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TOPIC CONCEPT MAP (EXOGENIC PROCESSES)

Climate
Subsystems affected by Exogenic Processes driven by
Weather

manifested
through

Weathering Erosion Deposition

may be depends on

affected by

Mechanical Chemical
Velocity of Grain size Sorting
agents

Wind Glacier Water Gravity

(Tides)

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TOPIC CONCEPT MAP (ENDOGENIC PROCESSES) Compression

Shearing
Endogenic Processes

Tension
manifested
through
causes

Magma Volcanism Metamorphism Earthquake Deformation

released forms
through

Volcanoes
evident in the
study of

Plate Tectonics

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Exogenic and Endogenic Processes • Weathering

The gradual on-site breakdown of rocks into sediments [from
Table of Contents Proto-Germanic wedra, “moving air (wind)”] caused by many
factors
Exogenic Processes 3-8 o Mechanical Weathering
Weathering 3-4 The physical breakdown of rock into unconnected grains
Erosion 4 and/or chunks without any chemical alteration [Lat.
Mass Wasting 5-6 mechanicus (from Gr. mekhane, “device, tool”), “belonging to
Deposition 6-8 machines”]
▪ Exfoliation
Endogenic Processes 8 - 17
The splitting of intrusive rock sheets from its original
Magma 8-9
Volcanism 9 - 10 formation [Lat. ex- + folium]
Metamorphism 10 - 12 ▪ Thermal Expansion
Earthquakes 13 - 15 The breakup of rocks due to being heated, making rocks
Deformations 15 - 17
expand. The cooling of the surface creates a contracting
force that breaks it apart.
References 18
▪ Wedging
The process of forcefully breaking rocks apart via external
factors [from Proto-Germanic wagjaz, “plowshare (the
The Earth is a system that interacts with itself. Its subsystems also
main blade of the plow)”]
interact with each other in various ways. The lithosphere (or
geosphere, depending on the source material) is affected daily by its ✓ If freezing water is the cause of wedging, it is known
processes or by the forces coming from the other subsystems— as frost wedging, as the outward force of expanding
atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere—as well as the main driving ice breaks the rock apart. This is common in
factor of all these subsystems: sunlight. These processes caused by temperate areas like Baguio, Japan, and the United
itself are called endogenic processes [Gk. endon- (“within”) + genes States.
(“born of, produced by”), “made within”], while the processes made by ✓ If plants are the cause of the breakup, it is then called
the other subsystems are called exogenic processes [Gk. exo- + root wedging because the roots break the rocks as
genes, “made outside”]. they grow. This is why trees in sidewalks can break
through cement.
✓ Salt wedging occurs when the sea sprays salt
TERMS TO REMEMBER
solutions or if it seeped inside the rocks from the
groundwater, allowing salt crystals to grow and
Exogenic Processes expand and breaking the stones in the process. This
Exogenic process is any process that includes geological phenomena is mostly observed in desert and coastal areas.
and processes originating externally to the Earth’s surface (Graniczny, ✓ Mechanical weathering is also observed in human
2006). Driven by solar energy and other external influences, it shapes interactions, such as digging and blasting.
landforms created from endogenic processes.
o Chemical Weathering
The breakdown of a rock due to the chemical changes it is
experiencing, either on its surface or near-surface [from
chemistry, from Ar. al-qimiya]. This is usually the result of

