Coping With Limits For Very High Penetrations of Renewable Energy

527
Coping with Limits for Very High

Penetrations of Renewable Energy
Working Group
C1/C2/C6.18
February 2013
COPING WITH
LIMITS FOR VERY
HIGH
PENETRATIONS OF
RENEWABLE
ENERGY
Joint Working Group C1/C2/C6.18
Coping with Limits for Very High Penetrations of Renewable Energy
Members
J. O’Sullivan (IE) and K. Staschus (DE), Convenors, F. Groome, Secretary (IE),
D. Jacobson (CA), M. Piekutowski (AU), H.Holttinen (FI), J. Smith (US), J.Duval (FR), D. Brooks (US),
M. Power (IE), C. Gonzalez (ES), B. Weise (DE), M. Negnevitsky (AU), B. Cova (IT), B. Stojkovska
(GB), P. Ravelli (AU), D. Quadflieg (DE), G. Kjolle, (NO), Q. Liu (CN), R. Jesus (ES) and M. Kleimaier
(DE).
Copyright © 2013
“Ownership of a CIGRE publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only infers right
of use for personal purposes. Are prohibited, except if explicitly agreed by CIGRE, total or partial
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circulation on any intranet or other company network is forbidden”.
Disclaimer notice
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-220-3
Page 1
Acknowledgements

The Joint Working Group (JWG) had 17 WebEx meetings through 2010, 2011 and 2012 and held two face-to-face
meeting in Paris at the annual CIGRE conference in August 2010.
The convenors would like to thank all active members of this JWG for the fruitful discussions during the meetings
and via e-mail, as well as for preparing their contributions for this report. Special thanks go to the members which
have taken responsibility for editing the different sections, without whose effort and assistance the task for the
convenors, as well as for the secretary, would have been that bit more difficult.
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Abbreviations

The following abbreviations have been used in this Technical Brochure :
American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA)
Distribution System Operators (DSO)
Electric Vehicles (EVs)
Independent System Operators (ISO)
International Energy Agency (IEA)
Regional Transmission Operators (RT0)
Renewable Energy Sources (RES)
Synchronous Renewable (SR)
Transmission System Operators (TSO)
Variable Non-Synchronous Renewable (VNSR)
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Coping with Limits for Very High

