FINAL PROJECT

CAUSES OF ROAD DETERIORATION AND ITS MAINTENANCE

SYSTEM IN GHANA.

INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Countries have lost precious infrastructure worth billions of dollars through the deterioration of
their roads. Cities in the world have witnessed tremendous motorization during the recent
century since 1988. Global car population has exceeded 400 million (Walsh,1990). The reason
for this phenomenon according to Dimitriou (1991) is that in both developed and developing
countries urban transport is poorly managed. Developing countries will lose billions more roads
if immediate measures are not taken to preserve their roads. In Ghana, the cost of road
construction and maintenance consume billions of dollars (Amoako-Atta,2017). The minister
said this in a report presented to parliament. The finance minister (Ken Ofori-Atta, 2020) also
reiterated the billions of dollars spent on roads in the country.

Road deterioration is very common in developing countries. Keeping roads in good condition is
the most cost-effective way to save Ghana’s Highways. The accurate prediction of rutting
development is an essential element for the efficient management of pavement systems. Okikbo
(2012) refers to road defects as the visible evidence of an undesirable condition in the pavement
affecting serviceability, structural condition or appearance. In addition to that, he indicated that
defects that most often cause injuries to people or damage to vehicles include; inadequate road
shoulders, uneven lanes, uneven pavement, improperly marked signs, malfunctioning stop lights,
construction negligence and municipal negligence.

Kaare, Kuhi and Koppel (2012) emphasized that flexible pavements deteriorate under traffic
loads and climate effects. This effect depends on the technology and the materials of the road,
but the greatest effect depends on traffic loads and volumes.

In addition, Transport Canada (2005) indicated that climate factors are a major cause for
pavement deterioration. It is a fact that temperature, frost and thaw action as well as moisture are
factors that can cause certain types of pavement deterioration.
Abdulkareem and Adeoti (2004) examined the method of road maintenance in Nigeria. To do so,
they defined and analyzed the causes of structural failure of highway pavement and suggest some
factors; action of weather, rain and heat, unstable ground condition and poor drainage, poor
construction materials and methods and post construction activities like digging along the roads.

Harischandra (2004) found potholes, cracks, edge defects, depressions and corrugation are
significant road defects observed in the field. As well as he emphasized that traffic, road
geometry weather and construction materials, maintenance policy play the major role as road
deteriorate agents.

However, it is clear that highway pavement globally deteriorates for a number of reasons and
factors indicated above. Ghana’s highway is no exception and may deteriorate due to these
reasons. Therefore, understanding the causes for highway pavement failure is important and a
step towards minimizing pavement cracks and deterioration.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Ghana, as a developing country, is facing a lot of rapid urbanization issues in its major cities.
The city of Accra in the past few years is growing past its boundaries due to the fact that people
are migrating from the rural areas of Ghana into the urban areas in search of job opportunities
and better living condition Roads are one of the major assets of the country. Road network
infrastructure provides economic and social benefits for the people, companies and industries. It
enables goods and services to be delivered timeously and effectively as well as enhance free
movement of people. According to the European Union Road Federation (2009), road
maintenance is essential short-term transport policy that requires the attention of government and
other stakeholders because it enhances road safety and improves social welfare of the citizenry.
Timely maintenance improves road condition, reduces road deterioration, vehicle operating cost,
provides safety, keeps road services continuously and enhances environmental conditions
(Robinson et al., 1998)”
According to Zietlow and Bull (1999) regular and routine maintenance for a road for its entire
life span ranges between 2% or 3% of the initial capital invested However, this can increase
astronomically if regular maintenance is not followed. For example, Harral and Faiz (1988)
underscored that regular road maintenance expenditures of $12 billion in Africa could save road
reconstruction costs of $ 45 billion over a decade”
In Ghana, it is widely believed that the pre-occupation of government has been largely on road
construction with little concern for its maintenance (Boamah, 2010). As road networks are
broadened and existing roads age, the focus is now shifting from construction towards
maintenance Compared with construction, road maintenance usually proves to be more difficult
to do.
In Ghana, high percentage of roads including urban roads are described as bad or in a poor state
according to the Hon Amoako Atta, Minister for Roads and Highways In 2017, the Minister
indicated that there exist about 72,000 kilometres of roads in Ghana of which 23% are asphalted,
39% in good condition and 61% are classified as poor (Amoako-Atta, 2017). In Ghana, the
maintenance regime across sectors is generally very poor and road sector is not an exception.
Roads in Ghana have been observed to be in poor condition causing havoc to road users. This is
mainly due to poor road maintenance according to the Urban Roads Department of the Accra
Municipal Assembly (2019), they prepare annual and progress reports on road works and do
develop budget for road maintenance within their catchment area. If this is the case, then what is
the main cause of road deterioration and its maintenance within the Municipal Assemblies. This
study therefore aims to examine the causes of road deterioration and its maintenance system in
Ghana.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

The general objective is to assess the causes of frequent deuteriation of roads and asses various
maintenance system in Ghana.

