Module 4

Module 4: Emotion & social
cognition
Created @May 18, 2023 4:40 PM
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Module 4: Emotions & social cognition

Chapter 10: emotions
Introduction
Emotions and social context shape our behavior and brain function. Affective neuroscience
studies the emotional aspects of the brain. Although there’s no unified theory yet, progress has
been made in understanding how emotions affect cognitive functions like attention and memory.
Introductory box: The neuroscience and neuroethics of Posttraumatic

stress disorder
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a condition that arises after experiencing a traumatic
event that elicits feelings of fear, horror, or helplessness. While about 50 percent of people will
experience a traumatic event in their lifetime, only a small percentage will develop PTSD.
Symptoms include reexperiencing the trauma, avoiding reminders of the event, numbed
responsiveness, and heightened arousal. PTSD is often accompanied by depression and
substance abuse. Structural abnormalities in the hippocampus and amygdala, such as reduced
volume, are associated with PTSD. These abnormalities are linked to memory deficits and
symptom severity. Dysfunctions in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex contribute to hyperarousal
symptoms and problems with fear reduction. Current treatments, such as cognitive-behavioral
therapies and medications, can provide relief but do not offer a cure. Researchers face challenges
in studying PTSD due to ethical concerns, as inducing trauma in the laboratory is considered
unethical. The ethical dilemmas extend to new treatments and genetic or animal studies. Striking
Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 1

a balance between understanding emotions and the risks to participants is crucial in advancing
knowledge and improving the lives of those with affective disorders.
What is emotion?
Emotions encompass conscious feelings like love and anger, but defining them solely based on
subjective experiences hinders scientific study. Researchers now consider emotions as a
combination of feelings, expressive behavior, and physiological changes. Emotions are
dispositions that help organisms respond to important events, triggering adaptive behaviors and
physiological adjustments. They are not solely dependent on self-awareness andf can be
observed in non-human animals. Emotions are influenced by the environemnt and can be
triggered by both present circumstances and past memories. They involve changes in behavior
and physiology that may not be consciously perceived but can be studied. Emotions also play a
role in social interactions and contribute to survival and species propagation. By studying
emotions in individuals, across cultures and species, researchers can explore the
neurophysiological aspects of emotions and their connection to self-reported feelings.
Psychological classification of emotions

Theories of emotions have evolved over time, and there are different psychological prspectives
on how emotions are organized and related. Categorical theories view emotions as discrete
entities, with a small set of basic emotions distinguished from more complex ones. Basic
emotions are considered innate and expressed through specific physiological patterns and facial
configurations, while complex emotions are learned and shaped by social and cultural factors.
Dimensional theories see emotions as points within a multidimensional space, with dimensions
such as arousal and valence playing a critical role, Vector models order emotions along axes of
positive and negative valence, while circumplex models organize emotions around a circle based
on arousal and valence. These models help understand the dimensional features and relationships
between emotions.
Component process theories highlight the dynamic nature of emotions, focusing on the cognitive
processes involved in appraising emotional emaning and linking appraisals to behavioral and
physiological responses. Emotions are organized in the brain based on shaped appraisal
mechanisms, which can vary across individuals, social contexts, and cultural differences.
Overall, these theories offer different perspectives on the structure, organization, and cognitive
processes underlying emotions. However, further research is needed to fully understand and
validate these theories using neuroscience methods.

Early neurobiological theories of emotion
Neurobiological research has yet to provide a definitive answer on which psychological theory
best explains how emotions are generated. Different theories propose different stages of info
processing: sensory input evaluation, conscious feeling experience, and behavioral/physiological
response expression. The James-Lange feedback theory suggests that bodily reactions generate
emotions, with specific physiological patterns associated with each emotion. The Cannon-Bard
diencephalic theory argues that the autonomic nervous system coordinates the body’s general
response to emotionally arousing situations, while emotions are processed simultaneously in the
neocortex. The Papez circuit, later refined as the limbic system theory, identifies brain regions
involved in emotional processing, but this theory has faced challenges due to lack of anatomical
coherence and the inclusion of structures primarily involved in cognition rather than emotion.
Some researchers propose decomposing the concept of emotion to identify more specific
emotion systems in the brain. Nonetheless, brain regions like the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex,
and cingulate gyrus are recognized for their emotional functions.
Box 10A: Psychophysiology and the brain-body link

Psychophysiology is a field that examines the relationship between psychological constructs, like
emotion, and measurable bodily changes. It encompasses neural, musculoskeletal, endocrine, and
immune system responses. Early emotion theorists observed the connection between emotions
and changes in internal organs regulated by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic
system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, which control fight-or-flight and
rest-and-digest functions, respectively. The enteric nervous system regulates gut functions. Skin
conductance and startle responses are useful peripheral psychophysiological indices for assessing
arousal and valence dimensions of emotions. Skin conductance measures changes in
electrodermal activity and reflects sympathetic arousal levels. Startle responses are protective
reflexes triggered by intense and unexpected stimuli. The eyeblink startle reflex is commonly
measured. Skin conductance and startle responses can be combined to provide physiological
indices of arousal and valence dimensions of emotions. These measures aid in understanding
emotions, particularly in cases where self-reporting is not feasible or reliable.
Contemporary approaches to studying the neurobiology of emotion

The passage discusses various aspects of emotion processing and the involvement of different
brain structures:

Early neurobiological theories faced methodological challenges in studyinfg the affective
function of limbic and diencephalic structures in humans
In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers focused on studying the affective functions of the
neocortex due to advancements in brain monitoring techniques
Hemispheric-asymmetry hypotheses propose that the right hemisphere is specialized for

mediating several aspects of emotion, while the left hemisphere is more involved in
language and social functions related to positive emotions
EEG studies have shown asymmetrical activity in the prefrontal cortex, with leftward
asymmetry related to positive valence and rightward asymmetry related to negative valence
The amygdala plays a crucial role in fear conditioning, receiving direct input from the
thalamus and influencing various physiological and behavioral fear responses
Vertical integration models aim to provide an integrative account of emotional processing

across different levels of the nervous system, with fear acquisition and fear modification
being key aspects
Fear acquisition involves the amygdala and its connections with the thalamus and sensory
cortex, while fear modification, such as fear extinction, depends on the ventromedial
prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)
The hippocampus is involved in contextual fear conditioning and the retention of info about
the context in which fear learning occurs
The somatic marker hypothesis suggests that emotions are associated with bodily responses,
and the interoceptive awareness of these bodily signals plays a role in decision-making and
emotional experiences
Interactions with other cognitive functions