Penetrations of Renewable Energy
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LARGE HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRIC
SYSTEMS/CONFÉRENCE INTERNATIONALE DES GRANDS RÉSEAUX
ÉLECTRIQUES A HAUTE TENSION
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 6
Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Methodology and Questionnaire Review................................................................................12
Chapter 2. The Global Context ..........................................................................................................14
2.1 Regional Trends............................................................................................................................15
2.2 European Union ............................................................................................................................15
2.3 North America (USA and Canada)...........................................................................................16
2.4 China ..............................................................................................................................................19
Chapter 3. Impact of Increasing VNSR Generation........................................................................20
3.1 Network Infrastructure ................................................................................................................20
3.2 Control Capabilities ....................................................................................................................21
3.3 Control Strategies........................................................................................................................24
Chapter 4. Discussion and Findings ....................................................................................................29
Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................................32
Bibliography/References .....................................................................................................................33
Annex .......................................................................................................................................................34
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Renewable Energy Sources (RES) will play an increasingly important role in electricity power systems across the
world in the coming years. The majority of this is expected to be from Variable Non-Synchronous Renewable
(VNSR) generation sources.1 This change will impact on the operation methods for power system operators
significantly. Against this backdrop, the CIGRE Joint Working Group C1/C2/C6.18 set out to examine the impact
and assess the readiness of industry to cope with high levels of renewable penetration. Experts from across the
world (in the countries listed above) worked together over the last two and a half years to investigate this question.
The findings from the research undertaken by the Joint Working Group (JWG) are based on an analysis of a survey
issued to CIGRE members and include additional discussions of the JWG. The following high level summary can
be drawn from this research:
Observation 1 – Context
Over the next 10 years, significant volumes of VNSR generation are expected to come on stream across the world.
These levels range well over 25 percent of average annual consumption from VSNR in many countries, such as in
Spain (26 percent), Germany (27 percent), Denmark (32 percent) and Ireland (37 percent). When distinct
synchronous areas are considered, it shows that all areas are attempting to reach significant average targets:
ENTSO-E Nordic (18 percent), ENTSO-ECE (22 percent), Great Britain (25 percent) and Ireland and Northern
Ireland (37 percent). Indeed, most of the synchronous systems surveyed can be considered to be aiming for high
penetrations of VNSR.
Observation 2 – Increasing Operational Scheduling and Dispatch Challenges
The survey indicates that dispatch and ramping capabilities of new and existing conventional plants will need to
increase along with higher levels of VNSR. In addition, at high levels of VNSR there is a need for the ancillary
services to be provided by the VNSR.
Observation 3 – Development of New Dispatch Paradigms
The survey indicates that new operational strategies for high VNSR may be required. Several TSO’s are examining
these.
Observation 4 – Forecasting
Forecasting is a key requirement for all penetration levels of VNSR. The accuracy of these forecasts, particularly at
higher VNSR penetration levels, will materially impact the efficient operation of the power system. Significant effort
is being expended to ensure these forecasts are as accurate as possible.
Observation 5 – Voltage Stability, Transient Stability, Inertia, and Fault Levels
The survey indicates that there has not been significant study of the fundamentally changing nature of a power
system with higher penetration of non-synchronous generation. However, where it has been studied in detail, it was
found that these characteristics present the binding limiting factor for high penetrations of VNSR.
Observation 6 - Network Design and Build
There is a clear consensus that for medium and high levels of VNSR, additional grid infrastructure will be required.
There is also some suggestion that the techniques and criteria used to determine the network may need to change
to identify a more efficient network structure.
Observation 7 – Governance
1
It is important to note that Variable Synchronous Generation is also playing key part of the evolving generation portfolio mix in
many countries too - see Spain for example.
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Increased interconnection between systems can cause issues for neighbouring systems due to their performance
or non-performance. There is a need for greater information sharing and transparency to begin to address this.
Observation 8 – Grid Code Requirements, Practice and Enforcement
The standards that generators are required to meet are important for the long term development of the power
system. A strong theme emerged from the survey that to successfully achieve high penetrations of VNSR, the
capabilities of all generation will need to be improved, including ramping capability and other ancillary services
(such as reserve, reactive power and fault ride through). Credible enforcement of the existing standards appears
problematical at best and needs to be addressed in a comprehensive manner going forward.
Observation 9 – Long Term Signals for Portfolio Mix
With the new operational policies it is expected that VNSR will be required to produce energy and ancillary
services. In addition, existing conventional plants will be operated in modes that are likely to increase wear and
tear, and thus require greater flexibility. The long term commercial signals for the appropriate investment will be a
critical success factor in achieving this.
Observation 10 – Ancillary Services
There is a clear signal that ancillary services will play an increasing role in the secure operation of the future power
systems worldwide. The level of ancillary services needed, and ultimately portfolio performance, will vary from
system to system and synchronous region to region.
Observation 11 – Storage
While the survey results do not support this observation, the JWG believe that there may be benefit in the large-
scale deployment of storage devices to manage increased variability and uncertainty with some forms of RES.
However, the deployment of these technologies should at least be based on an objective economic analysis, as
there is no evidence at this time that storage is necessarily the most economic in this regard.
Observation 12 – Working Group Discussion of Findings
In the final meeting of the JWG, it was noted that a number of issues were beginning to emerge since the JWG
survey was issued in early 2010. Some of the issues that have not been covered in this survey, but were felt to be
of some relevance were:
• Offshore wind parks are becoming more prevalent. This is likely to lead to the development of significant
HVDC grids. The control and interaction of these grids with the power systems is an area that would benefit
from future studies.
• Challenges are emerging in the connection of non-synchronous generation in relatively weak parts of
electricity networks. This is increasing the need for detailed three phase Electromagnetic transients’
studies.
• The evolution of energy markets will be a critical success factor. There is evidence that markets, originally
designed to accommodate conventional low capital cost and high marginal cost generation, are
experiencing challenges to incentivise build of VNSR in the absence of support mechanisms.
Summary of Recommendations
Based on an analysis of the survey results, the following is a set of recommendations that power system operators
should undertake to enhance system readiness to cater for this change:
• Power system operators need to develop a broad understanding of the policy objectives that will materially
impact on the operation of the power system. These might include increasing levels of renewable energy,
the introduction of Electric Vehicles (EVs) or energy efficiency measures.
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• More technical studies are required to examine the impact of renewable penetration on voltage levels and
interconnector flows. There is concern that many of the limits to RES integration will be caused by voltage
stability, reactive power and transient stability. At present, these are not well researched.
• A strict adherence to grid code provisions is required and enforcement is needed. However, legacy issues
regarding grid code enforcement may prove to be a problem in the future, possibly slowing down the
overall penetration of RES.
• The increasing levels of VNSR will fundamentally change the characteristics of power systems across the
world. In order to manage these changes, system operators will need greater system performance, which
might include system flexibility through demand side management, energy storage and smart grid
initiatives.
• The design of markets needs to consider the technical requirements of the power system (such as
flexibility, ramping, frequency control and storage).
Chapter 1. Introduction
It is now widely recognised that the threat from climate change is real and that the global over-reliance on dwindling
fossil fuel resources is no longer sustainable nor cost effective. While fossil fuel prices have decreased since the
high of 2008, many international experts have forecasted that this trend is a temporary blip, and that prices will
continue to increase over the coming decades.2 Within this context, governments are designing energy and
environmental policies to minimise their exposure to volatile international fossil fuel prices and reduce carbon
emissions in the energy sector, and the electricity power sector in particular.
Across the world, we are changing the way our electricity is generated and delivered. The question is no longer
whether we continue relying on emission-intensive technologies to keep the lights on; rather, it is how fast we move
to embrace clean energy such as solar, wind, hydro, bio-energy, marine and geothermal. Globally, clean energy
2
At the time of writing in February 2012, oil has once again broken the $100 a barrel mark.
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continues to set record levels for investment. For example, Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates that a record
US $243-billion was invested in 2010, well ahead of traditional energy and up more than 30 percent on the
previous year. Moreover, in 2010, it was estimated that over 100 countries had some type of target, measure or
programme that supported renewable energy deployment.3
With renewable generation expected to form an increasing percentage of electricity production over the next two
decades, the power industry is facing substantial changes – changes that will require new thinking.4 One of the
central challenges which power systems face is that non-synchronous renewable generation is expected to form
the largest percentage of this new renewable generation.5 This fluctuating energy will change the operational
methods for transmission and distribution systems significantly. Of course, the impact of this non-synchronous
renewable generation on the power system is closely related to the level of non-synchronous renewable integration
as a percentage of system size, the existing characteristics of the power system, and any additional investments
being made into the control capability of the system. Hence, this research was undertaken in order to assess the
readiness of the power industry to cope with the change over the next decade or more.
As indicated by the publication of a range of technical and non-technical studies, the field of renewable energy
research has been gaining greater significance in recent years. Some studies focus on the direct impact of
renewable generation on the electricity network, while others focus more generally on the benefits and/or the
challenges of renewable energy integration in all sectors of the economy. In the technical space, the Eastern Wind
Integration and Transmission Study (2010), the Facilitation of Renewables (2010), the Western Wind and Solar
Integration Study (2010), the European Wind Integration Study (2010), and the International Energy Agency Wind
Task Force 25 report, Design and Operation of Power Systems with large amounts of Wind Power (2009), all
provide useful country-specific and/or technology-specific findings that are of interest when assessing the impact of
6
renewable generation on the operation of the power system.
In the general renewable energy space, the CIGRE study Grid Integration of Wind Generation (2011), the
European Climate Foundation Roadmap 2050: A Practical Guide to a Prosperous, Low Carbon Europe (2010), and
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate
Change Mitigation (2011) offer an overarching assessment of renewable generation integration on the grid and
renewable energy integration across the economy more broadly. Accordingly, this CIGRE study bridges the gap in
some important ways between the technical and the general research in the field. It offers some assessment of the
specific impact of non-synchronous renewable generation on the electricity grid and the industry’s capacity to cope
with this change, covers a range of renewable technology integration across 18 countries, and makes general
recommendations based on survey findings and the experience of participant members. This research also draws
from and builds on other research in the field.
Renewable Trajectory
An increased use of renewable energy technologies is set to form the centrepiece of this new drive to reduce our
dependency on fossil fuel sources. Over the next decade, the increase in installed renewable capacity will make up
60 percent of all new installed generator capacity. Of this increase, 70 percent will come from VNSR generation
3
For financial investment see the Clean Energy Council. For support mechanisms see The Renewable 2010 - Global Status
Report (REN 2010), available at
http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR_2010_full_revised%20Sept2010.pdf.
4
The International Energy Agency – World Energy Outlook 2010 estimates that renewable generation could form approximately
35 percent of all electricity generation by 2035.
5
Information derived from the European National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAP) further supports the argument in
this research that there will be a significant increase from non-synchronous renewable energy on power systems in the decades
ahead.
6
Additional information on these studies is contained in the Annex of this report.
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and 20 percent will come from synchronous renewable (SR) generation.7 Across the world, developed and
developing economies have set ambitious renewable energy targets and put in place generous financial support
mechanisms in order to promote the use of a reliable, sustainable, and low-cost energy supply over the coming
decades. In particular, greater priority will be given to the renewable indigenous energy sources, such as the solar,
wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal energy systems.
Figure 1: Percentage Breakdown of Growth in Installed Renewable Capacity from Surveyed

