ceased to be a
partner of the LLP has been delivered to the Registrar.
III. PARTNERS AND THEIR RELATIONS
1. Eligibility to be partners (Section 22)
(iv)
the persons who subscribed
their names to the
incorporation document and
On the incorporation The former
of a LLP, partner shall partner is not to the to any which he
be discharged to the LLP or other other incurred
from any partners person while being
any other person by and in obligation or a partner.
accordance with the LLP
agreement.

34
business laws
(v) (iii)
in case of death or insolvency of the Former partner if he has reasonable Registrar

Former partner shall former partner, person entitled to his may himself cause to believe that shall obtain a
receive share shall be entitled to receive from file with the LLP may not file confirmation to
the LLP— Registrar the the notice with the this effect from
notice Registrar the LLP
his right to share in the accumulated

an amount equal to the profits of the LLP, determined as at the
capital contribution date the former partner ceased to be Where no Registrar shall
actually made to the LLP a partner. confirmation is register the
given by the LLP notice made by a
within 15 days former partner
after the deduction of
accumulated losses of the
LLP. IV. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURES
1. Maintenance of books of account, other records
(vi) and audit, etc. (Section 34)
(i)
Former partner or maintain
The LLP proper books of
shall- account
shall not have any
right to interfere in the
management of the LLP.
a person entitled to his
share in consequence of
relating to for each year of
the death or insolvency of
its affairs its existence
the former partner
3. Registration of changes in partners (Section 25):

(i) on cash basis according to
or accrual basis double entry system
and of accounting
In case of
of any within a contravention,
Every inform change period of
partner such partner
the LLP in his 15 days shall be liable
shall name or of such to a penalty of maintain the
address change. ` 10,000. same at its
registered
(ii) office
A LLP shall for such period

as may be
prescribed.
(ii)
where a person becomes where there is any change in the
or ceases to be a partner, name or address of a partner, such
Every LLP in such
shall- form statement
be signed
file a notice with the Registrar file a notice with the

within 30 days from the date he Registrar within 30 days by the
becomes or ceases to be a partner of such change. within 6 prepare a as may be
months Statement prescribed, designated
from the of Account and partners of
end of each and the LLP.
financial Solvency
year,
Notice filed with the Registrar shall be signed
by the designated partner of the LLP
for the said financial
In case of contravention, LLP and its every designated partner year as at the last day of
shall be liable to a penalty of `10,000. the said financial year
35
business lAws
(iii)
Every LLP shall file

The accounts of LLP shall be audited in
accordance with prescribed rules.
• within the prescribed time,

• the
Statement of Account and Solvency as prepared
• with the Registrar
• every year
• in such form and manner The CG may, exempt any class /s of LLP from
the requirements by notification in the Official
• and
accompanied by such fees as may be prescribed Gazette.
(iv) V. WINDING UP AND DISSOLUTION

Any LLP which fails to comply the provisions related to
the filing of Statement of Account and Solvency- (i)
The winding up of an LLP may be either

Such LLP and its designated partners-
• shall be liable to a penalty of `100 for each day during
which such failure continues, voluntary
• subject to a maximum of `1 lakh for the LLP and
• `50,000 for every designated partner.
or by the Tribunal
(v)
its every (ii)
Any LLP which designated

such LLP shall be • if the LLP decides;
fails to comply with partner shall
punishable with be punishable • if, for a period of more than six months,
the provisions of fine -not less than the number of partners of the LLP is
sub-section (1), with fine- not
`25,000, but may less than reduced below two;
sub-section (2) and extend to `5 lakh,
sub-section (4), `10,000, but • if the LLP is unable to pay its debts;
may extend to
Circumstances • if the LLP has acted against the interests
`1 lakh.
of the sovereignty and integrity of
in which LLP India, the security of the State or public
2. Annual return (Section 35): order;
may be wound
• if the LLP has made a default in filing
up by Tribunal with the Registrar the Statement of
Account and Solvency or annual
within 60 days return for any 5 consecutive financial
duly of closure of its years; or
authenticated financial year. • if the Tribunal is of the opinion that it
with the is just and equitable that the LLP be
Every LLP shall file Registrar wound up.
an annual return