 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

The specific objectives of this study are to:

1. Identify the major factors that causes roads deterioration in highway;

2. Assess the road maintenance practice;
3. Evaluate the satisfaction of maintained road users and recommend intervention
measures to minimize the frequent failure factors for maintained roads.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 What are the major causes of frequent failures of paved roads in Ghana?

 How often should pavement roads maintenance be carried out?

 Do the road maintenances practice follow the Ghana highway Authority standards?

 How does Ghana highway evaluate the satisfaction of road users?

PROJECT STRUCTURE
Generally, this research consists of five chapters; Chapter One dealt with the proposal for
identifying and defining the problems and setting up of the objectives of the study. Chapter Two
concentrated on literature review and Chapter Three dealt with materials acquisition and
methodology and Chapter Four focused on generated results and discussions. Lastly, Chapter
Five incorporated conclusions and recommendations stated below
CHAPTER TWO

THE COUNTRY’S DEVELOPMENT AND ROAD MAINTENANCE.

According to World Bank (1990), in road monitoring for maintenance management manual;
Road transport in developing countries is an important sector of economic activity and
investment, and functions as a catalyst to the overall economic and social development process.
In particular, rural road accessibility is one of the key elements of small-holder development;
most developing countries have agriculturally-based economies and road transport plays
therefore an essential role in marketing agricultural (village) production. Road infrastructure is
likewise important for providing access to health, education and agricultural extension services
as well as the distribution of agricultural inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides.

Road maintenance is important because it sustains the quality and safety of the road in a
condition close to the original design, and minimizes the road user costs. It is also cheaper to
regularly maintain a road in whole life cost terms, than to endure an ongoing cycle of un-
managed deterioration and reconstruction. The impacts of inadequate maintenance can be felt
immediately on the safety of the road and on vehicle performance.

Different scholars have studied on road maintenance cost as part of savings in the cost of

preservation of national, investment on roads, substantial reduction in vehicle operating cost and

other road User ‘s benefits, other economic benefits of road maintenance that enhances national

development are as follows, according to (Abdul Kareem and Adeoti, 2010):

 Employment Creation: All road maintenance agencies create employment opportunities

for various categories of citizens and help in poverty eradication.
 Agricultural Production: Past and present efforts in rural road maintenance are focused
on improved agricultural production and creation of links between rural and urban areas
for free movement of agricultural products.
 Industrial Development: The level of industrialization in any economy depends largely
on the condition of its road network. This is why governments continued to pay great
attention to road development and maintenance, as a catalyst for industrial growth.
  Manpower Development: The acquisition of technical skill in road maintenance by
engineers and technologists through the various road maintenance agencies will assist a
nation in its drive towards technological independence.

ROAD NETWORK CONDITION IN GHANA

The road network in Ghana can be considered good, especially trunk roads which link main
cities, towns and villages. Road transport is already significant to Ghana’s economy as it is the
most widely available form of transport in the country. It links agricultural production areas with
local, regional and national markets and it carries in excess of 97% of all passenger and freight
traffic in Ghana. The 209 km Oti Damanko-Nakpanduri Road, expected to be completed by
October, 2016, is being jointly financed by the Brazilian Government and the Government of
Ghana, with an amount of $240 million and $50 million respectively, bringing the total contract
sum to $290 million. The project, when completed, will enhance economic activities between the
Volta and Northern regions, improve the standard of living of the people and contribute to
government’s efforts at bringing development to the northern sector of the country.
Rehabilitation and capacity increasing works of the 15 km long Awoshie to Pokuase road axis
will include construction of 2-2 and 2-3 lanes. The Walewale-Gambaga, Yendi-Gushiegu and the
eastern corridor are among road projects under construction in the Northern Region. 
  Distances from Capital City to Major Towns (km)