Countries (2007-2020).
The share of power generated from RES worldwide has increased significantly during the last decade and is
expected to increase by another 17.8 percent over the next decade. In the European Union (EU), member states
have agreed to ensure that 20 percent of the EU aggregate energy consumption is from renewable energy by
2020. The United States (US), Canada and China have all similarly adopted energy policies designed to increase
the share of renewable generation over the coming decades. Although Europe, the US and China tend to receive
the lion’s share of media attention when it comes to renewable energy developments, many other countries around
the world are taking steps to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and increase their energy security. India, for
example, installed 1,300 megawatts (MW) of wind generation in 2009 and is the fifth country in the world to surpass
the 10,000 MW level of installed wind capacity. Last year, Latin America’s overall wind capacity more than doubled
to 1,200 MW in 2009. Brazil now has approximately 600 MW of installed wind and Mexico’s wind capacity grew
some 140 percent to 200 MW. At the end of 2009, just 760 MW were installed on the African continent, 90 percent
of which was in Egypt and Morocco. However, along with this, commercial-scale projects are under way in several
Sub-Saharan countries, including Ethiopia and Kenya. In addition, the combined installed capacity of wind
generation in Australia and New Zealand in 2011 was 2.8 gigawatts (GW) with very strong growth expected by
8
2020 approaching 10 GW.
7
This information was taken from the data provided from the survey respondents.
8
For Australia and New Zealand, see the Clean Energy Council, Energy Council Renewable Energy database, ABARE 2011,
REC Registry, AEMO, IMO, IES.
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Figure 2: Percentage Technology Mix of Non-Synchronous Generation
The large-scale integration of renewable energy sources over the coming decade is dominated by non-
synchronous renewable generation and wind in particular (see Figure 2 above). This fluctuating energy will change
the operation methods for transmission and distribution systems significantly. Although the tools for predicting
generation capabilities from wind power have considerably improved, the scheduling of these units remains
difficult. Most RES (with the exception of reservoir hydro and biomass) have no inherent storage capabilities and
thus the power generation directly follows the actual conditions (such as wind speed or solar radiation intensity). As
these depend on seasonal, meteorological or other conditions, they are not controllable. Findings from this
research indicate that with a further deployment of RES, increasing system flexibility will be required to manage the
task of system balancing.
The integration of this increasing amount of VNSR generation in the power system raises a number of issues. This
CIGRE JWG (C1/C2/C6.18) study was established to assess the readiness of the electricity industry to cope with
these changes and draws on expertise from across the world. It also builds on the research work from CIGRE
9
Working Group 08 of Study Committee C6 entitled Grid Integration of Wind Generation (2009). The present report
is mainly focused on the following aspects:
• the context for renewable generation across the world;