36
business correspondence and reporting
CA FOUNDATION - PAPER 2B - Business Correspondence and Reporting
The capsule presents an outline of the topics along with vital aspects about the concepts covered in all four parts of the
curriculum. It also discusses:
• Types of questions asked in the examination from each of the chapters.
• Handy tips/cues for preparation as well as presentation of answers in an effective manner.
• A list of prescribed Do’s and Don’ts to reinforce important points to be remembered from examination’s standpoint.
As you would know, the syllabus has been divided into 4 Parts. The table below indicates the relevant details
S.No Part Name Chapters Covered Weight-Age in marks Skill level*
1. Part-I Communication 1 5-6 Level-I
2. Part-II Sentence Types and Vocabulary 2,3 9-10 Level-II
3. Part-III Comprehension and Note Making 4,5 10 Level-II
4. Part-IV Developing Writing Skills 6 to13 15 Level-II
Level-I: Knowledge and Comprehension comprehension or expression.Students can ask themselves simple
Level-II: Application definitions, pointers, examples while studying the chapter to reinforce
Each Part elucidates one of the significant aspects of Business the concept.
Correspondence.
Part-II Sentence Types and Vocabulary (Word Power)
Part-I Communication Overview
Overview: Sentences and Vocabulary are the basic building blocks of all formats
Communication forms the basis of any interaction. It is the process and language constructs. While sentence construction determines
of exchange of ideas, thoughts and opinions through a verbal or and enhances the coherence,clarity and progression in any piece of
non-verbal medium, between two or more people intending to writing; vocabulary lends a meaning, describes its connotation with
communicate or correspond with each other or in a group. precision at the same time enriching the language.
Chapter-1 broadly discusses the essential aspects of the process Chapter 2 Sentence Types comprises the basic sentence structure,
of communication, its types, mediums, characteristics of effective subject, predicate, dependent and independent clauses and types of
communication and barriers. sentences: simple, compound, complex and complex-compound,
Types of Questions subject-verb agreement, types of speech: direct indirect; active-
The questions that can be asked from this chapter can be both direct passive voice.
and indirect in nature. Types of Questions
• Direct questions can be from any topic/concept as mentioned All questions carry one mark, include:
above. • Rewrite a sentence from direct to indirect speech and vice versa
 What is network in communication? (1 Mark) • Rewrite a sentence from active to passive voice and vice versa
 Define non-verbal communication. What are its various • Identify the type of sentence (compound/complex/compound-
types? (2 Marks) complex)
• Indirect questions check the student’s level of understanding of the
How to Prepare (Tips and Cues)
concept. These can be in the form of statements where comments
You are required to:
or brief explanations are sought on these. Student is expected to
• Develop a habit of reading newspaper articles on myriad themes
answer with appropriate justification or supporting statement or
and subjects, fictional content or reviews.
argument. For example:
• They can try to identify different sentence structures, dependent
 Specify the kind of a formal business setting where ‘Star
and independent clauses and types to observe the writing style
Communication Network’ cannot be applied. (1 Mark)
used to state/describe ideas, opinions and suggestions.
 Body language can sometimes be deceptive. Comment.
• Comprehend the rules to convert a sentence from direct to indirect
(2 Marks)
speech and vice versa
 Physical barriers are a result of our surroundings. Discuss.
• Comprehend the rules to convert a sentence from active to passive
(2 Marks)
voice and vice versa
NOTE: The questions above have been taken from past year • Practise extensively to convert sentences.
question papers. Answers are available as part of Suggested These will not only help to understand the usage/application of the
Answers. various sentence types but also enable you to hone your verbal and
Both the type of questions can be for 1 or 2 marks each. written expression during group discussions and presentations as well
One mark questions should be answered very precisely with clarity. as answering questions during the examination.
Two mark questions may include Chapter-3 Vocabulary
• brief description of the topic/concept covering major points with Includes jargon words/phrases, synonyms-antonyms, roots of words,
examples/illustrations, prefix-suffix, phrasal words, collocations and idioms.
• comments with apt reason/argument/justification
Types of Questions
All questions carry one mark, include:
• MCQs based on synonyms, antonyms, idioms and collocations.
You are advised to read, comprehend and memorize definitions,
• MCQs as fill ups based on phrasal verbs
concepts and nuances of each topic. Understanding the concepts
is essential to be able to make out what is being asked as questions How to Prepare (Tips and Cues)
are sometimes paraphrased in a manner to test the examinee’s Building a good vocabulary requires regular reading to learn new
30 September 2021 The Chartered Accountant Student
37
words. It can be enhanced gradually by: earlier. Record the answers.
• Judiciously following a daily habit of learning at least 5 new • Figure out the central idea or the theme of the given passage. This
words with their meanings, both in English and Hindi or in the has to be a noun i.e. a person, place, idea, or a thing. Mostly, the
vernacular/ native language. main idea of a passage is stated in the first sentence of the first
• Carrying pocket dictionaries (English to English and English to paragraph. Sometimes it is mentioned at the end of the paragraph
Hindi/native language) always and rarely, anywhere else in the paragraph. In cases where the
• Noting at least one synonym and antonym for each of these words passage is taken from middle or end of a larger text, the central
to understand how these words could be used interchangeably. idea may not be stated at all, but simply implied.
• Identifying words used in colloquial English or frequently used • Read the opening and closing statement of each paragraph.
words in different types and styles of conversations such as debates, • Differentiate between the relevant and irrelevant information in
interviews, lectures, formal speech/address etc. the passage.
• Inculcating the habit of noting down unfamiliar/new words • Mark keywords, these can be subjects or entities (nouns), about
encountered while reading books, studying, attempting questions which something is described, procedures(action verbs) explained,
from exercises or watching any audio/video content. conjunctions between clauses, events/incidents narrated.
• Using these words extensively in oral and written communications
for retention. These may be:
• Preparing a personalized lexicon for ready reference. Reason words – because, due to, owing to, in view of, reason being
These activities/exercises would help to remember the precise Cause-and-effect words – thus, as a result, therefore, leading to,
meaning of the word, its origin, different connotations thereby, culminating into
providing more clarity on the usage with respect to the context. Time words – meanwhile, before, after, at the same time,
simultaneously
Part-III Comprehension passages and Note Making Contrast words – contrary, contrarily, in contrast, conversely,
Chapter-4 Comprehension Passages Unlike, opposite to
Addition words – also, in addition to, As well as, as well
Overview Emphasis words – note, more/most importantly, remember,
Comprehension passages are an integral part of any language moreover
curriculum and most competitive/language exams. Reading without
understanding is inconsequential, as it does nothing beyond • Identify logical sequence of events and supporting details across
phonetics. The exercise aims at enhancing vital language skills such the entire passage describing the central theme.
as Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking by enabling you to • Mark specific words and phrases. They help to understand the
understand whatever is written in terms of its context and connotation relationship between the ideas in a paragraph or paragraphs.
thus helping you to make out ideas, thoughts, opinions, suggestions • Note the context and sentence structure for clues in case of
from plane words. It also hones your analytical skills. The passages vocabulary based questions specifically, if the answer is not known.
in questions can have academic or general content and style and may • Identify logical sequence of events and supporting details across
include topics from a variety of fields including arts, sciences, social the entire passage describing the central theme.
sciences, etc. You may or may not be familiar to the topic. However, • Read through the passage and identify statements, arguments
an underlying assumption is that the passage is exhaustive and the and inferences or conclusions.
answers to the questions can be retrieved /derived from within the
passage only.
The chapter describes strategies for attempting these passages in a Chapter 5 Note Making
stepwise manner covering: Overview
• Enhancing reading skills by improving reading speed Note Making is significant to learning, revision and retention. It is
• Developing higher order thinking skills through Bloom’s Taxonomy an essential skill to be developed so as to prepare skimmed and
to improve comprehension skills. summarized subject material for revision. Notes essentially comprise
Types of Questions important points, numerous categories and different aspects of the
Part-III is important because there is a compulsory question from subject/entity/idea succinctly without omitting the vital details. As a
the section having two parts with one question each based on student, it is highly relevant for you, as you are required to retain and
Comprehension passage and Note Making carrying 5 marks each. recall voluminous subject contents during examinations and in other
In Comprehension Passages, there may be 4 to 5 questions (for 1 or 2 academic pursuits and even later in your profession while making
marks) based on a given text/passage/excerpt that primarily include: speeches and presentations.
• Multiple Choice Questions The chapter enables students to:
• Subjective questions to be answered in 1-2 sentences • Prepare extensive notes in a structured manner spanning through
These can be: the text without skipping any detail complete with indentation and
Main idea questions:Test the understanding of the whole passage abbreviations.
rather than the individual paragraphs/sections of the passage. • Write summary comprising pertinent details.
Specific detail questions: Based on the facts/details/events presented It highlights the significance of the topic for students and elucidates
in the passage. a step wise process to prepare notes for a given text material in a
Inference questions: Ask to draw a logical conclusion from what is sequential manner comprising:
said in the passage. • Strategies of effective Note Making
Vocabulary based questions: Ask the meaning of a word or phrase • Difference between Note Making and Note Taking
within the context of the passage. • Linear Note Making
• Steps for Linear Note Making
 Format
After a cursory reading of the passage and the questions, try to
 Indentation
comprehend the passage verbatim. Thereafter, you must attempt to:
 Abbreviations/Acronyms
• Find /locate/identify same/similar/associative words from the
question in the passage. Types of Questions
• Ask questions like What, When, Where, How and seek answers in Question in Note Making has 2 parts
the passage about the keywords, subjects or procedures identified • To prepare Notes
The Chartered Accountant Student September 2021 31