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water dissolution, where it breaks down certain rocks by
dissolving in water or aqueous solutions [i.e., water mixed with
other substances]
✓ Halite dissolves in water because salt (NaCl)
dissolves in water (H2O).
✓ Calcite (limestone) dissolves in acidic water because
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) neutralizes the acid in the
acidic water solution.
✓ Acidic water reacts quicker than regular water.
✓ Amphibole, pyroxene, and feldspar create clay
minerals as their minerals react with water.
o Biological weathering
The process where living organisms, such as plants and fungi,
release chemicals into the affected rock (or mineral) to
dissolve them. These organisms absorb the dissolved
minerals to support their biological functions.
✓ These three (3) forms of weathering can occur
simultaneously, but each affects a mineral (or rock)
differently. Soft stones (such as shale) weather faster
than hard rocks (such as slate).
✓ Weathering is responsible for creating soil on Earth.
• Erosion
The separation of weathered and unweathered materials from its
substrate due to gravity or agents of transportation [Lat. erodere
(assimilated from ex- + rodere, “to gnaw, to nibble”), “to consume”]
✓ Eroded materials (sediments) are carried away from their
parent material in a process known as transport.
✓ The rate of sediment transport depends on its agent of
transport, which can be by wind, glaciers, water (via tidal
forces), and/or gravity.
o Wind Erosion
Erosion where sediments and loose soil are carried by the
wind to new locations, resulting in soil loss, soil dryness, soil
structure deterioration, soil nutrient and productivity losses,
and air pollution
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o Glacial Erosion
Erosion caused by glacier movement, where rocks and ice
being carried by glaciers weather against other stones on the
Earth’s surface
✓ A glacier [Fr. glace, “ice”] is a permanent body of ice that
consists of mostly recrystallized snow and moves slowly
downward due to gravity.
o Water/Tidal Erosion
Erosion through water interaction on the affected rock, moving
the sediments in four (4) ways:
▪ Traction
Movement caused by rolling or dragging large sediment
grains aided by smaller grains pushing against them
▪ Saltation
Movement caused by repeated bouncing of sand grains
as they are transported by water
▪ Suspension
Movement observed in fine particles such as silt and clay
▪ Solution
Movement found in soluble materials such as salts
✓ Water erosion in mountainsides and valleys occur in
tributaries and rivers, carrying large angular sediments
such as boulders and cobbles (fist-sized sediments) as its
first eroded materials. As these materials are carried
away by the water, they gradually become smaller and
smoother, until these turn into pebbles and sand.
✓ Water erosion in lowlands occurs in rivers that form
meanders and floodplains, where sand and mud are
obtained from river bends and are transported and
deposited in tide flats carried by distributary river channels
(or simply distributary channels).
✓ Water erosion in coastlines is caused by tidal action. The
action of waves wears the rocks down, forming cliffs and
arches. Sediments carried by distributary channels are
transported along the shoreline by longshore drifting—
tidal currents transport sediments under the sea.
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o Mass Wasting
Also known as mass movement, it is the downslope
movement of rocks, soil, and ice due to the pull of gravity.
Hazardous to both life and property, it is thought that these
factors contribute to mass wasting:
▪ Relief
The difference in elevation between two (2) places
creates slopes, allowing gravity to pull down the materials
at higher elevations.
▪ Slope Stability
This is the balance between the downslope force and the
resistance force of the materials due to friction. An
imbalance between the two (2) can either mean stability
(if resistance force is greater) or slope failure (if
downslope is greater).
▪ Fragmentation and weathering
Rocks with weak joints or points can fall apart because
they fragment from their original formation. Typically,
stones are held together by their minerals and/or grains.
If the rocks fragment, it means that friction (or weak
electric charges) holds the pieces together before they
eventually fall apart.
Mass wasting occurs when there is an unbalanced force that
disrupts the equilibrium between the downslope force and the
resistance force. These unbalanced forces could be as
follows:
▪ Tectonic Vibrations / Earthquakes
▪ Changes in the structure of the slope
Changes in the slope angle, load, and slope support due
to activities such as excavation of mountainsides (either
human-made or natural) and construction. These
activities contribute to a steeper slope, which adds more
weight to the affected area.
▪ Material Composition
The soil is composed of various unconsolidated materials
that can be easily eroded and weathered. Soil slopes
benefit from the plants that hold the soil together. The
addition of water further weakens the elements as it can
dissolve soluble minerals and widen fractures along with
the fragment gaps of rocks.
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Mass wasting can be classified in several ways: material
types, motion types, and movement speed. Generally,
material types include rocks and soil.
▪ Predominantly coarser soil materials are known as
debris.
▪ Predominantly finer soil materials are known as earth.
Mass wasting can also be classified according to its
movement. First described by geologists David Cruden and
David Varnes in 1996, both material type and motion type
were considered. General motion types include the following:
▪ Fall
Any freefall movement, bouncing, and/or rolling of
materials on a slope. Masses are detached from steep
slopes/cliffs along the surface with little to no shear
displacement.
▪ Topple
The forward rotation out of the slope of a soil and rock
mass, with the rotation axis (called a pivot point) usually
located at the base of the moving mass, below its center
of gravity.
▪ Slide
Also known as slumps, this is the downslope movement
of coherent materials along a distinct sliding surface (i.e.,
the surface of rupture), which could either form a planar
or a curved surface.
✓ Masses moving in a rotational slide move
outward and downwards on one (1) or more
concave-upward failure surfaces, giving it a
backward tilt to the slipping mass, sinking at the
rear, and pushing at the toe.
✓ Masses moving in a translational slide move
along a planar failure surface that may run at
least parallel to the slope.
▪ Spread
The lateral extension and fracturing of a coherent mass
due to the plastic flow of its underlying material,
occurring mostly as silt layers in the affected areas.
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▪ Flow
Movement where materials become saturated and move
downslope as a viscous (thick) fluid. The movement can
range from slow to rapid, and the material’s viscosity can
range from being dry to extremely saturated, which
usually follows an initial sliding movement. Basal or
marginal shear surfaces can bound it, but flowing is the
dominant movement of the displaced materials.
▪ Complex
The combination of any of the five (5) defined movements.
It can be determined by a primary type of movement
followed by other types.
All these motion types can be visualized in Page 1 of 02
Handout 4.
Mass wasting can also be classified into seven (7) classes of
movement in terms of movement speed (or movement rate),
i.e., from extremely slow to extremely rapid. These
classifications were also first described by Cruden and
Varnes. (See Page 2 of 02 Handout 4 for more details.)
✓ A rockslide-debris type of avalanche involves extremely
rapid movement of materials.
✓ A creep is another material movement that can be
classified as extremely slow to prolonged motion.
✓ Slides and flows can have moderate to very rapid
movement rates, depending on the amount of water
present in the deforming mass.
✓ Falls can have rapid to extremely rapid movement.
• Deposition
The process where sediments settle out of the transporting
medium, usually associated with water [Lat. de- (“away”) +
ponere (“to put, place”), “place elsewhere”]. When sediments
settle in a new area, they form a layer called a bed. The
distribution of grains in a bed is called the bed’s sorting. A well-
sorted bed has uniform-sized (at least one to two sizes similar)
grains. A poorly sorted bed contains grains of inconsistent sizes.
✓ Glaciers deposit their transported debris and sediments
directly on the ground where the ice has traveled.
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✓ When the velocity of the wind goes down, the transported
sediments and dust settles on the place where they are
carried. The same goes for water.
✓ Large sediments are known as clasts, while the surrounding
fine-grained sediments are called as the matrix.
✓ During the deposition process, the sediments get pressed
over by new bed buildup over the years (compaction), while
dissolved chemicals in the water form new minerals
(cement) when the pores in between sediments are filled
with it, leaving the chemicals to bind with the sediments in
a process known as cementation.
✓ Some minerals get recrystallized in the deposition process
(recrystallization).
✓ The combined processes of compaction, cementation, and
recrystallization are known as diagenesis [Gr. dia-
(“throughout, through”) + genes, “made throughout”], which
create sedimentary rocks while these compacted sediments
also undergo lithification.
✓ The new area where the sediments are deposited is known
as a sedimentary environment.
o Glacial
Areas where ice sheets and glaciers are located,
usually in high-altitude mountains and polar regions. At
the end of a glacier, piles of sediments ranging from fine
clay to boulders (called glacial tills) can be found.
o Mountainous
Areas with high altitudes (but not covered in ice) and
abundant in sediment materials.
▪ Mountain stream
Areas where conglomerate rocks are commonly
found. This is due to the tributaries’ capability to
carry sediments of varying sizes during flooding
periods, creating thick beds of gravel and boulders.
▪ Mountain front
Areas located at the mountain’s base, where the
water’s velocity slows down to a halt. This creates
a landform known as an alluvial fan, which is
primarily made of sand and boulders.
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o Desert