• implications for power systems;
• the impact on control capabilities; and
• the impact operational strategies.
Using information received from 18 countries, this paper will present an overarching assessment of the challenges
and readiness of industry to deal with these developments. In particular, with increasing amounts of fluctuating
renewable generation expected to connect in many countries in the next decade, power systems will face many
new operational challenges that require solutions. The paper will first review the implications for power system
operators of this changing generation portfolio, before offering a set of recommendations that should be
implemented in power systems to enhance system readiness and cater for this change. In summary, these actions
include:
9
Grid Integration of Wind Generation was conducted by Working Group 08 of Study Committee 06 and was published in July
2009.
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• Developing a broad understanding of the policy objectives that will materially impact on the operation of the
power system. These might include increasing levels of renewable energy, the introduction of EVs, or
energy efficiency measures.
• More technical studies are required to examine the impact on voltage levels and interconnector flows from
renewable penetration. There is concern that many of the limits to RES integration will be caused by
voltage stability, reactive power and transient stability. At present, these are not well researched.
• A strict adherence to grid code provisions is required and enforcement is needed. However, legacy issues
regarding grid code enforcement may prove to be a problem in the future, possibly dragging down overall
penetration of RES.
• Each power system has an ability to adjust to a change in generation mix and associated characteristics
supporting the integration of non-synchronous renewable generation. This ability can be further enhanced
by increasing system flexibility through demand side management, the installation of energy storage, or
smart grid initiatives.
• The design of electricity markets needs to consider the technical requirements of the power system.
1.1 Methodology and Questionnaire Review

The JWG designed a quantitative and qualitative based survey which was issued to more than 50 CIGRE members
representing more than 24 countries.10 The JWG received 30 completed surveys from 19 countries across Europe,
North America, Oceania and Asia. The respondents came from a range of institutions and organisations including
17 Transmission System Operators (TSO), two Distribution System Operators (DSO), two Independent System
Operators (ISO), four utilities, two research associations, one Regional Transmission Operators (RTO) and one
University.11
The survey structure was based around an agreed understanding of the power system as a control process12,
which operates to meet the electrical load of the system and maintain flows to external interconnected systems. To
achieve this, the TSO must ensure that certain “states” or outputs (voltage throughout the system, frequency, plant
loadings and power quality) are kept within acceptable operational limits irrespective of a range of reasonably
probable and some less probable events or inputs (demand level, availability of generators and interconnectors,
plant reliability or forecast error).
This balance is achieved by making the best use of the performance, or control capability, of the assets which are
inherent in the makeup of a power system: generators, demand-side units and the network. The TSO makes the
best use of the performance capability by employing operational practices (control strategies) which utilise any and
all available controls (dispatch of generation, network topology, protection and operational scheduling strategies).
The effectiveness of the control is directly related to the characteristics of the power system and the nature of the
input being governed. With increasing amounts of VNSR generation expected to connect over the next decade,
power system operators will need to identify and understand the new challenges and design innovative control
measures. By analysing each of the inputs, control capabilities and control strategies in turn, and with respect to
increasing variable renewable generation, this report will assess the impact of this change, associated technical
issues and possible solutions.
10
The countries include: Canada, France, Portugal, USA, Australia, Italy, Sweden, Denmark, South Africa, Finland, New
Zealand, Spain (mainland and Canary Islands), UK, Iceland, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, China, Germany, Egypt, Japan, India,
Argentina and Brazil.
11
To ensure we received as many responses as possible, members of the JWG were asked to obtain responses from experts in
their own countries.
12
The results from the survey are limited. The JWG did not receive system information from a number of regions including Latin
America.
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Figure 3: The Power System as a Control Process
Based on this agreed framework for understanding the power system, the survey was divided into quantitative and
qualitative sections. The quantitative section asked for power system information such as system size and forecast
growth levels, while the qualitative section was designed to delve into the specifics of the power system and the
impact on operating the power system with increasing amounts of renewable penetration. The findings from this
research were also used by the JWG to assess whether additional research should be undertaken going forward
and are detailed below.
While the JWG recognises the geographical limitations of this study, the coverage is nevertheless sufficient to
make a realistic assessment of the challenges that power systems face over the next decade.
Definition of Low, Medium and High Penetration of Renewables
This framework analyses the likely impact caused on the power system at different penetration of renewable
energy. The descriptors of low, medium and high penetration need to be understood in the context of the system
that is being analysed. For example, a large interconnected utility may require 10 percent of installed generation
capacity to be variable and renewable before considering it is at a medium level of penetration, while in turn, this
figure could be considered high for a small isolated power system.
Specifically, the definition of penetration used in this framework includes:
Low – a level of penetration of renewables where the current practices and control capabilities are sufficient to
manage.
Medium – a level of penetration of renewables where changes are required to either control strategies or
capabilities, or both, to manage the system, but where renewables are still seen as a relatively small part of the
overall energy portfolio on the electricity system.
High – a level of penetration of renewables where significant changes are required to either control strategies or
capabilities, or both, to manage the power system.
To help identify the range of challenges and issues posed by the increase in renewable generation over the next
decade, the JWG agreed on four high level mechanisms. These mechanisms were designed to consider whether
an issue is, or is likely to impact, a power system. These are as follows:
• Experience in own power system: The power system is experiencing the issue today. There is clear,
objective and unambiguous data to show the extent of the problem.
• Experience from other power systems: A review of previous work in other jurisdictions has shown this to
be an issue.
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• System Simulations: A series of technical studies commissioned specifically to investigate and highlight
the specific issue in individual power systems were conducted. At their core, these can be planning studies
showing thermal line overloads. However, for the implementation of new control strategies this can be
difficult to demonstrate in one study alone. For example, the need to increase the reserve margin to
accommodate significant variable renewable generation may require frequency response and transient
stability studies combined with flexibility requirements.
• Expert opinion: Based on a consideration of technical, market and regulatory issues, the operations of the
power system are considered to be materially impacted in the opinion of an expert. It is on this basis that
operational practices are altered.
Chapter 2. The Global Context