This passages discusses the interaction between emotional processing and various cognitive
processes in the brain. It highlights how emotional stimuli can influence perception, attention,
learning, memory, and self-regulation.
Emotional influences on perception and attention:
Emotional stimuli receive priority in sensory processing over inconsequential stimuli
Fear, as a highly salient emotion, is particularly effective in capturing attention and

activating defensive reflexes

The amydgala plays a crucial role in detecting and responding to threating stimuli, even
when the person is not consciously aware of them
The amygdala also influences perception by providing feedback to sensory cortices,

particularly in visual processing, allowing emotional stimuli to reach awareness more easily
Emotional influences on memory consolidation:
Emotionally arousing events tend to enhance memory formation and consolidation
The amydgala, in conjunction with other brain regions, plays a role in modulating the
storage of emotional memories
Stress hormones like cortisol and epinephrine affect memory consolidation, reinforcing the
aspects of the emotional episode being consolidated
Administration of cortisol or induction of psychosocial stress can enhance emotional

memory retention
The beta-adrenergic blocker propranolol and amygdala lesions can selectively impair
emotional memory
Functional MRI studies show that the amydgala and medial temporal lobe regions are
functionally coupled during the encoding of emotional memories
Overall, emotions have a profound impact on cognitive processes, influencing how we perceive
and attend to the world around us and how we encode and consolidate memories.
Box 10B: Stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Stress refers to the psychological and physiological changes that occur when there is a real or
perceived threat to homeostasis. The body initiates a stress response, involving endocrine, neural,
and immunological activity, to cope with the threat and restore balance. While the stress response
evolved to handle physical threats, it is also triggered by psychosocial stressors. In the short
term, the stress response is beneficial for survival and learning, but chronic or repeated stress can
lead to various health problems. The principal stress response is mediated by the hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which involves the release of hormones to regulate physiological
changes. Glucocorticoid hormones play a key role in modulating the stress response. The HPA
axis is influenced by limbic forebrain and brainstem regions, which are also involved in the long-
term consequences of stress. Chronic stress affects different brain structures in different ways,
leading to impaired memory, fear extinction, and increased fear conditioning. Individual
differences in stress tolerance, perception, and coping mechanisms contribute to the impact of

stress on health and cognitive function. Factors such as perceived control, sex, and hormonal
influences further modulate the effects of stress. Understanding these individual differences and
their relationship to stress-induced diseases is an important area of research.
Regulation of emotion
The ability to regulate emotions is crucial for mental and physical well-being. Different
strategies can be employed to influence the intensity, duration, or quality of emotions. Cognitive-
behavioral interventions focus on training individuals to generate adaptive responses, modify
thoughts and reactions, or practice acceptance of emotions. James Gross proposed a model that
categorizes emotion regulation strategies based on their timing and target. Startegies range from
avoiding emotional situations to cognitive reappraisal, where individuals reinterpret the meaning
of an elicitor to alter its emotional impact. Reappraisal is generally beneficial, reducing
physiological arousal and facilitating memory. On the other hand, response-focused strategies
like expressive suppression, where individuals mask their facial expressions and associated
feelings, tend to be maladaptive. Neuroimaging studies have shown that cognitive reappraisal
activates the frontoparietal network and prefrontal regions, while modulating activity in emotion-
processing regions such as the amygdala and insula. Emotion regulation involves interactions
between executive control and emotion-processing regions of the brain. Understanding
individual differences in emotion regulation can shed light on regulatory abilities, responsiveness
to therapy, and resilience to psychopathology.
Chapter 11: social cognition

Introduction
Social neuroscience is a branch of cognitive neuroscience focused on understanding how
individuals perceive themselves and relate to others. It builds on the idea that emotions serve
important social functions, communicated through facial expressions, body language, and
speech. Animals, including humans, have evolved social behaviors for establishing hierarchies,
forming bonds, and defining acceptable behavior. Dysfunctional social processing, seen in
conditions like autism and antisocial personality disorder, has significant consequences. While
genetics play a role in animal social behaviors, humans are heavily influenced by culture and
social learning. Social neuroscience explores self-perception, nonverbal cues, social
categorization, theory of mind, empathy, and social competition.
Introductory box: autism

Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by deficits in
communication, social interactions, and repetitive behaviors. It affects approximately 1 in every
100 children and has a strong genetic component. Autism is distinguished by social deficits,
including impairments in nonverbal behaviors, peer relationships, sharing enjoyment, and social
reciprocity. Individuals with autism often have difficulty processing faces, emotional
expressions, and biological motion. Brain imaging studies show reduced activation in regions
associated with face processing and emotion recognition. Social impairments also extend to
difficulties in understanding others' intentions and beliefs, and failures in theory of mind tasks.
Autistic individuals may exhibit larger brain volumes in early development but tend to normalize
by late childhood. Altered connectivity among brain regions involved in social cognition,
communication, and executive functions contributes to behavioral impairments in autism.
Individuals with autism may display savant abilities in specific domains but have challenges in
integrating information across domains. Rehabilitation approaches focus on leveraging their
strengths in rule-based processing and attention to detail to improve social and emotional
competence. Increased research efforts are underway to better understand autism spectrum
disorder.
The self
The passage discusses the concept of self and self-awareness, exploring how individuals
distinguish themselves from others and engage in self-reflection. It mentions that self-awareness
is a cognitive ability that allows individuals to consider themselves as objects and subject to
objective evaluation. While animals also possess some level of self-recognition, humans have
more advanced self-awareness, which enables them to think of themselves abstractly and
symbolically. The development of culture and the importance of individuals in society have
further enhanced self-reflection in humans.
The passage also highlights the involvement of specific brain regions in self-reflection and self-
directed feelings. The default mode of brain processing, involving midline cortical regions, and
limbic/paralimbic regions associated with interoception, play a role in directing attention from
external stimuli to internal thoughts and feelings. These brainr egions are active during self-
reflection tasks and autobiographical memory retrieval
The concept of embodiment is discussed, referring to the sense of being localized within one’s
own body. Embodiment involves self-location and the ability to navigate the world based on
one’s own viewpoint. Brain regions involved in visual processing, such as the extrastriate body
area, and multisensory integration in the temporoparietal junction, contribute to body
representations and the sense of embodiment.

