HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The Need for a Circulatory System in Large Animals

Large animals need a circulatory system for the following reasons:

1. To ensure efficient transport of substances to organs that are far from the body surface
2. To bring waste substances from deep in the body closer to tissues near the body surface where they are
easily eliminated
3. To transport substances between organs far from each other in the same body

Functions of the human circulatory system

The following are functions of the human circulatory system

1. Transport of oxygen
- Oxygen required is transported from the lungs into the tissues by blood circulatory system.
2. Transport of carbon dioxide
- Carbon dioxide from the tissues is transported from the body tissues to the lungs.
3. Transport of food substances
- Food substances are transported from small intestines where they are absorbed to all cells of the body where
they are used by the blood.
4. Transport of hormones
- Hormones are transported by the blood from the glands where they are produced to the parts of the
body where they influence a particular response.
5. Distribution of body heat
- Blood plasma helps to distribute heat around the body from heat-producing areas, e.g. the liver, to areas of
heat loss such as the skin.
6. Defense against infections
- White blood cells are transported to sites of infections fight against the pathogens.

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Structure of the heart

External structure of the mammalian heart

- The main function of the heart is to pump blood around the body.
- The heart is made up of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscles. The cardiac muscles are special in
two ways
o They can contract continuously without fatigue
o They are myogenic, that is, they are involuntary. They contract on their without depending on nerve
impulses.
- The heart is surrounded by a tough membrane called pericardium which covers it and protects it.
- The heart is divided into two sides, the left and right side which are completely separated by a wall called
septum
- The septum prevents blood on the right side from mixing with blood that is on the left side.
- Each side consists of a small upper chamber called the atrium (plural atria) and a large lower chamber
called the ventricle. This makes the mammalian heart a four chambered organ.
- The atria (auricles) are thin walled and receive blood into the heart which they pump to the ventricles.
- The ventricles have thicker muscular walls than the atria because they pump blood out of the heart.
- The left ventricle has thicker muscular wall than right ventricle because it pumps blood to all parts of the
body and so need to generate a higher pressure.

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- There are two sets of valves in the heart
o The atrioventricular valves separate the atria from the ventricles. The valve in the right side of the
heart is called the tricuspid valve and the valve in the left side is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve.
They allow the blood to flow only from the atria to the ventricles.
o The other valves found in the heart are the semilunar valves. When open, they allow blood to move
from the ventricles into the arteries and away from the heart.

Role of heart in blood circulation

- The right atrium receives blood coming from the body tissues through the major vein called vena cava.
- This blood has very little oxygen dissolved in it because most of the oxygen has been taken up for
respiration by the tissues. This blood is described as deoxygenated blood. It is however rich in carbon
dioxide and appears dark red in colour. The right atrium then pumps the blood into the right ventricle via the
tricuspid valve. When full, the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery.
- Semi lunar valves at the opening of this artery prevents back flow of blood into the ventricle. At the same
time, tricuspid valve prevents any back flow of blood into the right atrium. Tendons (heart strings) hold the
valves in a closed position preventing them from turning into the atrium. The pulmonary artery carries
blood to the lungs.
- In the lungs, the blood picks oxygen and gives up carbon dioxide. It is now said to be oxygenated and is
bright red in colour.
- From the lungs, it goes to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein.

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- This portion of the circulatory system where blood flow to the lungs from the heart and back is called the
pulmonary circulation.
- The left atrium pumps blood into the left ventricle via the bicuspid valve. The left ventricle pumps blood to
all parts of the body except the lungs. This blood leaves the ventricle through the aorta. Semi lunar valves that
open into the aorta prevent back flow of blood.
- The circulation of the blood from the heart to the tissues and back is called systemic circulation.

- The mammalian heart therefore acts as a double dump. The left side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of
the body and the right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
- The heart receives blood when its muscles relax. It pumps blood when its muscles contract. These two
processes take place in a repeated sequence or cycle known as the heart or cardiac cycle.
- The cardiac cycle has two alternating phases known as systole and diastole. During systole, the muscles of
heart chamber contract to pump out blood. The pressure that is created when heart muscles contract is called
systolic pressure. During diastole, muscles of the heart chamber relax for them to receive blood. The pressure
of the blood that occurs when heart muscles relax is called diastolic pressure.

