International Journal of Management Research and Emerging Sciences

Vol 13, No 2, June 2023, PP. 109-128

Restrictions and Challenges that Prevent Women from Moving up in

Leadership and Management Positions: A Frequency Count

Bushra Inayat Raja*

Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

*Corresponding: bushrarajputraja@gmail.com

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article History: The number of women occupying senior management positions in
Received: 21 Feb, 2023 Pakistani universities remains significantly low, with only 8.2% of
Revised: 02 Apr, 2023 women holding such positions in 2020, as reported by the Higher
Accepted: 18 May, 2023 Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC, 2021). A recent report by
Available Online: 07 Jun, 2023 the HEC also revealed that out of the 197 universities in Pakistan, only
16 have female vice-chancellors, indicating the underrepresentation of
DOI: women in other senior management roles, such as pro-vice-chancellor,
https://doi.org/10.56536/ijmres.v13i2.446 registrar, treasurer, and controller of examinations. In order to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting women's career
Keywords: progression in higher education management, this qualitative study
Women in management, conducted semi-structured interviews with 48 women in various
underrepresentation, constraints management positions, alongside a focus group discussion. The data
and difficulties was subjected to thematic analysis, revealing the multifaceted
challenges and limitations impeding women's advancement to senior
JEL Classification: management positions. The findings suggest that factors such as
H21, H71, E22
women's non-assertive behavior, preferentialism, Queen Bee
syndrome, subtle discrimination, lack of professional ambition, and
limited awareness of legal rights are the most significant barriers to
women's advancement in senior positions. Interestingly, themes
related to women's families were found to have the lowest frequency
scores

© 2023 The authors, under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0.

INTRODUCTION
Although women have made great strides in the workforce and have increased their
enrollment in higher education, it is widely acknowledged that very few of them succeed in top
management positions. Women are still underrepresented in senior management positions in
the majority of countries. Though for the past few years, there has been an increase in the
percentage of women holding managerial and professional positions in some countries.
According to Grant Thornton (2021), all across the board, the proportion of women in senior
management is steadily increasing. In 2021, 31% of senior management positions were held
by women, which is the highest percentage ever recorded. Catalyst (2022) reported that "90%
of businesses around the world have at least one female senior management position. But it has
been slow and sporadic. Contrary to this increase, in Asia-Pacific, women are less likely than
men to hold senior management positions. For instance, the selected Asia-Pacific countries