Overall, the passage emphasizes the importance of self-awareness, self-reflection, and
embodiment in human cognition and social interactions, and it explores the neural basis of these
processes.
Perception of social cues evident in the face and body

The passage discusses the importance of nonverbal cues in interpersonal communication,
particularly in primates. It explains how facial expressions, body language, and gestures provide
valuable info about personality, mood, and intentions of others, which can be inferred
consciously or unconsciously. The ability to decode these cues is crucial for social interactions
and can lead to social deficits when impaired, as seen in autism.
The passage them delves into the neurobiological processes involved in face perception. It
describes a model of face processing that includes a core system for analyzing facial features and
two parallel pathways: a ventral pathway for processing invariant apsects of face perception and
a dorsal pathway for processing dynamic facial features. These pathways interact and contribute
to person recogntion, emotional analysis, and intergration of facial information with other
sensory inputs.
Additionally, the pasage highlights the significance of body movements and gestures in
nonverbal communication. It explains how visual info about body parts and gestures is processed
in conjunction with face processing. The posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS) in the right
hemisphere is involved in discriminating biologically plausible body motion and meaningful
gestures. The STS also plays a role in detecting violations of expected behavior and conflicting
social cues.
The passage further explores how nonverbal cues are utilized in interpersonal attention and
action direction. It discusses social referencing, where individuals rely on others’ gestures and
expressions to determine appropriate behavior in ambiguous situations. Joint attention is also
discussed, which involves allocating attention based on cues from others. The STS is involved in
interpreting these cues and directing attention and action planning in response.
Overall, the passage emphasizes the importance of nonverbal cues in social interactions and
explains the neural mechanisms involved in perceiving and interpreting these cues.
Social categorization
The passage discusses the role of social categorization, stereotypes, and biases in human
perception and social interactions. It highlights the use of identifying features to form
impressions and categorize individuals into social groups. The resource models in social

psychology suggest that this categorization helps us make sense of the people around us,
especially considering the large size of human social networks.
The passage also explores the evolutionary perspective of social categorization, emphasizing its
important in defending territories, identifying kin, and selecting mates. However, it
acknowledges that prejudicial reactions based on stereotypes can lead to social injustice,
prompting interest in using neuroscientific approaches to understand stereotyping and social
categorization and explore ways to regulate and change these phenomena through social
interactions.
The research using Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) has identified the early neural processing
stages influenced by social category info, such as race. These ERP effects suggest that the
processing of social category info is relatively automatic and obligatory, occurring even when it
is not critical to the social context. The perception of race affects attentional orienting responses,
with greater vigilance to unfamiliar out-group members initially and a shift toward individuation
of in-group faces later.
The passage also discusses stereotypes, automatic racial biases, and their influence on
interpersonal exchanges. It explores how executive processing resources are often recruited to
control the expression of automatic negative attitudes toward out-group members. Brain imaging
studies have correlated amygdala activity with implicit racial biases, providing insight into the
neural mechanisms underlying racial attitudes and biases.
Moreover, the pasage examines the monitoring and control of racial bias. It discusses conflict
monitoring and cognitive control mechanisms in interracial scenarios, specifically focusing on
the anterior cingulate activity and prefrontal regions. The research suggests that individuals with
implicit racial biases exert greater effort in controlling their reactions to out-group members by
engaging prefrontal circuitry.
The passage briefly touches on impression formation and trustworthiness judgments based on
facial appearance. Neuroimaging studies have identified brain regions involved in social
cognition and emotional evaluation that are associated with trustworthiness judgments. The
amygdala, insula, medial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and caudate play a role in
assessing trustworthiness. First impressions of trustworthiness are formed rapidly, within 100 ms,
and are influenced by facial attractiveness, competence, and nonverbal cues such as eye gaze and
body movements.
Overall, the passage provides an overview of research on social categorization, stereotypes,

biases, and their neural correlates, shedding light on their complexities of human perception and
social interactions.

Box 11A: Measuring implicit and explicit racial attitudes
The Implicit Association Test (IAT), developed by Anthony Greenwald and colleagues, is
commonly used to measure implicit racial attitudes. Participants are shown faces of different
races along with positive and negative words and are instructed to quickly associate them by
pressing buttons. The test measures reaction time differences between conditions, reflecting
implicit biases. The IAT has good reliability and is validated using other assessments of racial
attitudes. It captures biases that may not be captured by explicit measures and can be related to
physiological indicators of automatic evaluations.
Understanding the actions and emotions of others

The passage discusses the importance of understanding social cues and linking them with
behavioral outcomes during interpersonal interactions. It explores the concept of mentalizing or
theory of mind, which involves inferring mental states in others and attributing their actions to
beliefs, goals, desires, and feelings. The debate between simulation and theory-based approaches
to mentalizing is mentioned, along with the concept of adopting an intentional stance when
interacting with others.
The discovery of mirror neurons in the macaque monkey brain is discussed, which are neurons
that fire both when performing an action and when observing the same action being performed
by others. These mirror responses are more robust for goal-directed biological actions compared
to non-goal-directed actions or mechanical actions. The existence of mirror neurons is still
debated, as human studies using brain imaging techniques have shown more distributed activity
across the motor system.
The passage also explores perspective taking and mental-state attribution, which involve
adopting the viewpoint of another person and inferring their beliefs, motives, or feelings.
Neuroimaging studies have identified brain regions involved in perspective taking, including the
medial prefrontal cortex, temporal polar cortex, inferior parietal cortex, temporoparietal junction,
and superior temporal sulcus.
The ability to understand others’ mental states, known as theory of mind, is examined in both
children and apes. False-belief tasks are used to assess theory of mind abilities, and while young
children develop false-belief attributions by around 4 years of age, autistic childrem often
struggle with these tasks. The distinction between implicit and explicit mental state
representation is discussed, with most researchers suggesting that young children and apes can
implicitly track mental states but may not explicitly represent them.