Areas with very dry air, little precipitation, hostile
surroundings, and extremes in temperatures [Lat.
desertum, “an abandoned place”].
▪ Cold Desert
Deserts with little sunlight, cold temperatures, cold
dry air, and extreme frost. Found commonly in polar
regions, this environment functions almost similar
to a glacial environment.
▪ Hot Desert
Areas with very little rain, arid surroundings, dry, hot
air, and temperature extremes (i.e., intense heat
during daytime, freezing to below freezing at
nighttime). The wind carries sand and silt minerals
that are sorted and deposited into either dunes (if
primarily sand) or loess [pronounced as / LOW-uhs
/, from Swiss-German losch, “loose”] dunes (if
primarily silt). Sediments from solutions
(evaporites) are also formed when temporary lakes
dry up.
o Lacustrine
Lacustrine is an adjective used to associate something
with lakes. Since lakes are still water forms due to a lack
of underwater currents, the coarse sediments carried by
connected tributaries are deposited on a lake’s margin.
In contrast, silt and clay are deposited from suspension
in the deeper parts. Shale usually forms in this
environment.
o Fluvial
In areas of low elevations where rivers are present, the
velocity of water is slow and commonly carries an
assortment of sediments. In essence, coarser
sediments tumble along the river bed, while the finer
sediments flow in suspension with the water. Mud is
deposited at the floodplains after flooding, while
pebbles and sand are collected at the meander bends,
forming lenses when both sand and pebble beds
alternate with silt and mud layers.
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o Delta
Areas where accumulated sediments that have been
compacted and lithified at the river’s end is connected
to a stagnant body of water (i.e., a delta). When rivers
enter the stagnant water form (usually landlocked seas
or relatively calm seas), it empties its sediment load into
a delta. The upper part of the delta consists mostly of
coarse sand and gravel, with the middle layers
containing fine sand and silt and the base layers
containing silt and clay.
o Beach
Areas containing fine sand and coarse sediments and
rocks (in some areas). Ocean waves and tidal currents
transport sand into the coastlines, filtering and sorting
out the sand to form ripples at the coastlines.
o Marine
Areas where saltwater is dominant and activity is
observed on both surface and deep levels.
▪ Shallow marine
Shallow areas with an abundant supply of
sediments. The mud and silt removed from
shorelines and river ends (or river mouths) are
transported by tidal currents and deposited in the
quieter waters below the wave zone, which is either
a part or found above the epipelagic zone
(depending on the source material).
▪ Shallow water (carbonate)
Areas with limited sediment supply, instead of
depending on the mineral deposits of coral
skeletons in coral reefs. Since coral skeletons are
made of minerals, they can also weather into
sediments, which can also be derived from shells
(collectively called carbonate sediments).
Limestones are commonly found here.
▪ Deep
Slope failures located deep in the oceans generate
submarine landslides, creating sediments of
varying sizes. Turbidity currents carry the finer
sediments (ranging from sand to clay) to a
submarine fan where a turbidite deposit (or turbidite
sequence) is formed. In the very deep ends (i.e.,
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abyssal and hadal zones), mud forms from clay and
plankton, chalk from calcite materials, and chert
from siliceous (silicon-rich) shells.
- A turbidity current is a rapid downhill flow of water
due to an increase in its density because of
sediments that saturate the water.
- A turbidite layer or sequence is a formation of layers
that comprise a grano-classified set of sandstone
strata and pelitic sediments, which can contain
deep-water fossils.
- A submarine fan, also known as an abyssal fan, is
a body of sediment on the seafloor deposited by
mass-flow processes. It can either be fan-shaped
or elongated and lobed.
Endogenic Processes
Endogenic process is any process that includes geological
phenomena and processes originating within the Earth’s surface
(Olivar et al., 2018). These processes are responsible for any tectonic
changes on the surface by releasing energy from within, which is
attributed to the leftover heat (measure to be at least 5000 – 7000°C)
within the planet’s crust during its accretion 4.54 billion years ago. That
heat comes from two (2) sources:
1. The first source is gravitational energy, built up over the years
during the accretion period up to the point that the theoretical
planet “Theia” crashed onto the juvenile Earth, creating the Moon.
Though Theia is still considered a skeptical notion by astronomers
and geologists, the accretion of materials due to gravity is evident.
2. The other source is the disintegration of radioactive elements
buried deep within the Earth, such as uranium-238 ( 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟗𝟐𝐔),
thorium-232 ( 𝟐𝟑𝟐 𝟒𝟎
𝟗𝟎𝐓𝐡), and potassium-40 ( 𝟏𝟗𝐊).
• Magma
Rocks in liquid to semi-liquid form. Less dense than actual stones,
it can be found in specific locations on Earth. It is primarily
composed of silicon dioxide or silica (𝐒𝐢𝐎𝟐 , 45%–75% by
composition), aluminum oxide (also called alumina or alundum,
𝐀𝐥𝟐 𝐎𝟑 ), calcium oxide (also known as quicklime, 𝐂𝐚𝐎),
magnesium oxide (known as magnesia, 𝐌𝐠𝐎), iron oxide (found
in the mineral wustite, 𝐅𝐞𝐎), and 𝐇𝟐 𝐎, along with dissolved gases
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such as water vapor and carbon dioxide (approximately 0.2%–
0.3% by composition). As a molten material, its temperature
ranges from 800°–1400°C [Lat. magma (from Gr. root massein, “to
knead, mold”), “liquid remnants of an ointment”].
✓ Flowing magma seen on the Earth’s surface is called lava
[Italian (Ita.) lava (from Lat. lavare, “to wash”), “torrent,
stream”].
✓ A magma’s viscosity generally depends on its silica content,
along with gas content and temperature. Higher viscosity
means higher amounts of silica, lower temperature, and/or
lower gas content, depending on the magma’s condition in its
immediate environment.
✓ Magma flows towards the surface because of its lower density
and the pressure that surrounding rocks exert on it.
Generation of Magma
Rocks can only melt when it hits its eutectic temperature (the
melting point of rocks), which is lower than the actual melting
points of its constituent minerals. There are several ways magma
can be generated:
• Decompression Melting
A method of melting where the temperature is constant
throughout while the pressure decreases, commonly
observed in rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, and in volcanic
hotspots [Lat. de- (“undo, not”) + Fr. compresser (from Lat.
compressare, “to press together”), “not to press together”].
• Flux Melting
A form of melting where volatiles (i.e. gaseous substances)
are added into the magma. The water vapor (or carbon
dioxide) reacts with the rock, weakening or breaking the
bonds and causing the change in the stones from solid to
liquid. This commonly occurs in subduction zones [Old Fr. flus
(“a flowing, a bleeding”), or Lat. fluxus (“flowing, loose”)].
• Heat Transfer Melting
A method of melting rocks with the introduction of pre-existing
magma, melting the surrounding rocks and occurring in rift
valleys, mid-ocean ridges, hotspots, and subduction zones
• Partial Melting
A method of melting rocks where certain minerals are
dissolved once its eutectic temperatures are met. Because of
this, this magma has a different composition from its parent
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material. Such stones left behind because of partial melting o Rocks with substantially higher magnesia and wustite
has undergone fractionation. contents than silica are called mafic rocks.
o Ultramafic rocks are just rocks made with different kinds
Crystallization of Magma of mafic rocks, ensuring that the silica content is very
Rocks that have been extruded to the surface solidifies, low compared to the two (2).
recrystallizing to a solid form and forming grains. Nevertheless, o Intermediate rocks are just combinations of the three
crystallization can also occur underground if the temperature (3) rocks above.
permits it. This creates igneous rocks.
Common Minerals
1. Quartz 5. Biotite
2. Orthoclase 6. Amphibole
3. Plagioclase 7. Pyroxene
4. Muscovite 8. Olivine
✓ Feldspar includes plagioclase and orthoclase.
✓ Mica includes biotite and muscovite.
✓ Igneous rocks are classified based on the distribution of silica,
magnesia, and wustite. These are also classified based on
grain size that dictates the rocks’ textures. Refer to Page 2 of
02 Handout 2 for more information.
✓ Most magma never reaches the surface. These rocks are
called igneous intrusions.
o Dikes are intrusions that form wall-like sheets.
o Sills are intrusions that form tabular layers in between
pre-existing rock layers. Figure 1. Bowen's Reaction series
Source: https://jonathanlms96.wordpress.com/2017/03/20/bowens-reaction-series-simplified/
o Plutons are intrusions with the blob-like appearance and
form many configurations. Amalgamations of this are • Volcanism
known as batholiths. Geological activity involving volcanoes, which are visible
vents—manifestations of rock formation.
✓ Magma crystallizes in a series of sequences of minerals
✓ Volcanoes serve as the conduit for lava or molten rock
formed. If a mafic magma crystallizes, olivine forms first,
within the Earth’s surface.
followed by pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, muscovite,
✓ Lava exits through a funnel-shaped opening known as a
orthoclase (also known as K-feldspar), and then quartz. This
crater.
group of plagioclase follows a parallel sequence where
✓ Eruption is the term used to describe events where lava
calcium-rich plagioclase crystallizes first and the sodium-rich
is spewed from volcanoes. There are two (2) types of
plagioclase form last. This crystallization sequence is known
eruption that are dictated by the lava’s viscosity, pressure,
as Bowen’s reaction series. Refer to Figure 1.
and additional composition such as trapped gases:
Here is a quick guide for determining the rock’ composition: o Effusive eruptions are the ones with dominant lava
o Rocks with higher silica content, as compared to its flow and formation of fountains and lakes; and
magnesia and wustite contents, are called felsic rocks. o Explosive eruptions eject other materials aside from
lava, which can range from ash to large pyroclastics.