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have the lowest percentage of representation of women in management positions: India made
10% South Korea 8% Russian Federation 6% while Pakistan is at 4%. (Kersley et al. 2021).
Which is the lowest ranking of all of them. That is extremely depressing. Although it seems
otherwise, the apparent picture is not all that gloomy.
As since its founding in 2001, the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC, 2021) has
created a number of initiatives aimed at reforming the higher education sector. The
Government of Pakistani has also increased the budget for higher education. They took
different initiatives ranging from the development of human resources (Muhammad et al.,
2022) to structural adjustments in the governance and management of higher education
institutions (Siddique and Chaudhry, 2022). Since the GOP is committed to promoting female
education and special attention is being paid to strengthening women's education, as a result of
the various initiatives, girls' and women's access to educational opportunities continues to
improve at all levels of the Pakistani educational system, from elementary and secondary
school through college and universities (HEC,2021). New women's universities have been
established across Pakistan (HEC, 2023). Women's universities are crucial to the education of
female professionals, according to the government (Ibid).
Due to government's commitment and relatively better budget allocation in the education
sector, women now hold some positions in management of higher education. According to
Malik and Courtney (2010), women's progress toward economic independence is now a major
factor in their decision to enroll in higher education. Women have been steadily entering jobs,
professions, and managerial positions previously held by men (Jadoon and Jabeen, 2010).
However, the real cause for concern is that, despite GOP's efforts to advance women's status,
not all of the opportunities are equally benefited by women. They are considerably
underrepresented in senior management positions when compared to men.
To reflect on how it happened, what the root causes of this gap are? This study investigated the
degree to which family, society, organizations, and the individual barriers stood in way of
women achieving top controlling roles in the unique cultural context of Pakistan. This study
was essential to support the strategies and decisions of government made to increase the
number of women in senior administrative roles because it recognized the current situation of
women's employment, particularly their modest representation in senior roles. Additionally,
the Pakistani government requires data and research to support the global agenda of reducing
gender imbalances. In addition to identifying the barriers and disparities that deter them from
wearing big hats. The current study offers verifiable evidence of the effects of organizations
that don't treat women fairly, both at women universities and co universities. This study brought
attention to the seriousness of the barriers that may guide future research and provide some
possible actions that educational institutions could take to enhance current organizational and
societal norms regarding female's professional development in senior controlling positions
particularly in the universities.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature generally suggests that a number of intricate factors are impeding
women's advancement in management and leadership positions. Such as work family conflict
(Higuchi et al., 2021), Gender-based behaviors (Koenig, 2018), gender inequality (United
Nations, 2020), Social networks are structured differently by women and men. (Szell &
Thurner, 2014), lack of opportunities for women to advance their careers (ILO, 2022), all
prevent them from moving up to the top. According to some studies discrimination among
competent women in lower managing positions prevents them from getting the same
opportunities for professional growth as their male counterparts. Thus, women are denied
opportunities for career advancement. Babic, and Hansez, (2021) also discovered proof of
discrimination against women in management, planning, and once they were in senior
positions. Women receive lower pay than men due to bias and discrimination (ibid). The glass
ceiling has also been discoursed in different studies. Which is existing at all levels. (Cohen et
al., 2020). According to Ibarra et al. (2010) and Mann (2009), due to their more authority over
the resources of the economy, politics, and society, men will probably continue to dominate
Consequently, Women often quit big organizations to advance in their careers in smaller ones
(Davies et al., 2017). Liu et al. (2020) suggest the same that women’s career advancement is
constrained by societal and institutional context, inadequate job opportunities, and work-life
harmony, linked to financial resources. Seale et al. (2021) present their point of view that there
are more opportunities for women to find employment in Asian countries like Pakistan and
India, they still face challenges in their quest for equality. Advancement of women's career in
high administrative status at all levels of employment is also cited by Coleman (2011) as being
significantly hampered by the marginalization of women from male developmental
associations
Likewise, a dearth of networking and mentorship helping the career progression of women
(Mcilongo and Strydom, 2021). Women's "social capital" is constrained when they are
excluded from male networks (Espi, et al., 2019). As a result, they receive hardly any
professional guidance, and bias is frequently present in decisions regarding their promotions.
(Ibid). Bornman's (2019) research reveals that organizational structures activate gender
differences rather than merely importing them from external sources, in the context of
examining the correlation between gender, power, and organizations. According to Fiske and
Lee (2008), discrimination in the workplace is caused by prejudice and stereotypes. Due to
macho administrative set up (Von Hippel et al., 2017) and “masculine organizational culture"
men are expected to behave not only as managers but also as men (Espi et al., 2019). According
to Born et al. (2018) these organizations continue to prioritize male leadership and place a
strong emphasis on women in their workplace cultures that are dominated by discriminatory
practices Chun et al. (2019) also studied crucial role of women in the family, men's prejudiced
approaches, and associated institutional values are the main obstacles that women in senior
positions must overcome. Women feel threatened and receive less support and acceptance in
male-dominated organizations which usually support stereotypically macho standards and
behaviors (Ibid).