Lastly, the passage touches on empathy, which is the capacity to understand and resoinate wiuth
another person’s emotional experience. Empathy involves both automatic and controlled
processes and relies on social cognitive and emotion-processing mechanisms. The passage also
distinguishes empathy from sympathy, where sympathy involves feeling concerned or sorry for
another person without sharing their emotional experince.
Overall, the pasage explores various aspects of social cognition, including mentalizing, mirror
neurons, perspective taking, theory of mind in children and apes, and empathy.
Social competition
The passage discusses the role of competition and social hierarchies within a species. It explains
how competition among individuals in a social group influences the distribution of wealth,
resource allocation, mating opportunities, and division of labor. Leaders within the group are
responsible for defending against intruders and establishing acceptable behavior standards, with
punishment or ostracism being potential consequences for those who do not comply.
The passage also mentions that social competition and cooperation need to be balanced. It
suggests that social cooperation played a significant role in the evolution of advanced intellectual
skills in humans. The impact of social rank on physical and mental health is discussed,
emphasizing that lower socioeconomic status is associated with increased risk of various diseases
and higher mortality rates. The effects of rank on stress remain significant even when
considering other factors such as lifestyle.
The relationship between rank and stress depends on the characteristics of the culture and the
way dominance is maintained. Different species and social groups may experience varying levels
of stress depending on their hierarchical structures. Subordinates typically experience higher
stress, particularly when dominance is asserted through intimidation. However, dominant
members can also experience stress when their rank requires constant physical aggression or
during major hierarchical reorganizations.
The passage explores the physiological consequences of rank-induced stress, including

hyperactive glucocorticoid secretion, hypertension, impaired reproduction, immunosuppression,
inhibition of neurogenesis, and reduced synaptic plasticity. Chronic stress can prolong these
physical effects.
The concept of power motivation and dominance contests is also discussed. It states that
individuals who seek power and status must possess physical abilities to win dominance
competitions and a psychological motivation for exerting social influence. Dominance contests
can take various forms in humans, such as political debates, sporting events, or battles of wit.

Power motivation is associated with a preference for impacting others or the world, and it can be
implicitly measured through narrative exercises. Power motivation is linked to the release of
certain neurochemicals like epinephrine, norepinephrine, testosterone (in men), and estradiol (in
women). High levels of power motivation are related to risky behaviors, higher positions in
management, increased sexual activity, but also alcohol use and complicated domestic
relationships.
Lastly, the passage mentions the neuroendocrine markers of dominance contests. Victory is
associated with a surge in testosterone or estradiol, depending on the individual's sex, while
defeat leads to elevated cortisol levels. These effects can even extend to social observers who are
not directly participating in the competition.
Overall, the passage highlights the significance of competition, social hierarchies, and their
impact on individuals' physical and mental well-being, as well as the role of power motivation in
dominance contests.
Box 11B: Social bonds and kinship

Social signals related to mating, bonding, and kinship are important for the survival of social
groups. Primates analyze secondary sexual characteristics, such as coloration and physical traits,
to select mates. Female rhesus monkeys prefer males with redder faces, which is related to
higher testosterone levels. In mandrills, dominant males display changes in sexual characteristics
like testicular volume and reddening of the anogenital skin. These traits increase their mating
success. In species like prairie voles, mating leads to monogamous partner preferences, with
shared nests, rejection of intruders, and male involvement in parental care. Oxytocin and
vasopressin, released during mating, interact with reward circuits in the brain to reinforce sexual
preference and bond formation. Oxytocin also plays a role in social recognition, as seen in
rodents. Rats given vasopressin exhibit enhanced social recognition abilities. Oxytocin
administration in the amygdala reduces fear signaling and stress hormone release in social
contexts. Some primates distinguish kin from non-kin based on vocal characteristics, while
acoustic features of primate calls indicate social rank and physical health to group members.
Lecture 7
Emotions = set of physiological responses, action tendencies, and subjective feelings that
adaptively engage humans and other animals to react to events of biological and/or individual
significance
Classification of emotions

Basic emotions
innate
pan-cultural
evolutionary old
shared with other species
expressed by a particular physiological patterns and facial configurations
Complex emotions
learned
socially and culturally shaped
evolutionary new
most evident in humans
expressed by combinations of the response patterns that characterize basic emotions
Dimensional theories
Each emtion a point within a complex space that includes two or more continuous
dimensions
e.g. arousal
Vector model vs circumplex models
Component-process theories
Emotions are fluid (not a fixed state)
Interaction of multiple processes
relating emotions according to similarity in appraisal
Not studied with neuroscience methods much
How are emotions mediated in the brain?
in the 70s and 80s: focus on neocortex
more recently: better, more advanced imaging
thus: also deeper brain regions studied in relation to emotions

We will focus on: verical integration models
models that relate limbic system with neocortical contribution
integrated account of emotion processing across many levels of nervous system
Example: vertical integration model based on fear conditioning studies
Central: the amygdala
Measure fear output
Skin conductance response
Fear-potentiated startle
Pupil dilatation
Fear acquisition, mostly:
Amygdala
Thalamus
ACC
Fear modification
Modification of fear response is necessary over time
Fear response to stimulus that is no longer threating?
Hallmark of anxiety disorders → emotional perserveration
Fear extinction: reduction of fear response due to uncoupling of US and CS
Depends on vmPFC region (which influences amygdala)
Contextual fear conditioning (fear associated with certain place)
Also hippocampus involved
Somatic marker hypothesis
Role of emotion in decision making
vmPFC triggers reactivation of somatosensory pattern that describes the appropriate emotion
through connections to amygdala
direct: expression of the appropriate visceral response

indirect: simulating the somatosensory pattern in the insula and somatosensory cortex
By evoking these somatosensory patterns, reasoning and decision-making processes are

constrained to options that are marked as qualitatively good or bad
In this way, somatic markers serve as a heuristic rule of thumb that permits the organism to
make optimal decisions efficently, without elaborate logical weighting of the utility of
various response options
Reactivation of emotional states facilitates logical reasoning
Evidence from Iowa Gambling task
Emotions in interaction with other cognitive functions
Perception
attention
memory consolidation
Influence of emotion on perception and attention
Prioritization of processing sensory infor with emotional significance
by automatic detection of salient features
attentinal bias to process sensory features with emotional significance
Connection between emotion and vision
Amygdala receives input from late stages of visual processing
Amygdala provides feedback to all stages of the ventral visual stream
First response to threat is automatic, but further evaluation of threat stimulus done by
attentional and other cognitive functions
Various routes of amygdala influence on attentional network
release of acetylcholine from nucleus basalis of Meynert (enhances attention)
prokections to ACC, insula, vmPFC, OFC
which target dlPFC, parietal lobe, PCC
Influence of emotion on memory consolidation