38
• To write Summary • Skim out any redundant and insignificant details from the passage/
How to Prepare (Tips and Cues) text.
You need to: • Shorten the sentences to simplify the information by converting
• Read the passage intently at least twice. overtly long complex and complex-compound sentences to simple
• Select/Frame an appropriate heading based on the central theme and compound sentences.
of the passage. • Always write in third person, indirect reported speech in past
• Mark the key sentences that help to develop the main idea or the tense.
central theme, these may include entities (nouns), activities (verbs), • State the relevant details briefly around the central theme, without
details (descriptions) and other aspects such as cause, effect, types, missing out any data.
categories etc. to prepare subheadings and sub subheadings to • Ensure that the sequence of events is maintained as narrated in the
present these in a logical sequence as given in the passage. passage.
• Not write complete sentences, just the keywords such as nouns • Adhere to the thought process/view-point of the author in the
and verbs. given passage/text. Refrain from making any contrary remark,
• Ensure that indentation is duly maintained. comment or suggestion.
• Abbreviate long words to prepare the key. • Ensure that the précis does not exceed more than one third of the
• Collate the aforesaid points and ideas in a logical sequence to given passage.
prepare the summary of the passage. Prepare the notes first, and • Re-iterate the complete process to further omit unnecessary
then draft the summary elaborating the note pointers. words/sentences, or re-frame the sentences to prepare a final
• Note that summary must be less than half the size of the passage edited version.
and present the vital points in the given passage. However, the
order of details presented may be altered. (B) Chapter-8 Article Writing
Format
Part-IV: Developing Writing Skills Title illustrating the idea/subject - In the first line
Overview By: Name of the author –Second line
This part comprises eight chapters from Chapter 6 to 13. It constitutes Writing Tips/Cues
the biggest and the most important portion in the curriculum, • Structure the contents into 2-3 paragraphs, each with a different
carrying the maximum weight-age (15 marks). It encompasses: central idea.
• Major writing constructs such as Précis, Articles and Reports. • Introduction (Paragraph-1):
• Inter-office and intra-office business communication/  Begin with a striking first sentence, a quote, proverb or idiom a
correspondence constructs such a Letters, Mails (both inter- popular newspaper headline that goes with the title/theme.
office), Memos and Circulars (both intra-office).  Follow it up with a brief introduction/overview.
• Preparing a Resume with/without a cover letter; Agendas, Minutes • Main Body (Paragraph-2):
and Action Taken Report (ATR) of a Meeting.  Mention related facts/figures/practices
These constructs are frequently used in the process of information  Major aspects; Key stakeholders; Comparison with a similar
exchange, and formal correspondence in day-to-day business concept (major similarities/dissimilarities); Origin/Source;
operations. It is therefore important for you to familiarize yourself Nature, Types and Forms; Major Causes and Effects on
with these constructs to be able to communicate effectively in formal different entities;
corporate settings. • Main Body (Paragraph-3):
Chapters 7 to 13 discuss each one of these constructs including their  Mention proposed precautions measures/solution; Merits/
formats, types, forms and versions complete with numerous examples demerits; Advantages/Disadvantages;
illustrations and exercises.  Past/Present/Future perspectives,
 Conclusion/Inference; Final comment/opinion/recommen-
Types of Questions dations.
• Write a Précis for the given passage / Article or Report on the • Collate your ideas in rough as pointers as per the structure above.
given topic subject or event / Letter or Mail to a recipient Frame the pointers in sentences.
• Prepare a Resume / Agenda, Minutes and ATR of a Meeting • Use adjectives/adverbs/phrases/idioms to make it engaging/
How to Prepare (Tips and Cues) riveting for the reader.
(I) Generic • Adhere to the word limit
You must be conversant with the basic format and essential details (C) Chapter-9 Report Writing
corresponding to each of these constructs. While attempting, you must: Format
• Prepare a rough skeleton structure or a template of the construct. Title : Brief description of the incident/event In the first line
• List down essential details such as date, subject, time, salutations, By: Name of the author –Second line
item code / order number/ cheque details/ name and main body,
Writing Tips
concluding message, designation and names of participants etc.
• Delineate the report into 2-3 paragraphs, comprising different set
• Prepare the main body and sub sections of the construct and vital
of details in each paragraph.
pointers with respect to the subject matter to be included for these.
• Write in third person, indirect reported speech and in past tense.
• Fill in the details to complete it.
• Adhere to the word limit.
• Edit the first draft to ensure appropriate words are used with the
• Paragraph-1:
correct connotation/context and do not use overtly long sentences
 Give first-hand description of the incident /event as a live
which makes it cumbersome for the examiner to read.
witness/viewer.
(II) Specific  Begin with a striking opening sentence followed by brief
(A) Chapter-7 Précis Writing description. including date, time and place of the incident/
You should: event;
• Read the text carefully to understand its central theme/idea.  Name of the event, institution/
• Give a suitable title around the central theme  People involved / Organizers
• Mark keywords such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to  Objective
identify entities, activities/processes and descriptions.  Chief Guest/ Guest of honour, Audience
39
• Paragraph-2: These are reminders, formal communications (One to many) to be
 Narrate the event in a chronological manner, stating minute yet communicated amongst a limited target audience of a particular office
significant details. departments/staff members of an institution or a specific group of
 List down the programmes/activities entailed and brief members of a club or organisation, informing/apprising them about
description of each of them / Causes of the incident, a specific decision.
 State relevant facts/figures; include / description by eye Format
witnesses/ audience feedback. Name of the organization/institution/club
• Concluding Paragraph-3: Inter Departmental Memo
 Future perspectives, plans; important implications, major Date:
repercussions; concluding remarks/comments. To: Employees of a Department/ Teachers of a class or department/
Senior Members of a club
(D) Chapter-10 Formal Letters and Official Communication
From: Name with Designation and Department
(i) Letter
Subject: Objective clearly stated such as: Purchase/Issuance of
Format with tips equipment such as Laptops Mobile Phones/ Tablets; Suspension/
Sender’s Address Dismissal of Mr. X;
Date: • Paragraph-1
Addressee’s Address  Information/Decision with stringent norms/penal action if
Salutation required, clearly stated.
Subject: A one line statement crisply citing the purpose of the letter
(E) Writing Formal E-Mails: These are most commonly used means
that catches the attention of the recipient and makes the intent aptly
of instant one to one OR one to many communication. E-mails are
clear.
used/exchanged to share information, issue instructions, demand
• Introduction (Paragraph-1)
action, elicit response, request details or any other purpose where
 Briefly mention the reason/objective for writing in 2-3
some interaction is needed.
sentences.
• Main Body (Paragraph-2) Format
 Pertinent details about the subject matter and key points to be To: E-mail address (es) of the recipient(s).
conveyed in 3-4 sentences. . Cc: Copy to: E-Mail addresses of the other stakeholders concerned
 Include Item/cheque/order/complaint number; with the communication
 Product/Order/Cheque/Complaint specifications or any other Subject: Purpose of sending the mail clearly stated such as: Payment
supporting document to a vendor for bill number xxx; Confirmation of Order Number xxx;
 In case of a complaint/request for replacement, specify the Status of application for registration to CA Foundation/Intermediate/
person in-charge /entity who will visit to address the issue. Final etc.
• Concluding Paragraph-3 • Main Body
 Re-iterate the objective; Salutations: Dear/Respected Sir/Madam
 State appropriate action to be taken(if, any) by the recipient; • Paragraph-1
 Expected timeline/(timely delivery, quality, specific  Brief description in 1-2 sentences, about the purpose of the
requirements). mail with reference to the subject.
 Essential terms and conditions to be adhered to • Paragraph-2
 Close the letter on a positive note, hoping for a favourable  Pertinent details including recent correspondence such as
response within the designated time period. policy decision, data gathered about the issue, any other
• Complimentary Close: Warm Regards/Thanking You/Yours truly/ information
Yours sincerely  Specific action expected from the recipient. Clear and concise
• Sender’s Name & Designation instructions should be given.
 Enclose necessary annexures/ attachments (if, required)
(D)(ii) Official Communication: Circulars • Paragraph-3
These are formal communications (One to many) to be propagated  Express hope for a favourable response from the recipient
amongst a large target audience such as office employees, students in within the stipulated time period.
an institution or members of a club/consortium/organization • Complimentary Closure: Regards/Warm or Best Regards
Format Name and designation of the sender
Circular No. xxxxx Date: Telephone Number: Landline, Mobile (optional)
Title in 2-3 words : Office Transport Rules/
Working Hours;School Vacations/ Trip; (F) Resume Writing
Club timings/rules; Party Meetings etc. • Chronological Resume: Resume is a formal document that
comprises complete information about the antecedents of an
For all employees/students/members, incumbent including personal, academic and training(Information
• Paragraph-1 Technology & Soft skills) related details to be presented to the
 Objective of the communication should be clearly stated prospective employer in accordance with a specific post/profile in
unambiguously, with relevant details. a specific chronological sequence. This format is most commonly
• Paragraph-2 used by students who intend to apply for formal training
 If any action or response is requested, specify the name of programmes as part of professional courses such as article-ship as
the employee/teacher/member with complete details such as: part of the Chartered Accountancy Course.
designation, department, official E-mail, telephone number Format (Chronological Resume)
etc. • Name and Contact Details
Name of the Person (Optional) • Career Objective
Designation with Department (Mandatory) • Academic achievements/antecedents in a chronological sequence
• Co-curricular Achievements
(D)(iii) Official Communication: Memos OR Memorandums • Previous trainings completed / conducted
40
• Technical/soft skills highlight the reason for applying, strengths and requisite skill set vis
• Interests/Hobbies (optional) a vis the position so as to evoke employer’s interest in the applicant /
• Personal Details incumbent.
• Declaration about the details mentioned in the resume document Format
being true. Sender’s Address
• Date: Name and Signature
Date:
(F)(ii) Functional Resume: Designation/Name of the Addressee:
This emphasises your skills and achievements. Previous experience is Address:
of little importance. The format is ideal for professionals who intend Salutation:
to join their respective profession after a gap/sabbatical or those who Subject:
have numerous gaps in their career due to whatever reasons. • Paragraph-1
Format  Introduction with name and position against which applied;
• Name and Contact Details mention the source of information
• Career Objective • Paragraph-2
• Skills  Explain the incumbent’s interest in the job profile
• Technical Training/s  Highlight relevant skills and experience most suited for the job
• Achievements profile.
• Experience  Make specific associations between capabilities and job
• Academic details requirements as mentioned in the job description.
• Personal details  Project the skills and experience to make the incumbent most
• Declaration about the details mentioned in the resume document suitable for the job.
being true.  Exhibit awareness about the organisation’s affairs.
• Date: Name and Signature • Concluding Paragraph-3
 Hope for a favourable response
(F)(iii) Combination Resume:  Ask for follow up details and tentative dates for the subsequent
This presents a combination of the incumbent’s skills along with interview/interaction.
professional and academic antecedents. This format is used to • Complimentary Closure
highlight past employment history and specific skill-sets suitable for  Yours Sincerely/Thanks & Regards/Best Regards/Warm
a given job profile while applying for the same. It is written in reverse Regards
chronological sequence with the recent job profile coming first and Signature
so on. (Name)
Format
• Name and Contact Details (G) Meetings: It can be defined as an assembly of individuals in a
• Career Objective formal environment such as a corporate set-up to deliberate/debate
• Summary of experience gained upon certain issues/problems in order to conclude matters, in most
• Experience details in reverse chronological sequence cases take decisions. Meetings are mostly preordained, to be held at a
 Name of the Organisation/Company fixed time, date and venue with a fixed agenda entailing issues/items
 Position/Designation held to be discussed.
 Responsibilities Agenda: It is prepared in advance, with items (including requisite
 Appreciation/Promotions/Rewards if, any annexures) contributed by or prepared with the consent of some of
• Technical/soft skills the key participants. Once prepared, the draft Agenda is circulated/
• Academic achievements/antecedents in a chronological sequence propagated amongst the participants/attendees. The Agenda defines/
• Co-curricular Achievements determines and ensures:
• Previous trainings conducted • Objective of a meeting
• Personal Details • Issues/topics to be discussed
• Declaration about the details mentioned in the resume document • Specific time slot allocated to each speaker
being true. • Sequence in which the issues will be taken up during the meeting.
• Date: Name and Signature • Meeting is focused and speakers do not deviate from the issues.
(F)(iv) Cover Letter: It is a formal letter to express interest for a (G)(i) Tabular Agenda
specific job profile/position advertised by an organization. It must Format
Time Topic/Item Attendees Speaker Duration