Cape
  Accra Bolgatanga Ho Koforidua Kumasi Sunyani Takoradi Wa
Coast

Accra   815 145 156 85 272 403 229 721

Bolgatang
815   765 567 742 543 588 823 275
a

Cape
145 765   317 216 272 353 84 710
Coast

Ho 156 567 317   135 336 515 388 720

Koforidua 85 742 216 135   200 330 283 688

Kumasi 272 543 272 336 200   130 305 444

Sunyani 403 588 353 515 330 130   436 375

Takoradi 229 823 84 388 283 305 436   752

Wa 721 275 710 720 688 444 375 752  

Roads in Ghana form a network of varied quality and capacity. Responsibility for the road
network differs between trunk and non-trunk routes. Trunk roads, which are the most important
roads, are administered by the Ghana Highway Authority, which was established in 1974 to
develop the trunk road network. Ghana's 13,367 km of trunk roads accounts for 33% of the total
road network of 40,186 km. The Department of Feeder Roads is responsible for the construction
and maintenance of feeder roads in Ghana, while responsibility for urban roads lies with the
Department of Urban Roads. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Ashanti Empire constructed a
complex network of roads to link Kumasi with their territories in modern Ghana. For John
Thornton, these roads improved transportation across the region by the 19th century.
Road distances are shown in kilometers and Ghana speed limits are indicated in kilometers per
hour (km/h). Generally, speed limits range from 30 to 50 km/h (20 to 30 mph) in urban areas, 80
km/h (50 mph) on Regional and Inter-Regional highways (R and IR routes), 90 km/h (55 mph)
on National highways (N routes) and 100 km/h (60 mph) on motorways.

NATIONAL ROUTES

National routes in Ghana are a class of roads and highways that form the trunk routes between
major urban centers. Together, they form the backbone of the road system. This category of
roads is designated with the letter N followed by a number indicating the specific route. Odd-
numbered routes run east to west, while even-numbered routes run north to south.

Length Length
Number Route
(km) (mi)

Elubo (N12) - Mpataba (R19) - Esiama (R88) - Abra (R86)

- Agona (R84) - Sekondi-Takoradi - Cape Coast (R82)
- Yamoransa (N8) - Saltpond (R80) - Mankessim (IR1) -
Apam Junction (R62) - Ojobi Junction(R17)
 N1 540 340
- Winneba (IR2) - Nyanyano(R15) - Accra (N6) - Tetteh
Quarshie Interchange, Accra (N4), Dawhenya (R13) - Sege
(R18) - Kase (R11) - Dabala (R16) - Akatsi (R12, R14) -
Denu (R11) - Aflao

Tema (N1) - Asikuma - Kpong (N3) - Adomi (N5) - Have- 640 400

 N2
Etoe (R26) - Fume (R28) - Golokwati (IR7) - Hohoe (R10) -
Jasikan (R23) - Kadjebi (R25) - Nkwanta (R27) - Nakpayili
(R202) - Bimbila (R29) - Pusuga (N9)
- Yendi (R201, R204) - Sakpeigu (N14) - Gushiegu
(R107, R110) - Nyakpanduri (IR11) - Bawku (N11)
 - Kulungugu

Kpong (N2) - Somanya (R30) - Oterkpalu (IR3)

 N3 40 25
- Koforidua (R42)

Accra (N1) - Adenta (R40) - Mamfe (R22)

 N4 110 68
- Koforidua (R42) - Asokore (R41) - Bunso (N6, R32)

 N5 Adome (N2) - Juapong - Ho (R10, R26, R55) 40 25

Accra (N1) - Nsawam (IR1) - Suhum (R41) - Apedwa (R60)

- Bunso (N4) - Anyinam (R61) - Nkawkaw (IR3) - Juaso
 N6 250 160
(IR2) - Konongo (R76) - Bomfa (R87) - Ejisu (R104)
- Kumasi (IR4, IR5, N10, R108, R52)

 N7 Sawla (N12) - Larabanga - Fufulsu (N10) 140 87

Yamoransa (N1) - Dunkwa - Fomena - Bekwai

 N8 170 110
- Kumasi (N6, N10)

 N9 Tamale (N10) - Jimle - Yendi (N2) 100 62

Kumasi (N6, N8)- Techiman - Tamale (N9)
 N10 610 380
- Bolgatanga (N11) - Paga
  N11 Bolgatanga (N10) - Zebilla - Bawku (N2) - Bimpiela 100 62

Elubo (N1) - Enchi - Sunyani - Bamboi - Wa - Lawra -

 N12 670 420
Hamile

 N13 Lawra - Tumu - Navrongo 180 110

 N14 Sakpeigu - Cheperoni - Yawgu 120 75

 N16 Tumu - Kapulima 20 12

 N18 Wa - Heng 79 49

EXISTING AND NEW PAVED ROAD NETWORK CONDITION(GHANA)

The approximately 14,000 km of trunk roads in the country have been classified functionally as
primary, major secondary, and minor secondary roads. The classification is not based on traffic
but the long-term function the road is expected to perform. Primary roads link up regional
capitals, major population centers, and Ghana itself to neighboring countries. They are also
corridors for large movement and long-distance journeys. Secondary roads on the other hand,
serve as collectors between the feeder roads and the primary system and provide regional
cohesion.