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Kanter’s theory, states that decision-makers and internal networks are likely to be men in
hierarchies that are predominately male (Kanter, 1977). This is unfair to women. Without
sympathetic managers, female employees are also more likely to feel that their workplace is
unwelcoming to women (Mitonga, 2020). White (2001) noted that it would seem that women
encounter male dominance once they reach senior levels in any organization, though they often
choose to put up with it rather than challenge it. So, it would seem that a lack of institutional
and professional support is a contributing factor to the dearth of women in managing roles.
Ronnie and Glaister (2020) assert that there is another phenomenon that is called the "glass
cliff," where womenfolk purposefully appointed to challenging management roles to make
them fail. This restricts the opportunities for career preparation and advancement for women
(Ibid). Whereas Women who are pursuing careers in environments where men predominate
may believe that having a female boss will benefit them (Wichert, 2011).

"Women already in high positions should try to support and affirm other women and not close
the doors on them once they are inside," says Zulu (2003, p.103 However, contrary to Zulu's
expectations, women working under female supervisors exhibited signs of emotional stress
compared to those working under male supervisors (Larsson & Alvinius, 2020; Mavin et al.,
2014). Research by Mavin et al. (2014) also examined power dynamics between men and
women in the workplace. Consistent with their findings, hierarchical relationships were
observed between men and women, as well as among women, known as the "queen bee
syndrome" (Staines et al., 1974; O'Neil et al., 2018). It reflects issues with authority are not
associated with men only. Therefore, it would pose a greater challenge to ascertain whether
women perceive institutions more favorably when they are in an environment with only one
gender or when they have female superiors. It is concluded that women encounter numerous
challenges in every setting when they want to move forward.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Questions

The research was conducted in Pakistan's public sector universities. The main question
posed to the study participants was: to what extent the possible obstacles that women face on
a family, societal, organizational, and personal level that act to prevent them from achieving
top management positions?

Sample Papulation

In order to explore the major barriers that women encounter on the family, societal,
organizational, and personal levels that act to prevent women from achieving the top
management positions. In this case, the convenience sampling approach was used for sample
selection. From eight public sector universities in Pakistan, a sample of 30 senior women and
18 junior women aspiring to senior positions was chosen for the study. Comprising Deans,
Directors, Heads of Department, Registrars, Treasurers, and other employees in the cadre and

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basic pay scale (BPS) 18 and above who were married, single, with children, or without
children’s representatives of other university management departments. 18 younger women
with similar demographics to the senior women who were employed in cadre/BPS 17 as
assistant controller, assistant registrar, assistant treasurer, and assistant director were also
interviewed.

Data Collection

Interviews

This study utilized qualitative research techniques to explore the obstacles that women face in
advancing their careers at the levels of family, society, organizations, and the individual. The
researchers conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 48 women who held senior
and junior management positions. Additionally, a focus group discussion was held to
complement the data gathered from the individual interviews.
While the majority of the interviews were audio-recorded, four participants had different
preferences. One senior manager expressed discomfort with being recorded by citing feeling
"media shy," while three junior managers objected to the use of audio recordings. However, all
four participants agreed to allow the researchers to take notes. The interviews lasted between
60 to 90 minutes, and in some cases, follow-up interviews were conducted with two senior
women to delve deeper into certain topics raised during the initial interview.
Focus Group Discussion
During the conference lunch break at Punjab University, a focus group discussion was held in
a faculty lounge close to the conference room. The discussion, which lasted for an hour, was
attended by participants who were interested in the topic and saw it as an opportunity to discuss
important issues. The facilitator, who was also the interviewer, guided the conversation by
asking questions, encouraging participation, and ensuring that all participants had a chance to
express their opinions.
The facilitator recorded the discussion to capture all the important points made by the
participants. The use of a focus group discussion provided an opportunity for the participants
to share their views and experiences, which could help to enrich the findings of the study.
Data Analysis

Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis is a qualitative research technique used to identify, analyze, and search for
themes and patterns that emerge from the data in relation to the research questions (Broun &
Clark, 2006; Bryman, 2001). Themes represent groups of related categories with common
meaning, discovered through an inductive analytical process inherent in qualitative research
(Greg, 2012). During thematic analysis, researchers continuously move between the data and
new concepts to develop the themes (Cohen et al., 2011). The researcher's goal in thematic