10 AM Strategy for launch Name and designations of the Name of the official who Time( in minutes ) allotted for
of a new product/ participants such as Head of presents the issue/ item presentation/discussion for eg.
service/initiative Production, Head of Sales, Head
of marketing, Head of Finance, 30 minutes
Managing Director etc.
10:30 AM Market Trends 30 minutes
11 AM Tea Break 15 minutes
Subsequent
Items
2 PM Vote of thanks Director 2 minutes
41
(G)(ii) Minutes of a Meeting: These entail comments/opinions/ (G)(iii) Action Taken Report: Detailed Report to be submitted by
suggestions put forth by each of the speaker/participant on a an official or team on the ground work done/action taken arising out
particular item/issue and the subsequent decision taken, stated of the discussions held during a meeting. It is important to gauge the
unambiguously in a sequential manner. These are documented and progress on the respective item/issue discussed during the previous
duly filed/maintained as a compilation for future reference. meeting.
Format Format
Date: Action Taken Report nth Meeting of Department Heads
XYZ Ltd.
Time:
As per the meeting held on date: , at : venue; the following have been
Venue:
reported:
Meeting started in time • Marketing team compiled the suggestions and tendering process
Mr. X, Director Operations (Convenor) gave an Introduction initiated the tendering process Annexure-I
Mr. Y, the Product Head explained the new product and its salient • The HR team prepared the modalities for the recruitment process.
features. Detailed report submitted as Annexure-II
Mr.Z , the Marketing Head gave a detailed presentation about the Undersigned
marketing strategy for various media. The details have been captured Director, Operations (Convenor)
in Annexure-A. Suggestions were sought from the members.
Individual reports to be submitted by (specified dates) Dos and Don’ts
Mr.A the Sales Head along with a team member explained the sales • Do practise questions in Part-III and Part-IV from Revision Test
strategy in upcoming as well as existing markets. Details are provided Papers (RTPs), previous year question papers and Mock Test
in Annexure-B. Suggested to recruit more staff to scale up the sales Papers (MTPs).
operations. • Do write complete words, do not use abbreviations unless required
Mr. B the HR Head, proposed for a separate meeting to be held within (in Note Making)
a week’s time to discuss the modalities of the recruitment process. • Do use different types(Simple, Compound and Complex) of
Mr. C the Managing Director declared the house open for suggestions sentences((Simple, Compound and Complex); Direct/Indirect;
and thanked the participants. Active /Passive) to highlight your writing skills, specifically while
attempting questions form Part-IV
Concluding Remarks:
• Do not exceed the word limit ( 250-300 words) and time limit (15-
Proposal for fresh recruitments
18 min each) specifically for writing exercises (Part-IV).
Marketing Team to collate the suggestions from participants and • Do not use unfamiliar words.
prepare a detailed report. • Do not write overtly long sentences with multiple clauses.
Marketing Team to initiate the tendering process to identify media • Do not repeat the same point to increase the length of the answer
partners to advertise the new product. • Do not repeat a word in an answer; use synonyms to highlight your
Action Taken Report to be submitted by the Marketing and Sales vocabulary.
Team by (specified date) • Revise your answers and if time permits, edit it.

42
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORTING
CA FOUNDATION - PAPER 2B - BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORTING
Board of Studies (Academic) has been catering to the learning needs of students by providing a wide array of content to
help them not just to prepare but to revise concepts for the upcoming examination. Keeping this in mind, a capsule on the
topics of Foundation Course Paper 2 Section B: Business Correspondence and Reporting has been developed. This capsule
covers Sentence Types, Active-Passive Voice and Direct-Indirect speech, which not only helps to understand the sentence
structure better but also enables you to hone your verbal as well as written expression while answering the questions in
the examination. It may be noted that this capsule is a source of quick revision and should not be taken as a substitute for
detailed study. Students are advised to refer to the relevant Study Material for comprehensive study and revision.
Chapter – 2: Sentence Types, Active-Passive Voice and Direct-Indirect speech

Grammar comprises rules of a language governing sounds, words,
sentences, and other elements, as well as their combination and For e.g.:
interpretation. In restricted sense, the term refers only to the A group 1. Everyone was extremely
study of sentence and word structure (syntax and morphology), of words delighted when the
Adjective
excluding vocabulary and pronunciation. The systematic that has an winner was announced.
Phrase
description of the features of a language is also a grammar. adjective as
its head. 2. Merry is slow and steady.
Features of Language
Phonology Syntax Morphology Clause
Study of speech Study of arrangement Study of internal
and sound of words (word order) construction of words A clause is a group of words which contain a subject (noun
phrase) and verb (verb phrase). A clause is a stand- alone unit,
Semantics Pragmatics
on its own or may form part of a sentence.
Study of meanings Study of the use of natural
language in communication Examples:
Phrase Radhika is a
She is playing Billy is a
famous
Examples: in the park. foolish cat.
designer
A phrase is a group of words A

which does not make complete famous
In the Types of Clauses
sense on its own and does not designer
Park
contain a verb.
A foolish
cat • Has a subject and predicate.
Main or • Can stand by itself as a complete
Types of Phrases Independent sentence i.e. makes complete sense.
Clause • Example: Richard ate five ice
A prepositional For e.g.: creams.
phrase begins with a
Prepositional 1. My car is stuck
preposition followed
Phrase in the pot hole.
by a noun or pronoun
or anything that acts 2. He arrived in
as a noun. time.
• Has subject and predicate but

A phrase that
For e.g.: doesn’t make complete sense on its
does a function of
1. Alex rode her old own.
noun (or pronoun)
Noun bicycle to their shiny • Is dependent on main clause.
and its modifiers.
Phrase new school. Subordinate • Mostly starts with subordinate
They are used as
2. The black car got or conjunctions such as after, because,
subjects, objects or
towed. Dependent if, since, when, whereas, which, etc.
complements.
Clause • Three types of dependent clause:
Noun clause, Adjective and Adverb
The phrase
For e.g.: clause.
consists of the
1. The teacher is • Example: Richard ate five ice creams
Verb main verb/verbs
and then auxiliary writing the answer. because he was hungry.
Phrase 2. Rita has already
verbs, i.e.
helping verbs. eaten a chocolate.
The Chartered Accountant Student May 2023 29

43
SENTENCE Sentences are classified according to
A sentence is a group of words that make complete sense. It its function and structure.
expresses a complete thought. It typically contains a subject and
predicate.
Examples: Classified according to Classified according to
its structure: its function:
• Simple Sentences • Declarative Sentence
Harry Potter is an • Compound Sentences • Imperative Sentence
interesting book. Joe waited for • Complex Sentences • Interrogative Sentence
the train. • Complex Compound • Exclamatory Sentence
Sentences
Basic parts of Sentence Types of Sentences according to its function