ROAD DETERIORATION

Roads deteriorate over time, mainly as a result of water and traffic. Water can cause
deterioration of the road surface, shoulder and the road base, as well as damage to the physical
road structures. This happens either through erosion, whereby the road material is washed away
and physical structures are undermined, or through stagnation, whereby the road and the base of
the physical structures are weakened under the influence of water. Traffic also causes
deterioration of the road through the loss of surface material and the deformation of the road
surface by vehicle tyres, resulting in the road base becoming exposed and leading to ruts,
potholes and corrugations. These two causes of road deterioration tend to aggravate each other,
as a road weakened by water is more susceptible to damage by vehicles, whilst road deformation
by vehicles can prevent the water from flowing safely away from the road, resulting in increased
erosion and water stagnation.

Road deterioration is generally slow at first and not very visible, taking the form of wear and tear
and minor damage to the road surface and the drainage system, Proper maintenance may not be
carried out as a result road starts to deteriorate from a very good to a fair condition. Once the
road deteriorates to a fair condition, the deterioration tends to accelerate as the road base and the
foundations of the physical road structures start to become affected. This is especially due to
water, which no longer flows safely away from the road as a result of deformation of the road
camber and damage to the drainage system. The water causes damage through erosion or
remains on the road and weakens it, resulting in greater damage being caused by vehicles.
During this situation, the damage to the road quickly spreads, causing longer travel times and
more damage to vehicles, until the entire road can be said to be in poor condition. As the road
condition becomes very poor, fewer and fewer vehicles use the road until traffic and transport
cease altogether when the road is no longer motorable.

ROAD MAINTENANCE

The condition of the road can be improved by carrying out corrective maintenance activities.
Repairs are made to the road surface and shoulder, the drainage system and the other physical
road structures. The improved road condition generally results in lower travel times and travel
costs, and a decrease in the speed of road deterioration as the deterioration process starts from
scratch. The more deteriorated the road is, the more intensive and costly the repairs will be. For
instance, corrective maintenance activities when the road is still in good or fair condition may
entail patching potholes, grading of the road surface and minor repairs to the drainage system
and other road structures, whereas corrective maintenance activities carried out once the road is
already in poor condition are likely to entail complete reshaping and resurfacing of large
stretches of road and possible replacement of drainage and other structures. The distance from
the black line indicating the road condition, to the desired good or very good condition of the
road is therefore indicative of the level of corrective maintenance activities required, and of the
cost of such repairs. Corrective maintenance activities need to be carried out repeatedly.
Although maintenance carried out when the road is still in good to fair condition will have to be
repeated more frequently, this results in lower overall maintenance costs and better overall road
conditions than waiting till the road has deteriorated to a poor condition. Apart from corrective
maintenance activities once the road has already deteriorated, it is possible to carry out
preventive maintenance activities aimed at slowing down the deterioration of the road. Such
preventive maintenance activities are often carried out on a continuous basis and consist
primarily of clearing activities aimed at preventing damage to the road, but also include minor
repairs to the road surface and road structures in order to prevent more serious damage from
occurring. As a result of such preventive maintenance activities, the deterioration of the road is
slowed down considerably, Consequently, corrective maintenance activities are required less
frequently leading to reduced overall maintenance costs. In addition, the road remains in better
condition, resulting in lower travel times and road user costs. The additional costs of such
continuous preventive maintenance activities are more than compensated by the cost savings as a
result of the decreased need for costly corrective maintenance activities.

MAINTENANCE TYPES

Several types of maintenance are distinguished in Ghana. A definition of the different

maintenance types is given below.