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), global electricity demand is forecast to increase by almost 60
percent by 2035. In order to meet this expected increase in demand, newly installed generation will need to grow
considerably over the same period. It is estimated that 5,900 GW of new generation capacity will need to be
installed worldwide to meet this demand, with almost 50 percent of this new capacity coming from renewable
energy sources. The main driver facilitating this increase in new renewable generation is a series of interrelated
government policies aimed at enhancing energy security through diversifying the energy mix with locally available
resources. This change has the added benefit of reducing energy related carbon emissions too.
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The success of these government support mechanisms is already evident over the past decade. According to the
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), world wind generating capacity increased at considerable pace between
2000 and 2010, from 17,000 MW to nearly 200,000 MW.13
Most of this increase is supported by a range of financial and operational support schemes and today, with over
100 countries having some kind of target, measure or programme to support the deployment of renewable
generation.14 Based on the information gathered in this CIGRE survey, these various support mechanisms are
expected to enable the installation of approximately another 315 GW of new installed renewable generation
capacity up to 2020. Of this increase, approximately 70 percent is expected to come from VNSR generation.
Figure 4 shows the predicted increase in type and level of installed generation across the world out to 2020. It is
clear that renewable generation will form the largest component of new generation in Europe and North America
over this period.
Figure 4: Installed and Expected Percentage Level of Variable Non-Synchronous and

Synchronous Renewable Generation Capacity by Region (2007, 2015 and 2020). Installed figure
is for 2007.
2.1 Regional Trends

The findings from our survey indicate that the use of RES to generate electricity will expand significantly over the
next decade. In particular, the share of renewable generation from VNSR such as wind and solar photovoltaic (PV)
is expected to form a large portion of this increase. While the level of RES increase is particularly pronounced in
the EU and North America, the increase will be worldwide.
2.2 European Union
13
GWEC, op. cit. note 3, pp. 3, 17; GWEC, “Global Wind Capacity to Reach Close to 200 GW This Year,” press release
(Brussels: 23 September 2010).
14
REN21, 2010.
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In the EU, electricity generation from RES grows considerably up to 2025, with non-synchronous wind generation
forming the largest part of this growth. Renewable energy growth across most of Europe is supported by an
ambitious energy policy framework, embodied in the operational provisions of the 2009 renewable energy Directive
(2009/28/EC). The renewable targets set out in the Directive were given a legal foundation by the requirement for
each member state to submit a National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) in June 2010, detailing how they
intend to meet these targets. Interestingly, the figures in the NREAP are broadly in line with the data accumulated
in this CIGRE study.
Of the 14 power systems that submitted information from across the EU, renewable generation forms an increasing
percentage of generation up to 2020 and non-synchronous renewable generation - in particular wind power - forms
15
the largest percentage of new generation over the same period.
Figure 5: Percentage of Installed (2007) and Expected Growth (2020) Non-Synchronous

Generation in Selected EU Countries
2.3 North America (USA and Canada)