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There are three (3) kinds of volcanoes:
o Shield volcanoes form very broad domes with gentle
slopes that cover a wide area, mostly made of
alternating layers of basaltic lava and cinder
accumulation. An example is Mt. Kilauea in Hawaii.
o Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are made of
alternating layers of lava and pyroclastics. They are
generally made of felsic to intermediate rocks,
building tall edifices. An example is Mt. Mayon in
Albay.
o Cinder cones consist of small cones formed by lava
spattering, which are usually made of cinders with
mafic compositions. An example is the Smith Volcano
in the Babuyan Islands.
✓ Volcanic eruptions produce different materials once it
reaches the surface:
o Effusive eruptions form lava flow deposits.
▪ Pahoehoe is lava with smooth surfaces, often
forming tubes [read as /puh-HOY-hoy/, Hawaiian
(Hwn.) pahoehoe, “smooth, unbroken lava”].
▪ 'A'ā are lava with very coarse surfaces,
appearing rubbly or broken rocks. Can be written
as aa, a'a, 'a'a, and a-aa [read as /ah-AH/,
Hwn.'a'ā, “stony, rough lava”].
▪ Obsidian is a glassy material formed by rapidly
cooling high-silica lava flow. Since it is brittle and
amorphous, it fractures with sharp edges [Lat.
obsidianus, “stone of Obsius”].
▪ Pumice is also a high-silica lava material that has
solidified into a rock. However, because it is
frothy and contains many air spaces inside it
created by trapped gas bubbles, it is very light
and can even float on water [Lat. pumex, “froth,
foam”].
▪ Pyroclastics are fragmented materials (of
varying grain sizes) released from a volcano.
▪ Lapilli are pea- to marble-sized fragments of lava
known to be a size classification of tephra [plural
of Lat. lapillus, “little stone”].
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▪ Volcanic ashes are very fine particles consisting
of glass shards, crystals, and fragments of
existing rocks. Lithified ashes are called tuffs [Lat.
obsidianus, “stone of Obsius”].
▪ Bombs are blobs of lava that are thrown in the air
and develop streamlined and smooth fragments.
▪ Blocks are large non-streamlined chunks of lava
or pre-existing rocks.
o Pyroclastic flow deposits are aggregates of
pyroclastic debris that flow on the slopes of
volcanoes.
▪ Ignimbrites are pyroclastic deposits mostly made
of pumice.
▪ “Lahar” is the term used to describe pyroclastic
deposits mixed with water.
• Metamorphism
The process where the original rocks (called protoliths)
undergo both mineralogical and textural changes due to
modifications in its physical and/or chemical
environments, altering it without changing its composition
through melting or disintegration. Rocks formed in this
manner are called metamorphic rocks.
✓ Metamorphism occurs at temperatures roughly
between the temperature ranges of diagenesis and
melting—between 200°C and 850°C.
- Atoms at this temperature range vibrate rapidly,
stretching or breaking the bonds with others.
These sudden changes drive atoms to reform
themselves (recrystallization) or form new crystal
structures with other substances
(neocrystallization).
- Rocks that metamorphosed at low temperatures
(i.e., 200 – 320°C) are known as low-grade
metamorphic rocks.
- Rocks that metamorphosed at high temperatures
(i.e., 500 – 850°C) are called high-grade
metamorphic rocks.
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- Rocks that metamorphosed between 320° and • Neocrystallization