 Routine maintenance refers to small maintenance works to be carried out in all seasons
on all roads on a regular basis, comprising simple categories of maintenance works.
Routine maintenance involves the cleaning and clearing of different road elements to
ensure that they work properly and that damage to the road is avoided.
 Recurrent maintenance refers to small maintenance works not falling under routine
maintenance that are carried out a few times a year in all roads to repair minor damage
resulting from traffic and rainfall. Recurrent maintenance involves minor repairs to the
road surface and other road elements to bring them back to their proper condition.
 Specific maintenance refers to all the spot improvements and repairs that do not occur
every year or in every road, and which are very specific in nature and location. This
involves localized repairs and improvements to the road to ensure the proper functioning
of the different road elements and reduce the need for routine and recurrent maintenance.
 Periodic maintenance refers to maintenance works that are to be carried out in
intervals of years, that are of large-scale, and that are aimed at preserving the structural
 integrity of the road. This mainly involves activities aimed at rejuvenating the road
surface and carrying out repairs over long stretches of road. The pavement comprises
earthen, gravel and blacktopped surfaces. In earthen road periodic maintenance includes
grading and reshaping of pavement with some localized repairs (retaining structures,
pipe culvert and slab culvert, dry stone pitching, repair of drain, creation of earthen
drain, traffic furniture) within interval of 2 to 3 years. Similarly, in gravel surface
periodic maintenance includes re-gravelling with some localized repairs (retaining
structures, pipe culvert and slab culvert, dry stone pitching, creation of drain, repair of
drain, and traffic furniture within interval of 3 years. In case of black topped road,
periodic maintenance includes surface dressing, patch repair with sand seal, asphalt
overlays within interval of 5 to 7 years.
 Emergency maintenance refers to works that are to be carried out due to unexpected
and sudden blockage of roads due to natural disasters that stops vehicular movement.
The aim of emergency maintenance is to quickly reopen the road, reinstate vehicular
movement and protect the road from further damage. Reinstating the damaged road to its
original condition after completion of emergency maintenance works is not included
under emergency maintenance.

CAUSES OF THE FAILURES OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

Deterioration of highway pavement is a very serious problem that causes unnecessary delay
in traffic flow, distorts pavement aesthetics, damages of vehicle and most significantly,
causes road traffic accident that had resulted into loss of lives and properties. Pavement
surface deformation affects the safety and riding quality on the pavement as it may lead to
premature failures.

A variety of factors contribute to pavement deterioration were investigated by many

researchers. They include poor design, construction and maintenance, use of low quality
construction materials, poor workmanship and poor supervision of construction work and
the applying of heavy traffic that were not meant for the road. Furthermore, it also suggested
that the following will lead to road failure; poor highway facilities, no knowledge base, in
adequate sanction for highway failure, no local standard of practice, poor laboratory and in-
situ tests on soil and weak local professional bodies in highway design, construction and
 management. The most significant road defects observed in the field are potholes, cracks,
edge defects, depressions and corrugation. At the same time its emphasized that traffic
overloading, pavement age, road geometry, weather, drainage, construction quality as well
as construction materials, maintenance policy play the major role as road deteriorate agents.
However, understanding the causes for pavement deterioration failures is essential step
towards minimizing risks to have good road performance. An intensive literature of the
major factors that may lead to pavement deterioration will be reviewed in the following
sections.

 Heavy Traffic

Traffic is the most important factor influencing pavement performance. The performance of
pavements is mostly influenced by the loading magnitude, configuration and the number of load
repetitions by heavy vehicles. The damage caused per pass to a pavement by an axle is defined
relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle load, which is defined as an 80 kN single axle
load (E80). Thus, a pavement is designed to withstand a certain number of standard axle load
repetitions (E80’s) that will result in a certain terminal condition of deterioration. one of the
defects caused by heavy traffic on the road is the deformation of the pavement surface due to
overloading that is more than the design load. As stated by Croney and Croney that deterioration
of pavements arises from deformation generally associated with cracking under heavy
commercial vehicles. The increased traffic loading will then cause failures such as cracks and
depressions on the pavement.

Road surfaces often wear under the action of traffic, particularly during the very early life of the
road. However, the action of traffic continues to wear the surface texture and thus gradually
reduces the high-speed skidding resistance. Nowadays, the rate of traffic accident on roads due to
the nature of the road is alarming. This indicates that the defects most often cause injuries to
people and damage to vehicles include inadequate road shoulders, pavement surface that is
uneven, improperly marked signs, malfunctioning stop lights, construction negligence, and
municipal negligence. Traffic volume and size (especially for overloading) contributes to road
safety and conditions. Recognizing of vehicles' uses and applications (industrial transportations)
is the key for decreasing road deterioration.