Subject Predicate Direct Object
• about which • tells us • a person or thing
Declarative Sentence Imperative Sentence
something is something about affected by the
stated the subject action(verb) of the • Simply makes a state- • Express order/command/
subject. ment/opinion/view advice/request/proposal/
• Ends with a full stop (.) suggestion
Indirect Object Object of Preposition Verbs • Can be positive or • Can end with full stop (.)
• person/thing • noun/pronoun • action or negative or exclamation mark (!)
for whom that completes its occurrence or
e.g: She is riding a bicycle. e.g.: Please don’t ride the
action is done meaning indicates a state
of being bicycle too fast.
Phrases Complements
• group of words • word or word group
that doesn’t make that completes the Interrogative Sentence Exclamatory Sentence
complete sense meaning
• Ask a question and ends • Expresses strong
with question mark (?) feeling and ends with
Types of Verbs • Usually starts with exclamatory mark (!)
Finite Verbs question words followed
by a verb
• Changes according to the number and tense. For e.g., is, am,
are, do, does, has, have, eat, eats, etc. e.g.: Is she riding a bicycle? e.g. What a beautiful
Non-Finite Verbs bicycle!
• Does not change according to the person, number or tense. Types of Sentences according to its structure
For e.g. to dance. There are three kinds of non infinite verbs:
 Infinitive – Base form of verb used generally like a noun Simple Sentence Compound Sentence
 Participle (Past and Present) – Form of verb that has • Contains subject and • Has two independent
nature of both verb and an adjective. verb, and expresses clauses that are joined by
 Gerunds – Form of verb that ends with "-ing" and acts as
single complete thought. a conjunction (for, and, or,
but, yet etc.)
a noun.
Auxiliary Verbs e.g. The baby cried for food. e.g. They spoke to him in
• Helping verb Spanish, but he responded in
English.
• Form of verbs is/am/are/has/have/had, etc. used with
ordinary verbs to make tenses, passive forms, questions and
negatives. Complex Sentence Compound-Complex
Sentence
Modals
• An independent clause • Has two independent
• Type of auxiliary (helping) verb that is used to express: ability,
joined by one or more clauses and at least one
possibility, permission or obligation.
dependent clauses. dependent clause.
• Can, may, might, must, could, will, would, shall, should are 9 • Joined by a subordinator
core modals. (as, because, since, after,
Transitive verbs although, when) or
• Performs its action on an object. relative pronoun (who,
• Have direct objects , which means someone or something that, which)
receives the action of the verb. e.g.: After eating lunch at e.g.: The man believed in the
Intransitive Verbs the cheesecake factory, they system, and he knew that
Opposite of transitive verb -doesn’t need an object to complete went to the gym to exercise. justice would prevail after
its meaning / express a state or being. the murderer was sent to jail.
30 May 2023 The Chartered Accountant Student
44
Subject- Verb Agreement ACTIVE PASSIVE VOICE
Subject-Verb agreement is the correspondence of a verb with its “Voice” refers to the connection between the subject and the
subject in person. object of a sentence, which is linked through a verb.
Some of the common rules of subject verb agreement Two types of Voice
Active Voice
Subject and verb must agree in number. • Eg: Tom kicked Passive Voice
the ball. • Eg: The ball was kicked
Subordinate clauses that come between the subject by Tom.
and verb do not affect their agreement.
Prepositional phrases between subject and verb Active Voice Passive Voice
usually do not affect the agreement.
Meaning is clear and direct. Meaning is indirect and
When sentence start with ‘there’ or ‘here’, the
subject will always be placed after the verb. ambigious.
Subject does not always come before verbs in Receiver of action is Receiver of the action is
questions preceded by the verb. followed by the verb.
If two subjects are joined by ‘and’, they typically Doer of the action is Doer of action is preceded by
require a plural verb form. followed by the verb. the verb.
The verb is singular if the two subjects seperated by Subject of the sentence is Action is done on/upon the
‘and’ refer to the same person or thing as a whole. doing the action. subject
Tenses
Grammar tenses refer to the state of the verb. The state or tense
of the verb explains the time of the action. Impact
Tense
Future Tense Present Tense Past Tense Active Voice Passive Voice
describes about describes about describes about
things that are yet things happening things that have
to happen. right now or are already happened
continous. Have a strong, direct and Emphasise on action
clear tone rather than actor
Types of Tenses with the help of examples Use for clarity, Describe the condition
conciseness where actor is unknown
Tense Past Present Future
Simple I helped my I help my I will help my
Use to convey message
neighbour neighbour neighbour Create authorative tone
effectively
yesterday. every day. tomorrow.
Perfect I had helped I have helped I will have
my neighbour my neighbour helped my Used in newspaper
clean his attic too much this neighbour a headlines.
before I fixed week. hundred times
his car. by the end of Basic rules to change from Active to Passive Voice
the month. The rules are explained with the help of examples
Continuous I was helping I am helping I will be helping 1. Change of subject and object
my neighbour my neighbour my neighbour
when he while he fixes next month Active voice : • Monkeys adore bananas.
brought me up his house. when he moves. ‘subject + verb • The cashier counted the money.
iced tea. +object’ • The dog chased the squirrel.
Perfect I had been I have been I will have
continuous helping my helping my been helping Passive Voice:
neighbour for neighbour my neighbour Subject + form of • Bananas are adored by monkeys.
a year before since I moved for a year next ‘be’ + past participle • The money was counted by the
he finally in. month. of verb + by + object cashier.
thanked me. • The squirrel was chased by the dog.

45
2. Change of verbs 6. Change Interrogative Sentences into Passive
Tense Active Voice Passive Voice In case of Active Voice Passive Voice
Simple Present Julia eats the The chocolate is eaten Is/am/are Is she cooking the Is the food being cooked
chocolate. by Julia. Was/were food? by her?
Present Julia is eating the The chocolate is being Was she cooking the Was the food being
Continuous chocolate. eaten by Julia. food? cooked by her?
Do/does/did Does she cook the Is the food cooked by
Present Julia has eaten the The chocolate has been food? her?
Perfect chocolate. eaten by Julia. Did she cook the Was the food cooked
Simple Past Julia ate the The chocolate was food? by her?
chocolate. eaten by Julia. Has/have/ Has she cooked the Has the food been
Past Julia was eating the The chocolate was had food? cooked by her?
Continuous chocolate. being eaten by Julia. Had Sachin played Had cricket been played
cricket? by Sachin?
Past Perfect Julia had eaten the The chocolate had Will/shall/ Can she cook the Can the food be cooked
chocolate. been eaten by Julia. can/may food? by her?
Simple Future Julia will eat the The chocolate will be May Sachin play May cricket be played
chocolate. eaten by Julia. cricket? by Sachin?
Future Julia will be eating The chocolate will be Question When did she cook When the food was
Continuous the chocolate. being eaten by Julia. words the food? cooked by her?
(when/why/ Why did she punish Why were you punished
Future Perfect Julia will have eaten The chocolate will have
where/how/ you? by her?
the chocolate. been eaten by Julia
what) Who cooked the By whom was the food
Can/may/must Julia can eat the The chocolate can be food? cooked?
etc.+ base chocolate. eaten by Julia.
7. Change Imperative Sentences into Passive
3. Change of pronoun
Active Voice Passive Voice
Nominative Case Objective Case You are advised to learn
I Me Advice Learn your lessons.
your lessons.
He Him
Command Open the door. Let the door be opened.
She Her
You You Please make a cup You are requested to
Request
of tea. make a cup of tea.
They Them
It It You are ordered not to
Don’t allow anybody
Order allow anybody to peep
We Us to peep inside.
inside.
Who Whom
Your parents should be
Obligation Love your parents.
For example: Active: I ate the bread. loved.
Passive: The bread was eaten by me.
To change from passive to active voice, reverse the rules that
4. Addition of the word ‘by’ have been discussed above.
Active: Rohan buys the milk in evening. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
• When the actual words of the speaker are reproduced, it is
called direct speech.
Passive: The milk is bought by Rohan in evening.
Example: He said, ‘I am going to school.’
5. When there are objects, there are two possible sentences: • When the main idea of a speaker’s words is reported by another
person and the exact
Active: The professor gave the books (object 1) to the words are not quoted,
students (object 2).
it is called indirect
speech or reported
Passive 1: The students were given the books by the speech.
professor.
Example: He said
that he was going to
Passive 2: The books were given to the students by the school.
professor.
46
Basic Rules Changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech
Quotation marks or ‘inverted commas’ are used for direct Pronouns • Examples: He said, ‘I am bored.’ (direct)
speech. of the first He said that he was bored. (indirect)
Example: ‘I have cut my finger!’ cried Mrs. Sharma. person are • Mira said, ‘We are going to the movies.’
Quotation marks are not used for indirect or reported changed as (direct) Mira said that they were going to
the movies. (indirect)
speech.
Example: Mrs. Sharma cried that she had cut her finger. Pronouns of • Examples: He said to her, ‘You are
the second beautiful.’ (direct) He said to her that she
Question marks and exclamation marks are not used in was beautiful. (indirect)
person are
reported speech. changed as • You must write neatly,’ the teacher told
Example: ‘Is it bleeding very much?’ Mr. Sharma asked. (direct) her pupils. (direct) The teacher advised
her pupils that they must write neatly.
Mr. Sharma asked if it was bleeding very much. (indirect)
(indirect)
The conjunction ‘that’ is used before the indirect statement.
Pronouns • Examples: I said, ‘They have gone out.’
Example: Aarav said, ‘I am driving the car.’ (direct) (direct) I informed that they had gone
of the third
Aarav said that he was driving the car. (indirect) out. (indirect)
person do
• Leela said, ‘These books are theirs.’
not change
Changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech (direct) Leela said that those books were
theirs. (indirect)
Tense Rule Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Simple Present He said, “He is a He said that he was a
to Simple Past cricket player.” cricket player. Changes in Modals into Indirect Speech
Present I said, “Priya is I said that Priya was
continuous to going to Pune.” going to Pune. Rule Direct speech Indirect Speech
past continuous
Present perfect Azhar said, “It is Azhar said that it has Can changes She said, ‘I can She said she could
to past perfect raining.” been raining. into could speak English.’ speak English.
Present perfect Ria said, “Rohan Ria said that Rohan May changes I may invite them to She said that she might
continuous to has been at work.” had been at work. into might dinner. invite them to dinner.
past perfect
continuous Must changes I must go to the She said that she had to
Simple past to “My mother arrived He told me that his into must/ bank and get some go to the bank and get
past perfect on Monday”, he mother had arrived had to money. some money.
told me. on Monday.
Past perfect He explained, “The He explained that the Modals like would, should, could, ought to, and might do not
remains past bread has gone bread had gone stale. change during conversion.
perfect stale.” For example: Direct Speech: I should start a job.
Past perfect “We were living in Sia told me that they Indirect speech: She said that she should start a job.
continuous London”, Sia told had been living in
remains me. London.
past perfect Words expressing nearness in time or place are
continuous
Future changes I will finish my He said that he would
generally changed into words expressing distance
to present report in two days. finish the report in
conditional two days. Tomorrow
Yesterday — the day
This — that — the next/
Future My helper said, “I My helper said that before/the previous day
following day
continuous will be making the she would be making
changes to tea sometime.” tea sometime.
conditional Example: The
continuous
interviewer said to the
These — Today — that
young man, ‘We will let
those day
you know our decision
When the tense doesn’t change by tomorrow.’ (Direct)
The interviewer said