500°C are intermediate-grade metamorphic The growth of new minerals that differ from those in
rocks. its protolith, associated with chemical change and
reactions, such as hot water dissolution observed in
✓ Metamorphism occurs at a pressure of about 12
hydrothermal vents
kilobars (𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 Pa), corresponding to a depth of
• Pressure Solution
40 km. Ultra-high pressure metamorphic rocks exist,
The dissolution of mineral grains when pressure is
however. These are formed at an approximate
applied in a single direction, at a relatively low
pressure of 29 kilobars (𝟐. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 Pa), temperature and pressure, and in the presence of
corresponding to a depth of 80 – 100 km. This is due water -- causing changes in the shape of the affected
to the positive correlations of pressure, depth, and grains
temperature.
• Plastic Deformation
✓ Rocks undergoing metamorphism also undergo
A permanent change in the shape of a rock without
strong deformations. When these occur at high
any visible fractures under the action of a constant
temperatures, it allows minerals to form its preferred
force, keeping the composition of the material intact
orientations, creating its layering called metamorphic
foliation. Refer to Figures 2 and 3.
- As an example, flat grains lie parallel to each
other, and elongated grains align in the same
direction. This is called a planar fabric.
✓ Location-wise, metamorphism usually occurs in the
presence of hydrothermal fluids, which include hot
water, steam, and supercritical fluids (substances
formed at high temperature and pressure, behaving
as both liquid and gas). Fluids accelerate
metamorphic reactions since vibrating atoms move
faster in a liquid medium than in a solid medium.
Fluids also can pick up and drop ions, affecting
chemical reactions during metamorphism. This
involvement of fluids is known as metasomatism [Gk.
meta + somatikos (“of the body”), “beyond the body”].
Metamorphic Processes
• Recrystallization Figure 2. Metamorphic rocks and their protoliths
Source: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DgAqWiBW4AAmJ_Z?format=jpg&name=900x900
The change in a mineral’s shape and size without
changing its identity Types of Metamorphism
• Phase Change • Burial Metamorphism
The process that transforms a grain of a particular A kind of metamorphism where the built-up pressure
mineral into a grain of another mineral having the from compaction within the affected sediments
same composition but with a different crystal structure exceeds the natural limits of the diagenesis process.
Observable at depths of approximately eight (8) to 15