Flashbulb memory: seeing memory of emotional experience with vivid details in your
mind’s eye
Memory modulation hypothesis
Amygdala enhances memory consolidation in MTL, dlPFC, vlPFC
By axonal projections
By release of hormones
Which hormones?
Norepinephrine
Cortisol
Propranolol
Emotion regulation
Situation selecion: individual changes behavioral pattern in an antecedent way to avoid the
emotional encounter altogether
Cognitive reappraisal of negative emotion: interpret meaning of elicitor such that it alterns
its emotional impact
compare decreasing negative emotions associated with negative pictures with passively
looking at the negative pictures
increased activity in dorsal frontoparietal attentional network when actively decreasing
reduced amygdala activity when decreasing negative emotions
reduced subjective report of negative affectr in decrease condition
Understanding the actions and emotions of others
How do we understand actions and emotions of others?
In humans, facilitated by mentalizing (or theory of mind)
Inferring mental states in others, attributing the actions of others to their beliefs, goals,
desires, feelings
by simulation?
or by building theories for yourself of how others typicaly behave

Intentional stance: assuming that others behave consistent with their current mental state
(possibly different from one’s own mental state
Mirror neurons
Neurons (mainly found in inferior frontal gyrus) increase activity when passively viewing
someone else’s action
Perspective taking
How to then distinguish between own actions and same action of someone else?
How to account for self-projection into past or future?
Key: ability to take perspective and distinguish first from third person perspective
Taking third-person perspective elicits activity in mPFC, paracingulate cortex, temjporal

polar cortex, inferior parietal cortex, temporoparietal junction, superior temporal sulcus
Theory of mind in apes
Preference for food not visible to dominant ape
Subordinate ape prefers the food at the place the dominant ape doesn’t know there is
Empathy, sympathy and prosocial behavior
What about the ability to resonate with someone else’s emotional state (empathy) and the
ability to understand someone else’s emotional state without sharing the emotional
experience (sympathy)?
Model of empathy, with 4 component processes
Emotion sharing
Self-awareness
Mental flexibility
Emotion regulation
Cutting edge article

Emotion enhances memory for emotional events itself and retroactively emmory for past
neutral events
Often, reward and punishments happen after the event itself

Research shows mechanisms underlying memory enhancement for emotional events itself
Autonomic reactions to emotional arousal that stimulate encoding and post-encoding

processes of emotional memory
Research shows mechanisms underlying memory enhancement for emotional events itself
Autonomic reactions to emotional arousal that stimulate encoding and post-encoding

processes of emotional memory
Research goal: examine neurobiological mechanisms of how emotional learning enhances

memory for past seemingly mundane events
Significance? Retroactive effect can lead to maladaptice generalization (PTSD, phobias)
Sensory preconditioning protocol (with trial-specific associative learning task)
Two neutral events paired (initial learning phase)
One of the neutral events paired with salient stimulus, like threat, reward (emotional
learning phase)
Integrative encoding mechanism
Newly encoded events updated into relevant episodic memory through reactivation of
overlapping neural ensembles engaged in initial and new learning
Hippocampus is integrative hub
Reactivation of hippocampus and stimulus-sensitive neocortical representations
Thus, one can reorganize memories accoridng to their future significance
Hypotheses:
Emotion-charged retroactive benefit results from increased trial-specific reactivation of

hippocampal and stimulus-sensitive neocortical representations, which enhances the
memory association between initially learnt events and promotes their integration
Emotional learning retroactively promotes memory integration for neutral events, by

acting on not only hippocampal dialogue with the amygdala and related neocortical
regions during online encoding, but also hippocampal-neocortical reorganization during
offline resting
Initial learning: neutral face-object pairs

Emotional learning: each face from initial learning paired with aversive screaming voice of
neutral voice
Surprise associative memory test for initial face-object pairs
LC: low confidence trials
HC: high condifence trials
Better memory in aversive ocndition only in high confidence trials
Pair-specific: higher similarity between trial in initial learning and emotional learning phase
when paired with aversive voice
Same effect found in superior medial frontal cortex, insula, precuneus, angular gyrus
Next: analyze interactions between brain regions using PPI analysis
Psycho-physiological interaction analysis
Use hippocampus as seed, to whole brain
Focus mainly on amygdala, FFA and LOC
Increase in hippocampal amygdala and hippocampal neocortical interaction for emotional

learning
Emotional specificity effect: emotion.charged hippocampal connectivity with stimulus-

sensitive neocortical regions positively predicts associative memory in aversive but not
neutral condition
Mediation analysis: is factor X influencing the connection between A and B?
Hippocampal-amygdala connectivity affected hippocampal-LOC connectivity through

mediating efffect of hippocampal-FFA connectivity
Could account for emotion-charged memory performance in aversive condition
With hippocampus as seed, run connectivity analysis again, but on three separate rest blocks
before and after learning phases
Compute difference between rest 2 and 1, and between rest 3 and 2
In rest: shift from connectivity towards object-sensitive regions to more widespread regions
throughout the brain