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analysis is to select a small number of themes that accurately represent the textual data and
achieve the desired level of analysis (Tuckett, 2005).
In this particular study, thematic analysis was employed as the research technique, and the
themes were derived from a thorough examination of the qualitative data (Thomas, 2003). To
quantify the data, the frequency of comments for each theme was tallied. Vaismoradi et al.
(2013) and Cohen et al. (2011) recommend that high-quality studies incorporate both
qualitative and quantitative methods. In this study, such an approach was carefully
implemented to effectively conduct the analysis.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Result
The Figure No. 1. Illustrates graphically all of the themes and the frequency count that
emerged concerning the obstacles in the family, society institutional, and individual domains
which may obstruct female from proceeding to the top level (Inayat, 2014). Its in-depth analysis
is provided next to it.

Impediments to Womens' Career Progression

NON-ASSERTIVE 83.3
FAVORITISM 75
QUEEN BEE SYNDROME 72.9
GLASS CEILING 70.8
LACKED PROFESSIONAL AMBITION 68.7
NO AWARENESS OF LEGAL RIGHTS 68.7
NON-COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATIONS 66.6
MISCONCEPTION ABOUT WOMEN’S CAPABILITIES 62.5
ISSUES OF NETWORKING 62.5
HIRING POLICIES 62.5
GENDER ROLE LABELING 62.5
UN-PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR 61.6
NO SUCCESSFUL PUBLIC PROFILE ARE AVAIABLE 58.3
OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION 58.3
WOMEN’S OWN PREFERENCES 52
STEREOTYPES REGARDING GENDER ROLES 52
DEFIANCE TO WOMENS' LEADING ROLE 52
LACK OF SELF-RELIANCE 47.1
FAMILY RESPONSIBILITIES 45.8
NO IMPORTANCE TO WOMEN 'S CAREER 45.8
SOCIAL RESTRICTIONS 31.2
DOMESTIC CHORES 31.2
ADDED WORKLOAD 20.8
ELDERLY CAREGIVERS 25.2
FAMILY AND WORK CONFLCIT 14.5
WOMEN ARE PROHIBITED FROM WORKING 10.4

Figure 1. Themes and the frequency count

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Discussion
The following is a detailed analysis and discussion of the themes emerged from the data, with
frequency counts ranging from high to low:
Non-Assertive
The capacity to voice one's opinions and fight for one's own rights without disregarding the
rights of others is referred to as assertiveness and is regarded as a desirable quality. According
to the data, the workplace was the area where the participants' lack of assertiveness caused the
most issues. Since the majority of interviewees (83.3%) lacked assertiveness in their
interactions with others, it was difficult for female to progress to senior roles. Because in times
of adversity, they lacked the courage to stand up for their privileges and allowed others to take
benefit of the situation. As a result, they lost ground to others. The participants believed that
their own lack of assertiveness in confronting unjustified prejudiced attitudes cost them dearly
in terms of their careers.
Favoritism
Favoritism, defined as the practice of treating one person or group more favorably than others,
highlights the bias of decision-makers (Kwon, 2006; Prendergast & Robert, 1996). However,
when leaders show favoritism towards an individual instead of the entire group, it tends to have
negative consequences (Dasborough et al., 2009). The research findings indicate that
favoritism was prevalent in 75% of the academic institutions attended by the participants. The
participants expressed concerns about how funding allocation and information dissemination
regarding career opportunities were influenced by favoritism, particularly in terms of access to
such opportunities.
The universities' preferential attitudes caused qualified women to be underrepresented when
they should have had opportunities to receive the benefits that were due to them. Favoritism
was viewed by participants as one of the main reasons why career development opportunities
were lost, which were thought to be a requirement for moving up to senior managerial roles.
Queen Bee Syndrome
The term "Queen Bee Syndrome" denotes to the tendency of some powerful women to work
against the advancement of other females. According to the interviews, a sizable portion of the
participants (72.9%) expressed a strong belief that the powerful women did not show support
for other womenfolk. Most participants favored having managers who weren't women. They
felt that at the time of their promotion other women had undermined them. The findings
indicate that professional women face multiple barriers when attempting to progress into senior
positions within universities (Inayat, 2014). Despite the recommendation that women in high
positions should support and affirm other women rather than impede their progress (Zulu,
2003:103), contrary to this notion, the women in the study not only had to contend with
prejudice from men but also felt threatened within their own gender.