If the reported If the reporting If a statement to the young man that
speech contains verb is in present is still relevant, Here —
Now — then they would let him know
a universal fact, tense, the tenses of we can choose there
their decision by the
scientific truth, the the direct speech whether to keep next day. (Indirect)
tense of the verb do not change. the original tense
doesn’t change. or change it.

47
Changes for Imperative Sentences from Direct Rules for changing Interrogative Sentences from
to Indirect Direct to Indirect
Comma and inverted commas will be removed.
Understand the mood of Change the reporting verb
the sentence whether it into ‘requested or advised or Conjunction ‘that’ will not be used in indirect statement; instead
is command or advice or commanded or suggested, we use if or whether wherever necessary.
request, etc. etc.’ Interrogative sentence will be changed to assertive sentence.
The reporting verb such as ‘said’, ‘tell’, ‘told’, etc. will be replaced
by ‘ask’, ‘asked’, ‘inquired’, etc.
E.g.: Father said to his son,
If the reported speech starts Examples
“Bring me you result card.”
from ‘please’ change that
• Father ordered his son to Paul said, ‘What Paul asked what
into requested. time does the bus time the bus
bring him his result card.
come?’ (direct) came. (indirect)
To change from reported speech to direct speech, reverse the rules that have been discussed above.
48
Board of Studies has been catering the learning and requirement needs by providing a wide array of content to help
students not just to prepare but also to revise concepts for upcoming examination. Keeping the objective in mind it
has been decided to bring a crisp and concise capsule on the topics Introduction to Basics of writing and Precis writing
of Foundation Course Paper 2B: Business Correspondence and Reporting. These topics has been presented through
pictorial representation to enable students to understand the topic and improve the writing skills. Although this capsule
facilitates in enduring quick revision, but under no circumstances such revision can substitute the detailed study of the
material provided by the Board of Studies.
Chapter 6: Introduction to Basics of Writing

A child first listens to conversations around him/her, and then repeats Steps for writing
the sounds and words which have been learnt from the environment.
Writing is a process that has 7 steps which must be followed every
Thus, the next step is learning to speak. Thereafter, the child begins to
time you write something substantial and important.
recognise alphabets and words and starts to read. The last skill to be
learnt is that of writing. Selecting topic
Theme, issue or idea that would create a base to write
Writing as a skill is a complex activity that requires years to
master Brainstorming
Points of discussion/ thoughts/ ideas, and research well about the topic
Organising the content

Knowledge List the relevant points and decide the sequence of the points
of
vocabulary Writing
Choose words /structure for meaningful sentences; catchy
beginning; divide the paragraphs logically and sequentially
Thoughtful & Varied
meaningful sentence
content structures Revising
Read; rearrange the words/ paraphrase if required / add or delete the
information
Writing
skill Editing and proofreading
requires Check for correct sentence, grammar, spelling, capitalization and
punctuation; replace overused words
Sequential Correct
series of grammar Publishing and printing
events usage Once it's ready, publish it and send out for printing to journals/
magazines/websites.
Logical Multiple areas of brain are used in creating text, organising

presentation words and sentences sequentially so that they make sense to
of content
the reader.
Let’s understand how one starts to write in the following diagram.
Alphabet
After the recognition of sounds, one learns to write alphabet.
Significance of learning writing skill Words

Next step in learning is about the formation and usage of words
Important medium of official communication along with the meanings
Essential for content development
Permanent documentation of records Sentences
Creative writing Words come together to form sentences. Next Step is to learn
Source of earning a livelihood about different sentences, stuctures and its connotations.
Helps in recruitment as it is the need of the hour Paragraphs
Sentences build together to form paragraphs. Structing sentences
to create meaningful paragraphs.
Production
Finally, one can produce a relevant writing packed with vocabulary,
purposeful sentences and consequential writing.
32 March 2022 The Chartered Accountant Student
49
Organisation of the collected information based on relevance, logic and in sequence is essential.
To learn to organize your thoughts, there are various patterns that one can choose from as per the subject and writing style. The
organisation of thoughts is more effective when done graphically.
Sequential/chronological form Comparison & Contrast

• Effective if describing a process, • Effective while analysing
series of actions or telling a and evaluating two or more
story concepts/products
• For e.g.: used for fiction texts, • For e.g.: used for writing about
biography, etc. any two options/products/
concepts, etc.
Organising Patterns
Problem and solution Cause and Effect

• Analysing and identifying a • Effective while stating the cause
problem and suggesting one or and discussing the effect of a
more solutions topic.
• For e.g.: used for topics like • For e.g.: used for topics like
pollution, obesity, etc. demonetisation, Covid, etc.
Chapter 7: Precis writing

An abstract of a text, in one’s own words, is known as a précis. The ‘Precis vis-à-vis Summary.’
term is derived from the French word précis meaning ‘precise’. Thus,
a précis gives an accurate and brief description (or the main idea) • brief piece of writing.
contained in the text without losing its meaning and essence. Precis • order & proportion are followed.
Précis writing is a useful exercise as it helps to develop a habit of • states only thought of the original text.
careful reading and builds capacity to differentiate between the
essential and the non-essential content.
• short account of long pieces.
• writer is free to change order & proportion.
Summary
• free to interpret the material and comment in
their own words.
Characteristics of a good precis
Clarity Correctness Completeness

• convey meaning
in possible fewer
words
• be unbiased and • ideas should have (no fact should
purely based on text connection be omitted)
• be clear and • ensure facts, • include all

comprehensible grammar and important facts
sentences are and relevant
• use simple flawless details
language and
structure Objectivity Coherence Conciseness
The Chartered Accountant Student March 2022 33