Renewable energy sources are projected to replace generation from conventional fossil fuel power plants and are
expected to make up an increasing percentage of electricity demand across North America up to 2020.16
15
The power systems that completed a survey from Europe include: the Republic of Ireland, France, Portugal, Italy, Sweden,
Norway, Finland, the UK, Hungary, Iceland and Spain (Canary Islands, Red Electrica).
16
The power systems that completed a survey from North America include: Manitoba,Quebec, Alberta,Ontario, Sask,
(Canada), and South Power Pool, East, Boneville, PJM, New York and Hawaii (USA).
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Figure 6: Percentage Variable Non-Synchronous and Synchronous RES in North America (2007-
2020).
In the US, the shift towards more renewable energy has been driven in large part by the February 2009 American
Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA). The ARRA set forth new legislation that puts renewable energy at the
heart of plans to revive the economy. The central tenet of the ARRA is to “revive the renewable energy industry
and provide the capital over the next three years to eventually double domestic renewable energy capacity.”
Through a range of financial incentives and tax credits, the ARRA aims to stimulate the renewable energy industry
in the US and provide the capital necessary for an industry scale-up. As a result of these support mechanisms, the
US wind energy market installed 10 GW in 2009 and 5.1 GW in 2010. The US now has 40.2 GW of wind power
capacity installed (up from 35.1 GW at the end of 2009). China is the only country with more installed wind power in
the world.
Six power systems in the US responded to this research and provide a good indication of renewable generation
uptake in the US over the next decade. According to the survey data, 15.62 percent of new generation installed in
the US in 2020 will be from renewable sources, with a roughly even split between synchronous (7.84 percent) and
non-synchronous (7.78 percent) at that point. Nevertheless, it is clear that the largest increase in renewable
generation type will be from non-synchronous renewable generation over the same period. Figure 6 shows the
percentage breakdown in renewable generation up to 2020.
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Figure 7: Percentage Variable Non-Synchronous and Synchronous RES in America (2007-2020).
In Canada, five power systems responded to this survey. The data indicates that in 2020 approximately 65 percent
of new generation in Canada will be from renewable sources. Interestingly, unlike the majority of other power
systems that responded, in Canada the majority of renewable energy is from synchronous energy sources,
particularly large-scale hydro. Figure 7 shows the percentage share of new installed generation that is expected to
be derived from renewable energy sources up to 2020.
Figure 8: Percentage Variable Non-Synchronous and Synchronous RES in Canada (2007-2020).
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In wind-rich Canada, Ontario, Quebec and Alberta are the leaders in installed capacity. Ontario, Canada’s most
populous province, has received applications for offshore wind development rights on its side of the Great Lakes
that could result in some 21,000 MW of generating capacity. The provincial goal is to back out all coal-fired power
by 2014.
2.4 China
Electricity demand in China is forecast to rise quickly over the next decade. Indeed, overall demand is expected to
triple between 2008 and 2035. The integration of renewable energy in China is well underway. In the 2008-2009
economic stimulus plan, China committed approx €350-billion to clean energy and energy saving technologies. In
2005, the Chinese Government passed the Renewable Energy Law of the People’s Republic of China. This law
promotes the use of renewable energy, aims to improve the energy structure and diversify energy supplies,
increases energy security and protect the environment. The Chinese recently outlined a four step plan which
involves reducing carbon intensity of the economy to 2005 levels by 2020 and boosting nuclear and renewables to
account for 15 percent of China’s power by 2020, as well as further action to develop a green economy. China has
already announced plans to integrate 100 GW of wind power capacity by 2020 and expand its renewable energy
consumption to 40 percent of the energy market by 2050. China is currently working on a five year plan which will
include further incentives to encourage the integration of renewable generation.
The survey data indicates that the biggest increase in renewable energy in China will be from non-synchronous
renewable generation up to 2020. In a context that saw a massive increase in wind generation in 2010
(approximately 16.5 GW), this finding is not unexpected. China’s wind capacity more than doubled from 12 GW in
2008 to 25.8 GW in 2009 and added 16.5 MW in 2010 to reach 42.2 GW at the end of 2010.
Figure 9: Percentage Variable Non-Synchronous and Synchronous RES in China (2007-2020).
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Chapter 3. Impact of Increasing VNSR Generation

The addition of significant amounts of VNSR generation has a material impact on the operation of a power system.
The extent of this impact is related to the existing nature and characteristics of the power system, the level of
penetration trying to be achieved and any additional investments being made into the control capability of the
system at the same time.
There are a several aspects related to renewable energy generation that can impact on the power system. First, a
central feature of renewable generation is that it is predominately variable in nature; the wind blows, the sun shines
and the tides ebb and flow. This directly impacts the nature of the plant portfolio with respect to the conventional
plant. The management of this intermittency can be achieved, however, through a combination of improved
forecasting and increased control capability of conventional and renewable generation, as well as new operational
strategies aimed at managing the uncertainty.
Second, renewable generation uses different technologies than conventional synchronous generation units. These
include non-synchronous doubly fed induction generators, full converter wind turbines and electronic photovoltaic
cells. The level of penetration of these technologies can materially alter the characteristics of the power system
effecting synchronising torque, fault levels, voltage stability and frequency control. This directly impacts the power
system characteristics and needs to be managed. This can be more difficult where the external characteristics of
neighbouring power systems are changing with the addition of renewable generation.
The addition of new renewable generation, without altering the existing portfolio, will alter the control capability of
the portfolio. Where the generation is non-controllable this is likely to decrease the capability to manage changes to
the inputs. However where the renewable generation has a performance capability which is controllable, it is
conceivable that the addition of this generation may increase the portfolio capability.
The physical location of the renewable plant is often different to existing conventional generation and to load
centres. As a consequence, this will require network infrastructure to connect the generation and to reinforce the
system. The degree to which new build is required for reinforcing the system (and not connecting new generation)
is a function of the control capability of the existing portfolio and network and the control strategies employed. The
use of new operational paradigms may alleviate the need for additional network reinforcement, but will also
increase the complexity on the operation of the system (as active decisions and protection will be required to
manage). It was agreed that the control capability of the power system refers to the operational ability of the assets
of the power system available to the TSO to manage the changing inputs in order to ensure the output “states” are
maintained within acceptable operational parameters.
The main issues concerning the increase in the levels of non-synchronous renewable energy on the power
systems include the following:
• Network Infrastructure;
• Control Capabilities; and
• Control Strategies.
3.1 Network Infrastructure