Lecture 8
Classification of emotions
Focus on how emotions are classified, to be used for analysis
The way emotions are classified shapes research on the neural bases of emotional behavior
Categorical theories
Consider each emotion as a discrete and independent entity
Basic emotions are innate, pan-cultural, and epxressed by particular physiological patterns
and facial configurations
Complex emotions are learned, socially and culturally shaped, and typically expressed by
combinations of response that characterize basic emotions
Basic emotions are well characterized in nonhuman animals, but researchers still debate
which emotions are basic
A similar core set of basic emotions is found in different taxonomies: anger, sadness,
happiness, fear, disgust, and surprise
Complex emotions are more difficult to categorize and study due to subtle and varied
expressions, and prominent cross-cultural differences
Dimensional theories
Consider emotions as points in dimensional space, with two or more continuous dimensions
Arousal: the physiological or subjective intensity of the emotion
Valence: the relative pleasantness of the emotion
Techniques are used that allow for analysis on an ordinal scale
Such as asking subjects to rate emotional reactions on 9-point valence scales that range
from “very unpleasant” to “very pleasant”

Vector model
Order emotions along axes of positive and negative valence, oriented at 90 degrees and meet
at a common neutral endpoint
EMotions are represented as vectors, where their direction and magnitude indicate their
position in multidimensional space
For example, happiness might be represented as a vector with high valence and high
arousal
Advantage of vector models
Allow for more fine-grained analysis of emotions than traditional categorical models
In these models, arousal is represented by the distance from the neutral endpoint along each
arm of the boomerang and is functinally equivalent to increases in valence
Approach (activation) and avoidance (inhibition= can be used as the axes
Supported by studies that ask participants to rate emotional properties of pictures, sounds or
memories
Circumplex model
Supported by studies in which participants rate words on ordinal scales of arousal and
valence
Order emotions around the circumference of a circle centered at the intersection of two
orthoal axes, of arousal and valence

Emotions that cluster together are taken to be similar
Tested alongside psychophysiological measures that index arousal and valence
Component process theories
Emotions exhibit dynamic and adaptable qualities
Cognitive appraisals connect emotional meaning, behavioral responses, and physiological

reactions
Similar appraisal processes relate emotions to each other
Key appraisal dimensions encompass urgency, coping ability, and goal advancement
Appraisal mechanisms differ among individuals and are influenced by cultural contexts

Fear acquisition
Defines vertical integration models
A model of emotion that integrates cortical, subcortical, and visceral processes

Basrd on studies of fear conditioning
A form of emotional learning in which fear reponses are acquired to cues that predict
the occurrence of an aversive stimulus
Conditioning responses that entail emotions can be rapid
Rodent studies
Neuroanatomy
Rats are presented with an auditory conditioned stimulus (CS) that predicts the
occurrence an unconditoned stimulus (US)
Neurophysiology
After CS-US pairings, rat exhibit physiological and behavioral changes that are adaptive
in the sense of preparing the animal to deal with impeding threat
Molecular signaling
Results indicate a state of fear and include the potentiation of startle reflexes, a
cessation of exploratory behavior, and engagement of the sympathetic flight-or-flight
response
The Amygala
Acquisition & expression of conditioned fear require integrity of amygdala
Direct input from the thalamus bypassing primary sensory cortical reception areas
Electrophyiologicsal recordings results imply mediation via the direct thalamo-amygdala

pathway
Alterations in gene expressions & protein synthesis strengthen synaptic connections to

consolidate memories of associations that elicit fear
Studies indicate activation of the rapid subcortical pathway is sufficient to evoke fear
reactions to simple stimuli
Recap

Fear modification basic principles
1. Brain’s prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) plays an important role in reducing fear responses when a
threat is no longer present
2. Brain region is damaged → takes longer for them to stop being afraid of a stimulus that is no
longer threatening
3. vmPFC is damaged → leads to difficulty understanding when a stimulus is no longer

associatd with a negative outcome
Emotional perseveration = unwarranted persistence of fear
Fear extinction = through repeated exposure to the stimulus without the negative
consequence, one learns that the meaning of the stimulus has changed, and fear responses
subside
The hippocampus
Involved in contextual fear conditioning
Hippocampal damage
Can remember the cue that predict a shock
Cannot remember details of the environment
Relevant for emotional and non-emotional learning and memory

Therefore → limbic system theory of emotion is incorrect
Experiment
Rats with damage to the dorsal hippocampus can learn to associate fears with specific
cues but fail to remmeber ands respond to the context of the fearful experience

Somatic market hypothesis
An hypothesis that attempts to explain hwo the brain and body signal affective info that is
used to guide everyday decision making
Proposed in Antonio Damasio’s Descartes’ Error
When something elicits an emotion al response from us, there are a number of brain-
based responses that occus which guide our preent and future decision-making
Argues that vmPFC contains indexes that link factual knowledge and associations of a
particular event
Somatic markers strongly influence subsequent decision making
Addresses the problem of decision-making encountered in patients with vmPFC

damage/compromised emotions
Evidence: Iowa Gambling Task (IGT)
Reactivation of emotional states facilitates logical reasoning
Without proper guidance from these states, everyday decisions can be costly
Heavily emphasizes on the role of body feedback
What are somatic markers?
Bodily sensations associated with emotions
Managed in higher brain regions; ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and amygdala
Can be positive or negative
Not necessarily sufficient for decision-making in all scenarios
The Iowa Gambling Task
Psychological task thought to simulate real-life decision making

Four decks of cards with different monetary gains or losses
Decks A and B are disadvantageous, while decks C and D are advantageous
100 training trials
Healthy subjects
Tend to stop choosing high-.risk decks and reap a monetary reward
Patients with vmPFC damage
Continue to select cards from the risky decks and lose their endowment
Compromised ability to learn from somatic marker links to risky actions, leading to
nonoptimal choices and poor decision-making abilities
Insular cortex
Key brain region for monitoring the physiological state of the organism and for storing
visceral and skeletomotor representations of emotional sttaes

The posterior-to-anterior gradient in the insula provides a pathway for homeostatic
regulation
Evidence supporting a role for the insula in body state monitoring and wareness includes
studies that correlate anterior insula activation with the ability to detect one’s wown
heartbeat
Insula damage in some patients who are smokers can even dampen internal cravings for
cigarette smoking and promote abstinence
Emotions in interaction with other cognitive functions pt 1