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Glass Ceiling
According to Smith (2021), the term "glass ceiling" refers to an imperceptible barrier that
presents subtle forms of discrimination against career advancement. The majority of study
participants (70.8%) reported that there was a glass ceiling on their ability to advance in their
careers and they experienced bigoted attitudes that had restricted their job prospects. These had
typically covert rather than overt actions. Thus, by creating the obstacles, they made it
extremely difficult for women to advance to senior Managerial positions.
Lacked Professional Ambition.
It is frequently believed that a key element in defining career aspirations is the driving force
behind choosing a particular occupation (Burke & Mattis, 2005). According to the data, 68.7%
of the respondents required the motivation necessary to succeed in top positions. The
participants admitted that they lacked professional ambition. They didn't have high
expectations for landing such a prominent position. They had pursued their profession in an
impromptu manner. They succeeded in a management position either accidentally or to fulfill
the aspirations of family members. According to the findings women's comparatively little
career ambitions served as a barrier to their professional advancement. Some women resisted
seeking advancement into senior positions because they preferred not to pursue a career in
management cadre.
No Awareness of Legal Rights
Women's legal rights in organizations are reportedly unknown to 68.7% of the participants.
They were not only denied opportunities for professional development but also had their legal
rights affected by ignorance of university laws and regulations. The data demonstrated that
women faced numerous obstacles in their career advancement to higher management levels
due to their ignorance of their rights and lack of familiarity with organizational rules and
regulations.
Non- Cooperative Organizations
66.6% of the participants in the study who were interviewed reported that in the form of
organizational irregularities and structural issues, universities required a supportive
environment for professional improvement. The Individuals and organizations can both benefit
from professional development, which is crucial for enhancing abilities through acquaintance
with new knowledges (Roscoe, 2002). It is a career advancement tool, especially for those
aiming for senior positions. Several institutional obstacles stood in the way of the participants'
professional development. They were concerned about the peculiarities and complications in
how universities operated when allocating funds to support women's professional development.
They stated that their organizations had provided funding for them to pursue higher education
abroad, but most of them had struggled to have the funds disbursed at a regular pace. Processes
that ought to have been completed professionally and promptly took a long time, which was
indicative of the universities' shortage of a setting that encourages women to pursue careers.

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Misconceptions about Women’s Capabilities

Most of the participants (62.5%) voiced distresses about social bigotries regarding the
leadership styles as well as skills of women. Social bigotries typically presumed that men were
better leaders. It was thought that there would be fewer women in senior positions, because it
was assumed that they wouldn't be devoted in demanding roles. Men are seen as having
superior management skills in society compared to women. The Study participants argued the
idea that certain leadership qualities are gender-specific is not true. Such bigotries had a
negative impact on women's career advancement, relegating them to supporting characters.
Issues of Networking
The results demonstrated that various formal and informal alliances are formed at the
universities to give their fellows the assistance they need for career advancement. The women
participants clarified that they joined such organizations by virtue of holding an academic or
administrative title at the university. However, the majority of its committees were made up of
men. Based on gender men occupied key positions. The participant claimed that women are
never urged to run for the most important positions in the various alliances. These groups
arrange meeting late in the evening, and their members frequently interact with one another to
keep them active. Due to their societal structure, Pakistani women were unable to meet these
requirements. Participants thought such platforms were important and would aid them in
gaining access to high-ranking positions. Male members reportedly supported and nominated
their fellow male members for representative positions on these statutory bodies. In exchange,
they render favor to their male coworkers for jobs and career advancements.
Hiring Policies
The participants (62.5%) stated that hiring policies were the major features manipulating
advancement of female to top managerial roles. The information showed that their
underrepresentation in high-ranking was a result of structural barriers in universities. It also
appeared to be largely influenced by administrative experience-based promotion procedures.
Vice-chancellors frequently hired people who had extensive experience in line with the
demands of the administrative positions. Women entered the management field later than men,
which prevented them from gaining the necessary experience requiring for senior roles.
Gender Role Labeling
The most important obstructions to women's career promotion to high-ranking positions was
social attitudes toward gender-specific jobs. The majority of participants 62.5% thought that
stereotypes about gender-specific occupations had an effect on women's career advancement.
Participants reported encountering opposition from peers when accepting or pursuing
management positions, particularly in the early stages of their careers. This was seen as a
significant obstacle to their career success. It seemed that gender stereotypes about leaders
could make it difficult for women to advance in their careers.