The survey answers indicate the need for grid reinforcement to become more important as the penetration of
VNSR generation increases to medium- and high-levels. Overall, network reinforcement is considered a potential
problem to the integration of increasing amounts of VNSR. In some cases, system reinforcements are limited to
new reactive power compensation. In others the expansion of additional transmission capacity is considered in an
integrated way, i.e. considering the needs for additional transmission capacity caused by conventional and VNSR
generation together, along with the trajectory of the forecasted load growth. There was a low rate of response with
respect to whether new planning techniques were required to design this network. This may be attributed to the fact
that no consolidated models and planning procedures exist which are based on new criteria (probabilistic planning)
allowing for the fluctuating behaviour of VNSR. These are under development together with the definition of new
planning criteria. The use of probabilistic methods to identify network reinforcements is becoming increasingly
common but is not yet an accepted standard. There is a clear consensus that for medium and high level of VNSR,
additional infrastructure will be required. There is some suggestion that the techniques and criteria used to
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determine the new network may need to change to identify a more efficient network structure. However, it is likely
that as there is a significant need in the next 10 years for additional network infrastructure, this will be identified and
approved by using the exiting criteria and processes.
A third of respondents (33 percent) had not considered whether the current approach to network maintenance
would need to be altered with more renewable generation. While 30 percent of respondents believed their current
approach to network maintenance would need to alter at medium levels of renewable penetration, 20 percent
believed this would be the case at high levels.
3.2 Control Capabilities

The JWG agreed that there are a range of policies and practices which will be used to manage the scheduled and
unscheduled input changes on the power system. These policies and practices will be developed from an
understanding of the current state of the power system (for example, voltage, current and power at nodes), as well
as forecasts of likely behaviour (demand and wind forecasts, forecasts of power flows entering from and exiting to
neighbouring power systems). In addition, the operation of the various market mechanisms, ancillary
services/balancing markets and cross broader trades will have a significant influence on these strategies.
Grid Code Development and Enforcement
From the information obtained, many power systems have or are reviewing the grid code in order to cater for
increasing amounts of VNSR. 37 percent of respondents stated that the grid code would need to be developed to
cater for renewable generation at low levels of penetration. 40 percent stated this would be the case at medium-
levels of renewable penetration. 37 percent of respondents said they were actively monitoring and enforcing the
grid code effectively today.
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It is clear from the results that many power systems are developing the grid code with VNSR in mind. In some
countries, wind generation can offer ancillary services as long as it can meet the performance requirements. 40
percent of recipients stated that the grid code is developing to allow renewable generation to provide energy and
ancillary services at low levels. 33 percent are developing to allow renewable generation to provide energy and
ancillary services at medium-levels. One power system indicated that wind generation is expected to meet the
same performance requirements (such as reactive power range and fault ride through) as other generation. For
example, a fault ride through requirement for all generation is currently being added to most grid codes, closing off
a legacy issue which could adversely impact on the level of RES penetration.
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system. A strong theme emerged from the survey responses that to successfully achieve high penetrations of
VNSR, the capabilities of all generation will need to be improved including ramping capability and other ancillary
services (such as reserve, reactive power, and fault ride through). Credible enforcement of the existing standards
appears problematical at best and needs to be addressed in a comprehensive manner going forward. 33 percent
believe the grid code needs to be properly enforced at low-levels of renewable penetration. 37 percent believe the
grid code needs to be rigorously enforced at medium-levels. Most agree that the likely mechanism to achieve this
will require ongoing performance monitoring and commissioning testing.
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Market Issues
The JWG agreed with the need to ensure that operational security and flexibility of the power system are aligned
with the market structures. The need for system flexibility and performance will become more pronounced as more
non-synchronous renewable generation becomes integrated into power systems. Therefore, it is important that any
market reform ensures that generators, or alternative service providers, are adequately incentivised to provide
system performance. In order to ensure the security of the system in the future, it is likely that an improved and
wider range of generator services will also be required. This necessity will need to be reflected in any future market
reform measures undertaken by power systems.
In addition, it has been noted that in some countries, wind farms can be registered as non-scheduled plant
dispatched as available. This type of generator registration can cause problems with managing transmission
congestions. A semi-scheduled generator category allows wind generators to operate as non-scheduled plants
where there is no binding network constraints and be considered as scheduled under transmission constraints.
3.3 Control Strategies

Voltage Stability, Transient Stability, Reactive Power and Voltage Control
The responses indicate that a number of countries have started to examine and study voltage stability, while others
recognise they will need to study it. For some, systems voltage stability is already the dominating transmission
limiting issue. Notably, a third (33 percent) of respondents did not know if voltage stability would be an issue at low-
, medium- or high-levels.
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A number of power systems indicated that some transient stability studies are underway. 33 percent believed that
transient stability would be an issue at medium levels of renewable integration and 20 percent believed this to be
the case at high levels. While some counties have not experienced this issue to date, some believe it will arise in
the future. Many power systems highlight the need to apply the appropriate technical standards to VNSR and are
working to develop these, although 27 percent of respondents also indicated that they had not studied the potential
impact of VNSR on the power system.
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The information from the surveys indicate that 23 percent of power systems were not sure whether reactive power
and voltage control would be an issue with increasing amounts of VNSR. Interestingly, however, 17 percent of
respondents said they were experiencing the issue today. In addition, 37 percent believed this would be an issue at
medium levels and 20 percent believed it would be an issue at high-levels.
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Overall, the survey indicates that there has not been significant study of the fundamentally changing nature of a
power system with the higher penetration of non-synchronous generation. Where it has been studied in detail, it
has been found that these characteristics present the binding limiting factor for high penetrations of VNSR. Without
better understanding of the ultimate limiting factors, it is difficult to design effective long-term measures.
Forecasting Renewable Energy
The results from the survey show that power systems with even low levels of VNSR require reasonably accurate
forecasting techniques. Over 40 percent of respondents agreed with this statement and 37 percent agreed with it at
medium-levels of renewable penetration.
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Forecasting is typically required to reduce reserve requirements and to enable a more efficient and cost-effective
dispatch. Both central forecasts and local plant-based forecasts are in use. While some power systems have
accurate, state-of-the-art forecasts in place, more typically, forecasting remains in a development phase. Many
power systems are evolving to having centralised wind forecasts. Experience has demonstrated that errors in
VNSR forecasting have led to significant energy imbalances and resultant deviations in system frequency. To date,
access to responsive fast-starting reserves has prevented these incidents from having significant impact on the
customer. However, as more VNSR are integrated in the coming years, this problem will become more
pronounced.
The survey results indicate that most of the development in forecasting concerns improving its accuracy. However,
this development is only present in power systems where there is already a medium to high penetration of VNSR
and where new operational strategies and tools are being developed to manage the possible increase in forecast
error. These techniques are generally developmental at present and revolve around probabilistic methods,
including facilities such as stochastic unit commitment. The need for new operational strategies for thermal based
systems with limited ramping capability and new fuel procurement strategies for island systems with high levels of
VNSR are also identified.
Forecasting is a key requirement for all penetration levels of VNSR. The accuracy of these forecasts, particularly at
higher VNSR penetration levels, will materially impact the efficient operation of the power system. Significant effort
is being expended to ensure these forecasts are as accurate as possible. However, the results show that if the
accuracy cannot be improved beyond a certain level, there may be merit in examining other scheduling and
dispatch techniques to manage the uncertainty in forecasting error. In addition, the modelling of storm conditions
and the interaction with high speed shut down for power plants will become more prevalent at higher VNSR
penetration levels.
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Chapter 4. Discussion and Findings