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km, diagenesis still affects the upper sedimentary
beds while the lower beds begin to metamorphose.
• Cataclastic (High-Strain) Metamorphism
Also known as dynamic metamorphism, it is a type of
metamorphism where rocks affected by lateral-
motion earthquakes begin to exhibit permanent
deformations and changes at lower depths due to the
minerals recrystallizing as aided by an earthquake
forces. Mylonites are known to form during this
metamorphic process.
• Contact Metamorphism
A type of metamorphism where heat from an intruding
magma interacts with its surroundings and with a
hydrothermal fluid. The intruding magma transfers its
heat to the affected rocks surrounding it (called a
Figure 3. Temperature and pressure conditions in which metamorphism occur
Source: Exploring life through science series: Earth science, 2018
metamorphic aureole), initiating metamorphism while
the remaining rocks surrounding the aureole remains
unchanged.
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SH1631
• Hydrothermal (Ocean-Ridge) Metamorphism
A type of metamorphism where heated ocean water
(a form of hydrothermal fluid) from mid-ocean ridges
interact with rocks on the seafloor
• Regional Metamorphism
A type of metamorphism where converging plate
tectonics transfer the previously surface protoliths
underground, where the geothermal heat and
pressure from the affected regions initiate
metamorphism to the protoliths
• Shock Metamorphism
A type of metamorphism where forces from
extraterrestrial materials such as meteorites transfer
their kinetic energy to its impact area, creating shock
waves that change the chemical structure of affected
minerals.
Figure 4. Visualization of the types of metamorphism
Source: Exploring life through science series: Earth science, 2018
• Earthquakes
A vibration on the Earth’s surface as a result of a sudden
release of energy due to tectonic movements. This results
in the breaking of rocks [Old En. cwacian, “tremble,
chatter”].
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✓ Earthquakes can be summed up with the elastic