Perception of fear without awareness
Processing sensory information that has emotional significance takes priority
Distinction between automatic (involuntary) and voluntary detection
Fear is especially important to study because our brains need to detect threats quickly
In people with anxiety disorders, this automatic detection can be exaggerated, especially for
stimuli that are relevant to their fears or traumatic experiences
In an experiment, participants were shown images of a face projected to one eye and a house
to the other eye, creating binocular rivalry
Participants indicated on each trial whether they perceived a face of a house
The amygdala exhibited greater activity for fearful than for neutral facial expressions, even
when participants reported seeing only the house
This suggests that the amygdala can process subcortically perceived fearful facial
expressions even without conscious awareness
They suggest that the amygdala plays a crucial role in detecting and responding to fearfuls
timuli, even when they are presented briefly or subcortically

Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) can limit perceptual awareness
The attentional blink occurs when reporting of the second stimulus is impaired due to
attention being focused on the first one
Emotional stimuli can be detected more readily than neutral stimuli, even during the
attentional blink
This emotion-related improvement in performance is not found in patients with left-sided or

bilateral lesions of the amygdala
The amygdala overrides a capacity-limited perceptual encoding mechanism to allow

emotional stimuli to reach awareness more readily

Amygdala feedback loop
Amygdala has anatomical connections with sensory cortices that allow for a feedback loop
Feedback loop allows for amygdala to influence how visual information is perceived
Evidence: fMRI study of extrastriate responses to facial reactions in epileptic patients with
medial temporal lobe damage
Healthy controls & patients with damage to hippocampus showed enhanced activity in
fusiform gyrus for fearful expressions (vs neutral expressions)
Patients with amygdala lesions did not

1. Fast & automatic response
Emotional stimuli trigger automatic & neural responses
Primarily via subcortical and ventral cortical pathways that connect sensory and limbic
regions
Do not engage dorsal attentional control network - which is responsible for

cognitive functions like attention and working memory
2. Double-take
Engagement of attentional & other cognitive functions to evaluate the emotionally

significant stimulus and initiate an appropriate response
Might involve stopping what we’re doing and focusing on the emotionally significant
trigger
By engaging autonomic nervous system
Experience something emotionally significant → quick response → evaluation of stimulus
Hemineglect syndrome
When damage to one side of your brain (usually parietal lobe) results in failure to attend to/
perceive stimuli on the side of the body opposite to the damaged brain region
Patients with unilateral damage to the right parietal cortex still detect social/predatory
threats presented in the damaged hemifield

Even if the frontoparietal attentional system is impaired, attention can be reflexively drawn
to emotional stimuli
Amygdala
Amygdala does not have many directions to frontoparietal attentional control system, but
can influence indirectly
The amygdala stimulates release of acetylncholine from basal forebrain → enhances

attention in the neocortex
Project to prefrontal interfaces in:
1. Anterior cingulate cortex
2. Insula
3. Ventromedial and orbitofrontal cortices
That target other areas like
1. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC)
2. Parietal lobe
3. Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)
Feedback projections can also directly enhance attention in sensory areas
Mood regulation
Helen Mayberg (neurologist) proposes that certain brain regions balance (ventral) emotional
and (dorsal) attentional function in normal mood regulation

Anterior cingulate and related regions in the medial and orbital PFC maintain a balance
between ventral emotional and dorsal attentional functions in normal mood regulation
Patients with mood disorders (e.g. depression) have imbalanced activity patterns
Skewed to over emphasize somatic.emotional processing at the expense of cognitive-

attentional function
Hence, devote more resources to linger on negative experiences and struggle to refocus
attention on short-term behavioral goals
Recent evidence suggests that implanting stimulating electrodes that target the subgenual
portion of the anterior cingulate gyrus may help these patients restore balance across these
systems and boost their mood
Emotions in interactions with other cognitive functions pt 2

Emotional influences on memory consolidation
Salient experiences tend to leave a more lasting memory than mundane events due to their
emotional charge
“Scars on the mind” - long lasting emotional traces
Flashbulb memory - all the vivid details of an emotionally fraught episode that are
rgistered graphically in the mind’s eye
Memory modulation hypothesis
Neurobiologist James McGaugh
As an emotionally arousing experience is being consolidated in memory, epinephrine,

norepinephrine and cortisol affect the amygdala to enhance storage processes in other
regions of the brain
Amygdala - processing of emotions, especially the ones related to survival

Effects of propranolol
Propranolol, a beta-adrenergic blocker, decreases the retention of emotional memories
Participants remember fewer details of the emotional portion of the narrative
Recognition memory for neutral portions of the narrative remains relatively unaffected
Patients with amygdala lesions exhibit similar selective deficits, supporting the view that
drug effects in normal subjects may be mediated by the amygdala

fMRI studies
Emotional content results in greater brain activation during successful encoding operations
Activation is examined in the amygdala, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and ventrolateral

and dorsolateral PFC, among other regions in the brain
Activity that predicts successful recall is highly correlated between the amygdala and other
regions of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) for emotional stimuli
The amygdala and adjacent MTL memory-processing regions are functionally coupled
during the encoding of emotional items that are later remembered
Box 10B - the stress response
Perceived threat to homeostasis
Responding to stressors
Allostasis - achieving stability through change
Evolved to respond to physical threats

Adapted to psychosocial threats
Short-term vs long-term effects
Box 10B - the HPA axis
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and vasopressin (VPA) in hypothalamus
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release from pituitary into the bloodstream
Glucocorticoid steroid hormones from adrenal gland (cortisol)

Box 10B - glucocorticoids & stress
Glucocorticoids regulate the stress response and prevent further engagement of the HPA axis
They bind to 2 receptors
Mineralocorticoid
Glucocorticoid
Regions of the limbic forebrain and brainstem are also important regulators of the HPA axis

Principal targets
The nucleus of the solitary tract regulates CRF release
The amygdala promotes stress
The hippocampus promotes stress
The hippocampus and medial PFC inhibit stress
Box 10B - chronic stress
Deleterious effects of chronic stress on hippocampal volume and function associated with
low economic status
Perceived control
Stress can vary across individuals
Emotion regulation
Emotion regulation strategies
James Gross
Situation selection
Cognitive reappraisal
Excessive suppression
Neuroimaging research in cognitive reappraisal