50
Precis writing procedure Directives of precise writing
Read
Dos Don'ts
Understand the
text and extract its
main idea Refrain from writing
Start with main idea personal opinion,
itself
Prepare Final Draft Decide criticism or remarks
Ensure that the main About inclusion of
idea is expressed and important facts or
retained ideas
Message should be Never insert any fact
clear and written in taken from internet
Select suitable title original flow
Read the Draft Choose title according
Make necessary to the main idea of
changes text
Essential to mention
Never ask questions
First Draft purpose of writing
Reduce orignal text to
its one-third length
Retain keywords and No abbreviation

Features of a good precis writing keep a check on word should be used (Use
count full forms of words)
Written in Brief and

summarised easy to read Ensure it's not too
manner Use past tense for
long but short and
historical facts crisp.
Sentences are Sentences

connected should be in Always use the third
in logical chronological person, reported
manner order speech
Important No complex
points are figurative
easier language to
to find be used
34 March 2022 The Chartered Accountant Student
51
The capsule of Foundation Course Paper 2B: Business Correspondence and Reporting covers the topic of Article writing,
Report Writing and Formal Letters and Official communications. These topics encompasses different kinds of formats to
be used while writing an Article, Report or Letters to help the students for quick revision. Under no circumstances, such
revision can substitute the detailed study of the material provided by the Board of Studies. Students are advised to refer
the Study Material for comprehensive study and revision.
Chapter 8: Article Writing

Article writing is the process of creating a non-fiction text about
Steps in Article Writing
topics that can vary from serious to the ordinary. An article is a
piece of writing mainly intended to be published in a newspaper,
Identify
magazine or journal, and has a wide audience.
Know the Collect and Organise
Write the
the target purpose select the
Article
audience of information information
Includes Targets writing
stories, facts, massive Requires
anecdotes audience lot of
for better research Writing a good article requires two things
engagement
Discusses Good
current Language
Article Writing used is Content Good
topics or Technique
of general and it's features simple yet
interest interesting
Tips to write a good Article

Aim is to
Non-fiction Endeavours express Minimise your barrier to entry - Opening should
text to create view be carefully drafted
an impact/
difference Keep paragraphs short and sweet
Objectives of Article Writing Text should be visually appealing
Provides information
on varied topics Give a substance in writing
Offers opinions/ Tell a story

Offers suggestions/
arguments/counter
advice Show, then tell - start with main point of action
arguments
and then explain what it means
Simply brings a Brings about a
smile on reader's face comparison Do's and dont's of Article Writing
Enables readers to think Describes a location, person, Use the facts or quotes or similar cases.
and influence them object, technology, etc.
Language should not be too informal.

Format of Article Writing
Heading/Title Must be written in easy and simple language.
By Line/Writer’s Name
Title must be catchy and clearly understandable.

Body (Main Part of the Article)
• Introductory Paragraph
• Descriptive Paragraph The author must not talk about himself/herself.
• Additional information (if needed)
Use of paragraph is not recommended.

Conclusion
The Chartered Accountant Student April 2023 29

52
Essential points while writing an Article
Must be interesting and easy to read
Introduction must be highly attentive
Use clear statements and avoid repetition
Write the content uniquely
Title must be eye catchy, clear and influential
Write a logical ending
Use your vocabulary skills
For example:
The colour green: corporate conscience or fashion statement?
by Brendon Craigie
Hotwire has conducted a major audit looking at the greening of corporate communications and its potential influence on consumer
purchasing habits across Europe.
They researched five sectors (retail, banking & finance, manufacturing and automotive, utilities and technology & telecoms) in
five countries (the UK, France, Germany, Spain and Italy) looking at how frequently companies use green issues in their external
communications vehicles. In this instance press releases were selected as the representative communications tool. We coupled this
with pan-European consumer research that identified how green issues affect the purchasing decisions of consumers in the same
sectors and countries.
Contrary to popular opinion, companies across Europe do not greenwash their communications wholesale. The Hotwire study
has found that across all the sectors green appeared as a theme relatively infrequently - in only 7.5%-17% of companies' external
communications. French companies use green issues the most at 17% while German companies are least likely at 7.5%. These are
interesting findings – with Germany very much an international leader in terms of energy efficiency we put it more down to regional
'style' than the reality of the companies' initiatives. However, while it is good to see that companies are not opting for a cheap greenwash
across the board, it is also interesting to note that they are not in sync with consumer interest for green products and services. While
companies communicate about green issues relatively infrequently the consumer interest in all things green is high. When asked to
score their interest in 'green' between 1 and 10 (10 being the highest) European consumers scored averaging between 6.3 (Germany)
and 8 (France). Consumers in Spain, the UK and Italy scored 7, 7.2 and 7.7 respectively. In other words, consumer interest is high but
in terms of corporate communications, companies are not doing much to satisfy the interest.
The technology & telecoms sector is an interesting sector in terms of how it currently communicates around green, and what influences
the buying decision when purchasing technology products and services. The UK is the only country that communicates in any volume
(22% of technology companies' external communications) about 'green'. At 5 out of 10, the consumer research indicates that 'green' is
not a very compelling driver for British consumers in the technology space, however there is some interest and UK-based companies
are doing a few things to garner that interest. In the rest of Europe, PR professionals in the technology space have huge opportunities.
While consumer interest is pretty high at between 5.5 and 6.1, the companies' corporate communications efforts have so far ignored
the green agenda. In France only 7% of external communications by technology companies include the green theme, in Germany 1%,
Spain 2.9% and in Italy 0%. There are some big openings for being the green champion in the technology & telecoms industries in
France, Germany, Spain and Italy.
(Source: http://www.reusablearticles.com)
Chapter 9: Report Writing

A report is an account given of a particular event, issue, subject, especially in the form of an official document. It is presented after
thorough investigation or consideration by an appointed person or body. It is written for a defined purpose and for a specific audience.
The information and evidence are clearly stated in a concise manner.
Well
organised and
methodical
presentation Magazine
Evidence Report
and of facts
Description
information of any event/
stated in
concise occurrence Official
Report Newspaper Report(s) for
manner Report
Writing organisation(s)
& its
features
Written Written in
for specific sequential Types of
audience form
Presented reports
after
thorough
investigation
30 April 2023 The Chartered Accountant Student
53
Format of various reports Steps in report writing
For current Gather:

events and Understand:
Purpose and Choose
Newspaper Report happenings appropriate
requirements of
report sources for
Title/Headline information
By (Name of Author)
Place, Date: (date is not always mentioned)
Analyse:
Body of the Report Analyse the Organise:
material Sort and select
Written collected relevant content
for specific critically.
Magazine Report events.
Title/Headline
By (Name of Author) Write: Review and
Prepare first Redraft:
Body of Report Get perspective on
draft on the basis
of information first draft. Rewrite
gathered. or reorganise after
Formal/Official Reports review
Heading
To: Presentation:
From: Make sure words
are clear, events
Date: are in sequence,
check grammar
Subject: and spelling.
Introduction:
Give details for the task and reasons for it
For example:
Main Body:
Information, resources, and materials used Daughter of Gardener Tops Board Exam
By Riya Sharma
Description of task
Bhubneshwar, May 12: Suman Nayak, the daughter of a
Results municipal gardener, Om Nayak, has topped the Odisha Board
Conclusion: Senior Secondary Examination with 98.8% marks. Her success
Evaluation and suggestions has been lauded by the staff members of her school ‘The
Government Senior Secondary School, Malkaganj’, the Odisha
Education board and the State Education Minister.
Points to remember When her classmates conveyed the news to Suman, she did
not believe them. It was only when the school principal called
No place for personal opinions, perceptions, emotions and
feelings in a report. her that the reality sunk in. Suman’s father, Om Nayak, is
overjoyed at the news. He said, “Suman was always a bright
student. I have made all efforts to provide her with the best
Keep in mind the target audience education despite my meagre means”. He hopes that she will
be able to continue her education in spite of his financial
Personal pronouns are not used constraints.
Suman attributes her success to her parents and teachers.
Passive voice is preferably used in writing newspaper She said that the schoolteachers had provided her with all
reports and active voice is used for official reports. possible help by giving her extra time and attention along with
books and moral support. Her teachers speak highly of her
perseverance, dedication and hard work.
Language should be clear and concise.
When asked about her plans, Suman said she wished to
become a doctor. However, she was unsure if she could pursue
Technical jargons must be avoided. her dream because of financial problems. She hopes that she
will be able to secure a scholarship and get funding by the
Information should be organized logically, cohorently and government.
in chronological order. Source: The Times of India, M.G. Road, Bhubaneswar.