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Unprofessional Behavior
Generally speaking, the participants had negative opinions of women's attitudes toward the
workplace. According to the study, most participants (68.7%) thought that women exhibit
unprofessional behavior at work. According to the interview data, women's
underrepresentation at senior management levels was exacerbated by their own unprofessional
behaviors. Their abilities and potential were undermined by the lack of these qualities, and
other women's chances of being considered for advancement to senior management positions
were also constrained.
No successful Public Profiles are Available
According to the interview data, the 58.3% respondents were very cautious to talk about their
accomplishments on media. The society therefore was ignorant of their prospective. The
participants acknowledged that they did not find self-projection to be comfortable. They were
reluctant to be interviewed by the media. They made no effort to sway public opinion. They
women avoided talking about their accomplishments and skills. The most brilliant female
leaders remained undiscovered as a result. The absence of female experts and authorities in the
media may also give the impression that they are less knowledgeable. This raised questions
about their ability to lead.
Occupational Segregation
Preconceived notions about the proper roles for men and women in the workforce led to
occupational segregation. The frequency counts 58.3% suggested that women's representation
in management positions was significantly harmed by misperceptions of women in Pakistani
society. Historically, they select a few professions, like those of doctors or teachers, were seen
as being extremely prestigious for them. Now the variety of profession had expanded to a wider
range. However, there were still strong traditional social expectations in Pakistani society, in
which women still considered more suitable for careers in medicine or education.
Women’s own Preferences
52 percent of participants believed that by happily choosing to handle the majority of household
responsibilities, they were not advancing their careers. They proudly performed the roles of
housewives who also have outside jobs because they considered themselves to be the primary
stewards of the children and other family members. According to Foster (2001), women find it
difficult to abandon their traditional roles as mothers and housewives, which leads to role
limitations.
Stereotypes Regarding Gender Roles
In this context, the majority of participants (62.5%) indicated that beliefs about particular
masculine or feminine roles were influenced by Pakistani culture. The Pakistani society
established roles and identities. As a result, most men are reluctant to assist with household
chores because they were raised to be unconcerned with them. It seemed that the female
research participants had to handle multiple responsibilities, including childrearing, elderly
care, carrying and caring for children, and household chores alone.

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Defiance to Women’s Leading Role