rebound theory. According to Harry Fielding Reid, it
is “the sudden release of elastic energy in affected
rocks through physical deformations” (Reid, 1910)
(As a visualization, see Figure 5)
✓ Earthquakes create fractures in affected areas
where motion and deformations are evident. They
can, however, still affect already-existing fractures.
✓ Factors that cause earthquakes:
- Movement of existing faults
- Movement of magma below the ground
- Volcanic eruptions
- Landslides (or mass wasting)
- Meteorite impacts
- Underground nuclear bomb tests
Cross-Section of an Earthquake
• Fault
It is any fracture where one (1) body moves past
another moving body. The body, in this case, is a
large mass of rock whose movement is a result of the
deformation forces exceed the friction of the involved
bodies [Old Fr. faute (from vulgar Lat. falsus,
“deceptive, feigned”), “deficiency, flaw”].
• Hypocenter
Also known as the earthquake’s focus [Lat. focus,
“hearth, home”], it is the place where the rock
fractures as a result of the sudden release of the built-
up energy that radiates outward to the surface [Gk. Figure 5. A simple analogy about earthquakes
hypo- (“underneath, below”) + kentron (“sharp point, Source: https://thatbluedot.tumblr.com/post/133720221103/earthquakes

goad”), “below the point”].

• Seismic Wave
• Epicenter
Ripples where energy is released at the hypocenter
This is the point at the Earth’s surface directly above
[Gk. seismos, “shaking”]. It has two (2) primary
the hypocenter [Gk. epi- (“in addition to, above”) +
components: body waves and surface waves.
kentron, “above the point”].
✓ Body waves (also known as deep waves) are
seismic waves that travel through the Earth's
interior.
o Primary waves, stylized as P-waves, are
body waves where the particles of the
affected material move back and forth

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parallel to the direction of the wave motion,
acting as a longitudinal wave. These are also
known as compression waves.
Figure 6. An illustration of a P-wave
Source: https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=P%20wave
o Secondary waves, stylized as S-waves, are
body waves where the particles of the
material move back and forth perpendicular
to the direction of the wave motion, acting as
a transverse wave. These are also called
shear waves.
Figure 7. An illustration of an S-wave
Source: https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=S%20wave
✓ Surface waves are seismic waves that travel
along the Earth’s surface.
o Love waves are waves that cause the ground
to move sideways in a snake-like manner.
Figure 8. An illustration of a love wave
Source: https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=Love%20wave
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o Rayleigh waves are waves that cause the
ground to ripple up and down.
Figure 9. An illustration of a Rayleigh wave
Source: https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=Rayleigh%20wave
✓ Each seismic wave travels at different velocities,
with body waves moving the fastest while surface
waves are the slowest.
✓ In a hierarchical sense, the traveling waves will
be arranged according to their speeds:
1. P-waves
2. S-waves
3. Love waves
4. Rayleigh waves
✓ The device that detects seismic waves is called a
seismograph [Gk. seismos + graphos (“writing,
writer”), “shaky writing”] with its data recorded in
a seismogram [Gk. seismos + gramma (“small
weight”, specially defined as “a letter of the
alphabet”), “a shaking letter”].
✓ Since the Earth’s interior is unexplored yet,
predictions cannot be accurately made.
Seismographs only record the time of an
earthquake’s arrival and its amplitude.
✓ An earthquake’s size can be measured in two (2)
ways: through its magnitude and its intensity.
o An earthquake’s magnitude is the number
assigned to describe the quake’s relative
energy size, determined from the
earthquake’s maximum amplitude of ground
motion recorded in the seismogram. Thus, a
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single increment in its magnitude equates to,
at a minimum, a substantial increase in value.
o An earthquake’s intensity is the amount of
damage brought about by an earthquake,
usually denoted in Roman numerals. This is
noted by an epicenter having a higher
intensity than the areas far from the
epicenter.
• Deformation
It is any activity that distorts the physical shape, size,
location, tilt, or break due to physical stresses such as
squeezing, stretching, or shearing—responsible for the
formation of mountain belts (i.e., a group of mountain
ranges).
Deformations are caused by stress and strain and have
something to do with the rocks’ elasticities.
✓ Elasticity is the ability of an object to return to its
original form after being deformed physically. Despite
the given definition, inelastic (also referred to as
“plastic”) materials also experience elasticity, if only a
little.
✓ Plasticity is defined as the permanent
disfiguration of a material due to deforming
factors.
✓ The branch of geology dedicated to the study of this
is called structural geology.
Stress and Strain
o Stress (𝝈) is the deforming force per unit area,
observed whenever a force is used to deform
something. It could be any physical force that must
be distributed over an object’s surface area to incur
stress. Mathematically,
𝑭 using the objects' moduli of elasticity. Each form
𝝈= ,
𝑨
where 𝑭 is the force being delivered onto a material
in newtons (𝐍), and 𝑨 is the area being affected by
the force in square meters (𝐦𝟐 ).
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o Strain (𝝐) is a unitless quantity that describes how
much change in dimension an object has received.
Strain is dependent on two (2) factors: stress and the
dimension being put under stress. Thus, it has no
fixed mathematical equation.
✓ There are three (3) kinds of strain (or stress, in
other materials):
o Tensile strain (𝜎) is the strain concerned
with pulling forces, changing the length of the
affected material. The stress is applied to the
object’s opposite faces. Tensile strain makes
objects longer.
o Compressive/Volumetric strain (𝑃) is the
strain that arises from the changing volume
of the affected material. The stress is applied
to a few (or all) faces of the material, where
the direction of all forces are directed towards
the center of the material. Compressive strain
makes objects more compact.
o Shear strain (𝝉) is the strain where the
parallel internal surfaces of the affected
material suddenly change. The stress is
applied to each other, but not along the same
axis, resulting in slippage and translation.
Shear strains make objects more obtuse.
✓ A particular case of shear strain is
observed on materials that twist at its
axis. It is known as torsional strain.
Fortunately, there have been zero
discoveries on twisted rocks.
✓ Elasticity defines the limits of objects’ capacity to
bear load until these objects break. This capacity
of objects to withstand loads can be described
of stress and strain has a specific modulus—or
constant—of elasticity.
✓ Deformation has three (3) successive stages
when rocks are exposed to increasing levels of
stress:
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o Elastic deformation occurs first, where the
strain can still be reversed. This makes the
material return to its original form and size
when the stress is removed.
o Ductile deformation occurs when the
observed deformations transition from elastic
to plastic.
o Permanent deformation occurs when the
material reaches its elastic limit, sometimes
resulting in fractures.
✓ Deformation allows geologists (and materials
scientists) to classify materials into two (2) distinct
categories:
o Ductile materials are materials with high
ductility before fracturing but have very little
elasticity.
o Brittle materials are materials with very little
flexibility, making them prone to fracture quite
immediately, but they have a varied elasticity.
✓ Material behavior depends on the following
factors:
▪ Temperature
▪ Confining pressure
▪ Strain rate
✓ As an example, if an object is subjected to an
environment that has low temperature and
confining pressure but has a high strain rate, this
makes the object brittle.
✓ This means materials can become ductile if
subjected to a low strain rate, high temperature,
and pressure.
✓ Rocks, however, have varying material behavior
due to the composition each rock has.
o Water in rocks encourages ductility. The
more water trapped inside a rock, the more
ductile it becomes. This makes dry rocks
susceptible to brittleness.
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o Ground depth also encourages ductility.
Rocks found near the surface are brittle due
to low pressure and temperature.
▪ Therein exists a brittle–ductile transition
zone underneath the Earth’s surface, at
approximately 15 km down. This makes
brittle rocks ductile.
▪ This means earthquakes occur above
this transition zone.
Structures formed by Deformations
• Strike
This is the compass direction (usually designated
from the North) of the line formed by the
intersection of an inclined plane and the
horizontal plane. These structures typically move
in transverse.
• Dip
This is the angle between the inclined plane (from
where the fault scarp can usually be found) and
the horizontal plane. These structures generally
move in perpendicular.
• Joint
It is any natural crack in a rock caused by brittle
deformations, effectively making it a smaller
version of a fault. The rocks of a joint do not slide
past each other.
• Fold
These are planar structures resulting from the
deformation of ductile materials. They can also be
defined as contortions of rock layers forming
wavelike curves.
▪ Complex folds develop depending on the
degree of compressional stresses being
applied during deformation.
▪ During ductile deformation, the original shape
and arrangement of the affected rock
particles also change. As an example, quartz
grains may become elongated ribbons or
cigar-shaped.
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▪ Tectonic foliation occurs when some