54
Chapter 10- Formal Letters and Official Communication
Part I - Formal Letters
What is letter writing? Types of Letters
It is a written message sent from one party
(sender) to another (receiver). Formal Letter Informal Letter
It performs function of bringing family or
friends closer. • Used for official and professional communication
Formal • Written with defined objective/purpose
It enchances professional relationships. Letter • Formal language has to be used with specfic
format
It provides a means of expressing one's views/
feelings.
• Used for casual and personal conversations
• Tone can be emotional and personal while writing
Informal • Level of language depends on the level of comfort
Letter between sender and receiver.
• No specific format is prescribed
What is formal letter writing?

Formal Letters, also called as business letters/professional letters, are written for official/formal purpose and in specific format. Let’s
go through the following diagrams to understand more about formal letters:
Types of Formal Letter
Recommendation Letter to Complaint Job

Letter editor Letter application
Uses of Formal Letter

Helps in solving the
Aids in maintaining
Opens channel for issue or preparing/ Helps in receiving
official written records
communication enquiring about a desirable response
of communication
product
Categories of Formal Letter
Business or Official Letter Letter highlighting civic problems Job Applications
Making enquiries, registering

Letter to editor or letters to concerned
complaints, asking or giving
authorities for civic problems
information, placing or cancelling
orders, sending replies
While drafting formal letter, one should
Ensure
Leave
State your Always be the letter
the line/
reason in first gentle and is error free -
space between
parapraph Add all courteous grammatically
paragraphs
the required Be polite even or spellings
Use the specified Use simple
details that will if it is a complaint
format language
make the task letter
easy
55
Order Letter
Format of formal letter
Addressed to seller from buyer, to place a new order or requesting
Sender’s Address him to deliver the goods. These letters includes three types of
information
Date
Designation/Name of Addressee
Details about the item or product being
ordered - such as name of the product/brand,
Address of the Addressee
unit price, quantity, model number, etc.
Salutation
Subject Information related to delivery- such as
Content: desired delivery, date and location, mode of
delivery, etc.
Introduction
Body
Conclusion Information related to payment - such as mode
of payment (should always be cleared) and
Complimentary close date of payment
Signature
Designation of sender (if applicable) In case the information is erroneously missing, misunderstanding
can arise.
Letter of enquiry Letter of Complaint

A letter of complaint enables individual, company or business
Order letter to notify about the dissatisfaction of the product purchased or a
business/official letter
service received. A complaint letter can be written in individual

capacity or on behalf of company.
Letter of complaint
Types of
While writing a complaint letter, one should
Reply to letter of complaint Always give a clear description of the problem.
Sales letter
Include important dates- such as purchase date,
receiving date, date when the problem occurred,
Recovery letter previous letters dates if sent earlier, etc.
Let’s understand each of the types in details-

Give details of action taken up and what will be
Letter of Enquiry
done in future if the problem is not resolved.
Written to gather infromation from various sources
Written in case of one is seeking job, prices of Ask for response.

services and products etc.
While writing, give a brief introduction about
oneself/organisation
Attach supporting documents.
Provide the details about the subject of enquiry
Present queries in bullet points, if seeking for lot of

information Never make personal accusations/allegations and
Mention the deadline- by when the information is avoid discussing anything else that is irrelevant.
required

56
Reply to Letter of Complaint Recovery Letter
Customer service is very important for Business growth. While Recovery letters are addressed to customers or clients from
responding to complaints made by customers, it is important to whom money needs to be collected for the goods or services
consider the following points: provided to them. The intent behind writing such letters is to
‘recover’ money without annoying or alienating the customers.
Address
clearly the Tips to write recovery letter
issues and
problems raised
by customers Should include details of
Customers
Acknowledge outstanding amount and last date
don't accept
and apologize of payment
vague responses
for any error/
to complaint
mistake Must mention the details of legal
letter
Reply to action that can be taken in case of
non-payment
Letter of
Complaint Use polite language to ensure
Propose Explain that future transactions are not
how will you how will you affected
improve the resolve the
experience problem Accusatory or threatening
Assure the language should not be used
customer
that it won't Do not use recovery letter to
happen again vent out personal enmity
Promotion Letter
Part – 2 Official Communication
Promotion Letters are written to customers to tell them about
new developments. Like opening of a new branch, new deals Official communication can be segregated into memoranda,
or offers, new schemes, upgrading the accounts, etc. A good official circulars, and office suggestion boxes.
promotion letter should:
Circulars Memos
Avoid fancy Subject should be
Adhere to
jargons and clear, precise and
business english.
personal topics to the point Circulated to large Means of official
number of employees in communication within the
office organisation
Sales Letter
Sales letters are an important means of business communication Conveys a special Frequently used to remind
and are written to publicise and ultimately sell a product or a message/instruction to everyone about policies,
service to the consumers. be followed in future procedures, etc.
Helps in strengthing business ventured and

partnerships User-friendly and cost Often written to broadcast a
effective method of message rather than one on
circulating information one conversation
Aids in sales promotion and introductory offers
May be used to inform a small

Makes it easy to understand the facts and figures Primarily focus on
group or a specific team of an
operational issues
act, even or occurence
• Use formal language and salutation only. Reduces the effort

Language should be easy, with
While • Use sales specific content without any of the management
short and crisp statements
considerably
writing a extra details.
sales letter, • Keep it short and crisp, and pay attention
one should to target audience. Indispensable tool as Five functions- to remind,
• Avoid extra details and personalised disseminates information highlight, recount, keep a
comments. simultaneously record and to inform/instruct.
57

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Referencer for Quick

concepts related to entering of contract under

with a view to obtain the assent of that other

to such act or abstinence

(2) Essentials of the offer/proposal:

The above situation talks about formation of an agreement. An

Requirement for an agreement to be a contract (3) Mode of offers

28 July 2020 The Chartered Accountant Student

The Chartered Accountant Student July 2020 29

30 July 2020 The Chartered Accountant Student

The Chartered Accountant Student July 2020 31

CONCEPTS RELATED TO THE ENTERING OF CONTRACT UNDER THE

Exceptions to the said rule

move at the promisee or

The Chartered Accountant Student August 2020 27

Relevant CaseLaw : In Kedarnath Vs. Gorie Mohammad , it was

II. Competency of parties may make a Contract when he is of Sound Mind.

(1) Persons eligible to make a contract

Person who is usually of Sound Mind but occasionally of

may not make a Contract when he is of Unsound Mind

(4) Position of agreements with persons of unsound mind

While he is of Unsound Mind While he is of sound mind

A person who is permanently of unsound mind

A Sane Person who is delirious from fever or who is so drunk

28 August 2020 The Chartered Accountant Student

(1) Meaning of consent

(3) Agreement caused by coercion

Voidable Remedies Right to

the agreement is a contract

(10) Does mere silence amount to fraud ?

(5) Undue influence General Rule- Mere silence as to facts,

• which is likely to affect the willingness of a person,

The Chartered Accountant Student August 2020 29

Caselaws Facts Decision

(11) Misrepresentation (16) Unilateral Mistake

When a person positively states that a fact

(12) Consequences of misrepresentation

Obligation of The person to whom money has been paid

30 August 2020 The Chartered Accountant Student

The Chartered Accountant Student August 2020 31

CONCEPTS RELATED TO PERFORMANCE AND BREACH OF CONTRACT AND

Third persons Joint promisors

Actual performance Attempted Performance

Actual • Liability of the Promisor comes to an end

Case where Rule as to performance

Time not specified Within the reasonable time

Time specified but promise is The promisee must apply for

Legal Place not specified The promisor must apply

Manner for performance The promise must be

Cases, where- When time is essence of Case Effects

• If performance beyond the • The Promisee is entitled Discharge by performance

Discharge by operation of law

A contract to do an act which, after the contract Discharge by breach of contract

impossible, or, unlawful

Damages for Vindictive or (1) Contingent Contract

(5) Remedies Available

Suit upon Quantum Meruit (2) Essentials of a Contingent Contract

Suit for Specific Performance (a) Dependence on future event

Suit for Injunction Dependence on a future event

The performance of a contingent contract is

32 January 2021 The Chartered Accountant Student

Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6