 Climatic Changes
Climatic factors include rainfall and annual variations in temperature are an important
consideration in pavement deterioration. Rainfall has a significant influence on the stability and
strength of the pavement layers because it affects the moisture content of the subgrade soil. The
effect of rain on road pavements can be destructive and detrimental as most pavements are
designed based on a certain period of rainfall data. In addition, rainfall is well established as a
factor affecting the elevation of the water table, the intensity of erosion, and pumping and
infiltration. Long periods of rainfall of low intensity can be more adverse than short periods of
high intensity because the amount of moisture absorbed by the soil is greater under the former
conditions.

Once water has entered a road pavement, the damage initially is caused by hydraulic pressure.
Vehicles passing over the road pavement impart considerable sudden pressure on the water, this
pressure forces the water further into the road fabric and breaks it up. This process can be very
rapid once it begins. When vehicles pass over the weak spot, the pavement will start to crack and
soon the crack generates several cracks. Water will then enter the surface voids, cracks and
failure areas. This can weaken the structural capacity of the pavement causing existing cracks to
widen. Rainfall can alter moisture balances and influence pavement deterioration while the
temperature changes can affect the aging of bitumen resulting in an increase in embrittlement of
the bitumen which causes the surface to crack, with a consequent loss of waterproofing of the
surface seal.

 Poor drainage

The highway drainage system includes the pavement and the water handling system which
includes pavement surface, shoulders, drains and culverts. These elements of the drainage system
must be properly designed, built, and maintained. When a road fails, inadequate drainage often is
a major factor. Poor design can direct water back onto the road or keep it from draining away.
Too much water remaining on the surface combine with traffic action may cause potholes, cracks
and pavement failure. The effect of poor drainage on road pavement condition and found that the
increase in moisture content decreases the strength of the pavement. Therefore, poor drainage
causes the premature failure of the pavement. Moisture damage in asphalt pavements is due to
the poor drainage the loss of strength and durability due to the effects of water is caused by loss
of cohesion (strength) of the asphalt film, failure of the adhesion (bond) between the aggregate
and asphalt, and degradation of the aggregate particles subjected to freezing. Moisture damage
generally starts at the bottom of an asphalt layer or at the interface of two asphalt layers.
Eventually, localized potholes are formed or the pavement ravels or ruts. Surface raveling or a
loss of surface aggregate can also occur, especially with chip seals. Occasionally, binder from
within the pavement will migrate to the pavement surface resulting in flushing or bleeding.

 Construction with low quality materials

The use of low-quality materials for construction adversely affects the performance of the road.
This sometimes occurs in the form of the improper grading of aggregates for base or subbase and
poor subgrade soil of low bearing strength. The use of marginal or substandard base materials for
pavement construction will affect pavement performance. materials may accelerate deterioration
of the pavement and often result in rutting, cracking, shoving, raveling, aggregate abrasion, low
skid resistance, low strength, shortened service life, or some combination of these problems.

The materials used as subbase have the geotechnical properties below the specification and this
is likely to be responsible for the road failure. The base materials with high fines content are
susceptible to loss of strength and load supporting capability upon wetting. However, marginal
base materials often lead to distress and can lead to premature failure in the form of severe
shrinkage cracking followed by accelerated fatigue cracking and a general loss of stability.
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. The research design for this study will be descriptive and analytical in nature. The
research will focus on the identifying the causes of road deterioration in Ghana and
analyzing the maintenance system in place to address the issue.

DATA COLLECTION
2. The primary data for the study will be collected through survey questionnaire. The
questionnaire will be designed to gather information from road users, transport operators,
road maintenance agencies and government officials responsible for road infrastructure.
Secondary data will also be collected from relevant literature such as journals, books,
reports and online sources.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
3. The study will use stratified random sampling technique to select respondents for the
survey. The population will be stratified into different groups such as road users,
transport operators, road maintenance agencies and government officials. A sample size
of 6 respondents will be selected from each group using a random sampling technique.

DATA ANALYSIS
4. The data collected will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical
techniques. Descriptive statistics such as mean, median and mode will be used to
summarize the data. Inferential statistics such as regression analysis and correlation
analysis will be used to test the relationship between variables.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
5. The research will adhere to ethical principles such as informed consent, confidentiality
anonymity of respondents. Participants will be informed about the purpose of the study
and their right to withdraw from the study at any time. The data collected will be kept
confidential and anonymous.

LIMITATIONS
6. The study may face limitations such as response bias, sample size and generalizability of
findings. To minimize response bias, the questionnaire will be designed to be simple and
easy to understand. The sample size may also limit the generalizability of findings to the
entire population. To address this limitation the study will use a representative sample of
the population.