The frequency counts 52% stated that they had encountered challenges from men when they
first started their careers in university management. One of the main obstacles to their career
success was male dominance. A few of the participants believed that when they got big hates,
both genders created an unfriendly environment, which they later claimed to have experienced
as work harassment. They encountered a sort of conspiracy against their leading roles. Thus
their aspirations for a career were not aided by these factors.
Lack of Self-Reliance
Participants who scored at 47.9% acknowledged having low confidence. in their managerial
abilities. Either had less assurance of their administrative aptitudes or they thought the
workplace would be for them extremely tough to compete. Their lacked confidence prevented
them from applying for more difficult jobs, which marginalized them. According to the data
the willingness of women to apply for top level management is believed to be restricted by
personal limitations. Even though they were eligible and had enough experience to apply for.
But they lacked confidence in their capacity to work for big responsibilities made them
marginalized.
Family Responsibilities
The frequency counts 45.8% told the demands of professional growth occasionally clashed
with the responsibilities to their families. This was especially true when training opportunities
were offered far from where they lived. Despite the fact that they valued their domestic roles,
they saw family obligations as a barrier to their professional advancement. They were not keen
to accept training offers that might had improved their employment scenarios at the expense of
their obligations to their families. They acknowledged and agreed that their primary obligation
was to spend quality time and attention on their kids. These were seen as cultural norms that
women had to live up to.
No Importance to Women’s’ Career
Given that Pakistani women are expected to dedicate themselves to household duties 45.8% of
participants said they encountered barriers to their careers in social structural systems where
women's professional careers were not given much value. Parents cared about girls' education
but not about their employment. Participants argued, for instance, that parents were concerned
with their daughters' well-being and focused on improving their quality of life rather than on
helping them advance their careers: Women's careers were significantly impacted by the social
approaches who upheld conventional views about the best role for females.

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Social Restrictions
Despite being qualified for promotion, it seemed that 31.2% of participants were restricted by
a variety of traditional values, which limited their options for managing their career
advancement. There had obstacles caused by the location as well. These problems persisted,
and their continuation was justified by regional and cultural norms that served as barriers to
women's professional advancement.
Domestic Chores
Due to cultural traditions, men never share domestic responsibilities and are not cooperative in
household chores. Despite having jobs outside the home, the study's findings showed that
31.2% of participants were constantly juggling household demands and family obligations.
Added Workload
According to Yang et al. (2000), senior women in particular and professional women in general
experience constant worries and stress due to the demands and overload of their work. Twenty-
eight percent of the participants in the current study claimed to have encountered work
pressures that negatively impacted their health at various points during their professional
careers. They associated their senior positions with unnecessary burdens and did not enjoy
them. They felt guilty or selfish because they believed that the work, they did was burdening
their families unduly.
Elderly Caregivers
Prior studies on elderly care responsibilities have suggested that time spent caring for
defendants and handling other household duties equates to time spent not working. Because it
takes a lot of time to manage good care for elderly family members, this time commitment
negatively impacts career success. Nevertheless, only 25.2% of participants reported being the
main caregivers for elderly parents. They seemed to be shouldering the majority of the
responsibility for taking care of their elderly parents.
Family and Work Conflict
Due to the incompatible behaviors required for each, participants (14.5%) said they felt
pressure when work and family obligations clashed. A study published in the Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology in 2021 also found that women who experienced greater
work-family conflict also reported higher levels of job stress and burnout. The authors
concluded that organizations should prioritize efforts to reduce work-family conflict to support
the well-being of their employees (Michel et al., 2021).
Women are Prohibited from Working
There was some evidence of pressure from family members in some cases (10.4%), preventing
participants from accepting senior positions. Even though they were qualified for senior
management positions, some participants simply chose not to apply because they lacked
approval from the family members of their husband to work. Few women with advanced
degrees chose to launch a simple profession and commit to their obligations at work.

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CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION