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Pulse rate

- Pulse rate is the average number of heartbeats of a person per minute.

- Normal average heartbeat of an adult at rest is 72 beats per minute.
- Pulse rate can be felt by putting a finger at the wrist or side of the neck.
- The heart beat can increase to 200 beats per minute when doing physical exercises
- The heart beat increases during exercises so as to increase food supply and oxygen to the muscles for
respiration.

Blood cells

There are three types of blood cells, namely

o red blood cells (erythrocytes)

o white blood cells (leukocytes)
o platelets (thrombocytes)

Structure of red blood cells

- Red blood cells are very tiny circular biconcave discs.

- They are thinner in the center than the edges.
- They contain a red iron containing pigment called haemoglobin.
- They are made in the bone marrow of the bones. They stay alive for about three months and are destroyed in
the liver and spleen.

Functions of the red blood cells

- Transport oxygen from the lungs to body tissues

- Transport carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is converted in the cytoplasm of the red blood cells to hydrogen
carbonate ions and is transported to the lungs.

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Adaptations of red blood cells

The red blood cells are adapted to their functions in the following ways

- They contain haemoglobin which has high affinity for oxygen. Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen
to form oxyhaemoglobin. Oxygen is transported in form of oxyhaemoglobin.
- They have no nuclei which provide more space for haemoglobin thereby increasing surface area for carrying
oxygen.
- They are numerous to carry as much oxygen as possible

Structure of white blood cells

- White blood cells are larger than red blood cells but relatively fewer.
- They have a nucleus
- They defend the body against infections.
- There are two types of white blood cells.
a. Phagocytes or granulocytes
b. Lymphocytes or agranulocytes.

Phagocytes

- They have a large lobed nucleus and a cytoplasm containing granules.

- They can change their shape as they actively seek, engulf and digest pathogens
- They can squeeze through capillary walls in order to reach the infected tissue.
- They are made in the bone marrow of the long bones.

Lymphocytes

- They have large rounded nuclei and their cytoplasm is non granular.
- They protect the body by producing chemical substances called antibodies to destroy the pathogens
- They are produced in the lymph nodes

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Platelets

- These are small fragments of cells with no nucleus.

- They are involved in blood clotting.
- They are produced in the bone marrow.

Blood vessels

There are three main kinds of blood vessels

o Arteries
o Capillaries
o Veins

Arteries

- They carry blood at high pressure away from the heart.

- Blood is at high pressure due to pumping of the heart.
- They carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.
- They have thick muscular walls to withstand and maintain higher pressure of blood.
- They have a narrow lumen to maintain the pressure of blood inside them.
- They have an outer fibrous coat for strength and protection
- Arteries branch out to form narrower vessels called arterioles. The arterioles branch further within the tissues
into finer vessels called capillaries.

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Capillaries

- They are numerous in number and form a dense network in all the tissues in the body which create a large
surface area over which exchange takes place.
- They have very thin walls made up of only one cell layer which allow rapid exchange of substances between
the blood and tissues.
- These characteristics make the capillary region a suitable point of exchange of substances between the blood
and the tissues.
- The narrowest of the capillaries allow a high pressure build up within them. This ensures faster movement of
substances out of them.
- Capillaries join to form larger vessels known as venules. Venules link up to form veins.

Veins

- They transport blood form tissues to the heart at low blood pressure
- They carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein
- They have valves at intervals that prevent back flow of blood

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- They have large diameter/lumen and thin walls to reduce resistance to the flow of blood.
- They are located between muscles so that when muscles contract blood in veins is pushed forward.

The process of blood clotting

- When blood vessels are damaged, the damaged tissue and platelets release a chemical called thromboplastin
(thrombokinase).
- Thromboplastin converts a blood protein called prothrombin to an enzyme thrombin
- Thrombin changes soluble blood protein fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin.
- Fibrin forms a mesh of fibers which trap red blood cells. These dry out to form a scab which seals or closes
the wound.

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