minerals recrystallize and reorient
themselves, which also happens during
metamorphism.
• Fault
These are planar structures resulting from the
deformation of brittle materials due to tensional
stress.
✓ Faults that have been recently mobile are Figure 11. An illustration of strike-slip faults
Source: https://inventionsky.com/normal-reverse-and-strike-slip-faults/
called active faults, which can move again
and cause earthquakes in the future. 3. Oblique-Slip
- Fault that has both properties of dip-slip
Types of Faults and strike-slip faults. This makes the
1. Dip-Slip hanging wall move in diagonal from the
- Faults that move vertically, where the foot wall.
hanging wall moves towards or away
from the footwall at an angle

Figure 10. An illustration of dip-slip faults

Source: https://inventionsky.com/normal-reverse-and-strike-slip-faults/

▪
In the case of a reverse fault, if the
dip angle is extremely steep, the Figure 12. An illustration of oblique faults
Source: https://ds.iris.edu/aed2/c/alaska/popups/tectonics/tec_3_fault.html
reverse fault becomes almost
parallel. This is called a thrust fault.
2. Strike-Slip
- Faults that move horizontally, where both
the hanging and foot walls rub against
each other. The fault angle may be
almost vertical to perfectly vertical.

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References:
Braganza, M. C. (1997). Earth science. Rex Printing Company.
Cadiz, A. P., Macasil, T. D., & Villanoy, F. M. (2018). Fundamentals in
Earth Science. Mindshapers, Co., Inc.
Cruden, D M, and Varnes, D J. 1996. Landslide types and processes.
In Special Report 247: Landslides: Investigation and
Mitigation, Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C.
Engineering Group Geological Society (n.d.). Landslide & slope
instability geohazards: Landslide classification.
http://www.ukgeohazards.info/pages/eng_geol/landslide_geo
hazard/eng_geol_landslides_classification.htm
Graniczny M. (2006) Exogenic geological processes as a landform-
shaping factor. In: Zektser I.S., Marker B., Ridgway J.,
Rogachevskaya L., Vartanyan G. (eds). Geology and
Ecosystems. Springer
Harper, D. (2019). Online etymology dictionary. Lifted and modified
from https://www.etymonline.com/
Hungr, O., Leroueil, S. & Picarelli, L. The Varnes classification of
landslide types, an update. Landslides 11, 167–194 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y
Olivar, J. T. II, Rodolfo, R. Ss., & Cabria, H. B. (2018). Exploring life
through science series: Earth science. Phoenix Publishing
House.
Sudarshan, J. (n.d.). Exogenic forces: Classification.
https://www.clearias.com/exogenic-forces/
Sudarshan, J. (n.d.). Endogenic forces and evolution of land forms.
https://www.clearias.com/endogenic-forces/
The British Geological Survey (n.d.). How does BGS classify
landslides?.
https://www.bgs.ac.uk/landslides/how_does_bgs_classify_la
ndslides.html

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