Overall, the findings are consistent with earlier research (Onsongo, 2004; Zulu, 2003).
Which contends that internal and external barriers account for the dearth of women in top
management roles at university level. The obstacles include limitations placed on women by
their families, society, and organizations, as well as other issues related to their lack of
professional and personal qualities. Women's career advancement was invisibly hampered by
stereotypical beliefs about gender roles. In relation to family members, it was found that the
perception of women as housewives consistently supported Moorosi's (2000) findings. She
asserts that women are customarily linked with domestic, private, and dependent activities, in
contrast to men, whose activities are openly performed and independent.
A few participants in the current study stated that there were times when they had to put their
families first in order to balance work and family obligations. Due which they occasionally felt
pressured, exhausted, and anxious. Generally speaking, Pakistani women's careers are
restricted to few jobs due to stereotypes about the types of careers that would suit them. Many
women's career decisions were influenced by misconception regarding gender-role toward
women's career choices, which prompted several of them to select teaching over management
roles. As they were less at ease in management positions because of the gender roles that
existed in society. This is in line with earlier research that found occupational segregation was
a barrier to career advancement due to cultural and social attitudes about what roles are
appropriate for men and women to fill (Coleman, 2011).
Social norms were linked to the absence of spousal support. Due to their family’s opposition
to them getting a job and lack of support for their household duties, some married participants
were forced to fulfill traditional roles. They had a full-time management workload in addition
to being in charge of most household tasks on their own. This confirms that the marginalization
of women at top level roles has been a result of the entrenched patriarchal perspective.
According to the research, there are some organizational barriers that prevent women from
advancing in their careers because of prejudice and discrimination. This was sometimes overt
and other times covert, posing significant obstacles for women in a field that was predominately
male. The study's participants worked very hard to compete and establish their suitability for
top administrative tasks. The women participating in the study felt that institutional policies
hindered their ability to advance in their careers and were unfair. They didn't think the selection
and promotion processes treated women fairly. When they applied for senior positions, some
highly qualified women were passed over during the short-listing process. In line with the
findings of Tharenou (2005), the participants in the current study also had trouble getting into
academic organizations where men predominated. When appointments were made through
these networks as opposed to fair selection processes, this hurt them. The study found that the
majority of participants had what has been called "Queen Bee Syndrome." Highly successful
women who discriminate against other women do so by abusing their position of authority
within an organization to stifle and try to block the advancement of other women (Staines et
al., 1974). According to the study, a few women working in top positions were actively
impeding the career advancement of their coworkers and subordinates. The participants who
had attained top positions or who aspired to them had not receive support from their female

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boss and coworkers. Which is consistent with a large body of existing research that shows some
women have a propensity to obstruct the advancement of other women and denigrate rival
coworkers. Although some researchers have questioned the existence of Queen Bee Syndrome,
there is a lot of evidence for it (Morley & Walsh, 1996; Gray, 2013).
However, it wasn't thought that the issue of women's underrepresentation in senior
management was solely brought on by cultural limitations, institutional limitations, or Queen
Bee Syndrome. According to the findings, personal limitation, such as women's own
personality traits and professional attitudes, were at play in the dearth of women in top
positions. The current study identified a number of constraints that were related to the women
themselves. Usually, these consisted of non-assertive behavior, (top ranked constraint 83.3%)
lacked confidence and a lacked professional ambition. These were connected to misconception
about gender role in which female were seen incompetent of managing. Such opinions, along
with difficulties and setbacks encountered, were probably going to affect one's motivation as
well as self-assurance. According to the current study, the majority of the women still saw their
lack of knowledge of their legal rights as a potential barrier to their career advancement. This
also demonstrated their lack of self-assurance, which marginalized them. Some participants
were unable to handle the demands of a management position and the ensuing workload. They
made the decision to pursue an academic career in order to advance their status. They
occasionally lacked a distinct career objective. All of this diminished their motivation to
assume management roles and exercise leadership. Because of this lack of desire for
management positions, fewer applications and related career planning were made. This
partially explained why there weren't enough women in the top management positions.
Practical Implication
Given the current regulations and the accessibility of funding provided by the Government of
Pakistan and Higher Education Commission, the results presented here raise concerns about
universities' capacity to support women's career advancement. A few amendments to public
policy that need to be made. First and foremost, legislation is needed to protect women's right
to an education and to address their professional needs. Second, unless the Pakistani
government establishes appropriate protocols for regulating the allocation of budgets for
professional development, it is impossible to achieve equity for women in top managerial
positions.
The results of this study have added implications for future. With regard to institutional
prejudices present in universities in particular, they provide additional research directions for
examining the factors influencing women's advancement to top management.

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