Participants were instructed to either decrease negative emotions elicited by the presentation
of aversive pictures or to passively look at the pictures
They were able to decrease their emotions in two ways
Situation-focused reappraisal: they imagined that things got better in the depicted scene
Self-focused reappraisal: they cognitively distanced themselves from the picture by

viewing it from a detached third-person perspective
The researchers used neuroimaging to examine the brain activity of participants during this
task
Decrease of participant negative emotions → activity increased in the dorsal frontoparietal

attention network
This suggests: involvement of frontoparietal regions in implementing the cognitive

reappraisal strategy
In contrast, decreasing negative emotion → reduced activity in the amygdala → more

similar to the activity observed when passively looking at neutral pictures
This suggests: amygdala is a target of the regulatory action on emotion generation

In other words, cognitive reappraisal was successful in reducing negative emotional
responses by modulating activity in the amygdala
The amygdala and insula: responsible for processing and generating emotional responses
During cognitive reappraisal, the prefrontal cortex sends top-down signals to the amygdala
and insula → dampens activity → reduction of emotional response
The prefrontal cortex acts as a “modulator” of emotional processing
Inhibits the activity of the amygdala and insula, depending on the regulatory goal
Effectiveness of emotion regulation
Depression and psychopathology
Mental health
Change the scope
Individual differences
Responses to CBT differ
Cognitive flexibility
Working memory capacity
Executive functions
Social factors
Socially supported individuals show better emotion regulation
Cultural differences
Understanding the actions and emotions of others pt 1

History
Monkeys see, monkeys do
1992 - University of Parma
Ventral premotor cortex (P5)
Monitor interplay of muscles
Movement and emotion

Mirror neurons
Cortical activity detected by fMRI
More widely distributed throughout the motor system and superior temporal sulcus
Activity occurs also when people mime
Hard to determine whether executed and observed actions are being signaled by the same
neurons
Goal-directed actions
Non-goal directed actions
Mirror neurons are more active
Understand the other person’s intentions
Perspective taking and mental-state attribution
Adopting another’s viewpoint
Involved brain regions
Relevance in daily life

Understanding the actions and emotions of others pt 2
Theory of mind
“The ability to ascribe mental states, such as beliefs, desires and intentions, to explain,
predict, and justify behavior”
“An individual has a theory of mind if he imputes mental states to himself and others”
David Premack and Guy Woodruff
Would chimpanzees and other great apes have the capacity to represent and understand the
mental states of conspecifics in the same general way humans do?
The experiment
Results
Preference subordinate chimpanzee
Dominant chimpanzee has no idea about the food
Dominant chimpanzee has false beliefs about the location of the food
Theory of mind in kids
ToM: the ability to understand other’s mental state (beliefs, desires, intentions)
False-belief tests: children must infer another person does not possess the same knowledge

Children with ASD → difficulty with ToM
Testing theory of mind in kids
Examples: the Sally-Anne test, false-belief tasks
Empathy
Empathy is the capacity to comprehend and resonate with another’s emotional experience
A process by which emotions are shared according to the social context
Sympathy
Sympathetic reaction does not entail a sharing of emotional experience
For example: being sympathetic towards a friend’s situation without actually experiencing
that particular emotion
It is felt as the perspective of “one-caring”
Empathy during development
Reflexive crying in infants
At 2 years of age children show sympathetic concerns
Later in childhood complex form of empathy are conveyed
Empathy model
1. Emotion sharing
2. Self-awareness
3. Mental flexibility
4. Emotion regulation

Evidence: emotion-sharing component
Studies:
Ask participants to observe another individual experience an emotion-eliciting situation
Imagine their own emotional reaction to the same situation
Logic:
Concerns emotional states
Brain regions
Emotion-sharing component of empathy
Thought to represent a shared feeling state with another individual + promote a

motivation to act
Antrior Insula (AI)
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

Secondary Somatosensoy cortex (SII)
Cognitive ability to flexibly adopt the perspective of another individual
Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MFC)
Temporal pole (TP)
Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS)
Temporoparietal junction (TPJ)

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Module 4: Emotion & social

Module 4: Emotions & social cognition

Introductory box: The neuroscience and neuroethics of Posttraumatic

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 1

Psychological classification of emotions

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 2

Box 10A: Psychophysiology and the brain-body link

Contemporary approaches to studying the neurobiology of emotion

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 3

Hemispheric-asymmetry hypotheses propose that the right hemisphere is specialized for

Vertical integration models aim to provide an integrative account of emotional processing

Interactions with other cognitive functions

Emotional influences on perception and attention:

Emotional stimuli receive priority in sensory processing over inconsequential stimuli

Fear, as a highly salient emotion, is particularly effective in capturing attention and

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 4

The amygdala also influences perception by providing feedback to sensory cortices,

Emotional influences on memory consolidation:

Emotionally arousing events tend to enhance memory formation and consolidation

Administration of cortisol or induction of psychosocial stress can enhance emotional

Box 10B: Stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 5

Chapter 11: social cognition

Introductory box: autism

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 6

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 7

Perception of social cues evident in the face and body

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 8

Overall, the passage provides an overview of research on social categorization, stereotypes,

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 9

Understanding the actions and emotions of others

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 10

The passage explores the physiological consequences of rank-induced stress, including

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 11

Box 11B: Social bonds and kinship

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 12

shared with other species

expressed by a particular physiological patterns and facial configurations

socially and culturally shaped

most evident in humans

expressed by combinations of the response patterns that characterize basic emotions

Vector model vs circumplex models

Emotions are fluid (not a fixed state)

Interaction of multiple processes

relating emotions according to similarity in appraisal

Not studied with neuroscience methods much

How are emotions mediated in the brain?

in the 70s and 80s: focus on neocortex

more recently: better, more advanced imaging

thus: also deeper brain regions studied in relation to emotions

Module 4: Emotion & social cognition 13

models that relate limbic system with neocortical contribution

integrated account of emotion processing across many levels of nervous system

Example: vertical integration model based on fear conditioning studies

Central: the amygdala

Measure fear output

Skin conductance response

Fear acquisition, mostly:

Modification of fear response is necessary over time

Fear response to stimulus that is no longer threating?

Hallmark of anxiety disorders → emotional perserveration

Fear extinction: reduction of fear response due to uncoupling of US and CS

Depends on vmPFC region (which influences amygdala)