As with other the previous CIGRE reports noted earlier, this report is an examination of the impact of increasing
amounts of renewable generation on the power system. This report goes beyond those earlier reports in that it
assesses the operational impacts of very high levels of renewable generation on the power system. The impact on
power systems is marked by a number of important aspects. From an analysis of our survey results and additional
discussions of the CIGRE JWG working group, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Observation 1 – Context
Over the next 10 years, significant volumes of VNSR generation are expected to come on stream in member
countries across the world. These levels range well over 25 percent average annual consumption from VSNR in
Spain (26 percent), Germany (27 percent), Denmark (32 percent) and Ireland (37 percent). When distinct
synchronous areas are considered it shows that all areas are attempting to reach significant average targets:
ENTSO-E Nordic (18 percent), ENTSO-ECE (22 percent), Great Britain (25 percent) and Ireland and Northern
Ireland (37 percent). These levels of penetrations are average values. At times, the instantaneous penetration
could be considerably higher, particularly at low load periods. To this end, most of the synchronous systems
surveyed can be considered to be aiming for high penetrations of VNSR. However, the scale of the challenge in
these synchronous regions is substantially different. In particular, the level of VNSR, the existing generation
portfolio capability, interconnection, market structure and network all impact on how this will be managed.
Observation 2 – Increasing Operational Scheduling and Dispatch Challenges
The survey indicates that dispatch and ramping capabilities of conventional plants will need to increase with higher
levels of VNSR. In addition, at high levels of VNSR there is a need for the ancillary services to be provided by the
VNSR. Without these units providing these services, the system will not be able to function in a secure manner at
high penetrations. In addition, there needs to be an examination of the scheduling of appropriate maintenance both
from a plant and system perspective. This might be a usefulsubject of future research.
Observation 3 – Development of New Dispatch Paradigms
The survey indicates that new operational strategies for high VNSR may be required. Several TSO’s are examining
these. Some revolve around requiring reserves to be held which are related to the volume of VSNR on the system
and not to the largest convention plant. However, these paradigms are in development and there is no clear,
universally accepted operational strategy. Other new paradigms are evolving around scheduling appropriate
maintenance on the network given that VNSR are rarely fully unavailable for significant periods unlike conventional
plant.
Observation 4 – Forecasting
Forecasting is a key requirement for all penetration levels of VNSR. The accuracy of these forecasts particularly at
higher VNSR penetration levels will materially impact the efficient operation of the power system. Significant effort
is being expended to ensure these forecasts are as accurate as possible. However, if the accuracy cannot be
improved beyond a certain level there may be merit in examining other scheduling and dispatch techniques to
manage the uncertainty in forecast error. In addition, the modelling of storm conditions and the interaction with high
speed shut down for wind farms will become more prevalent at higher VNSR penetration levels.
Observation 5 – Voltage Stability, Transient Stability, Inertia, and Fault Levels
The survey indicates that there has not been significant study of the fundamentally changing nature of a power
system with higher penetration of non-synchronous generation. However, where it has been studied in detail, it was
found that these characteristics present the binding limiting factor for high penetrations of VNSR. Without better
understanding of the ultimate limiting factors, it is difficult to design effective long-term measures.
Observation 6 - Network Design and Build
There is a clear consensus that for medium and high levels of VNSR, additional network will be required. There is
also some suggestion that the techniques and criteria used to determine the network may need to change to
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identify a more efficient network structure. However, as there is a significant need in the next 10 years for new
network infrastructure, it is likely that this will be identified and approved with the exiting criteria and processes. The
JWG consider that different planning techniques may be required for radial and meshed networks. In addition, with
significant volumes of embedded generation, a holistic, co-ordinated operation approach between high and
medium voltage networks will be required. The co-ordination of this with network regulation will become
increasingly challenging.
Observation 7 - Governance
Increased interconnection between systems can cause issues for neighbouring systems due to their performance
or non-performance. There is a need for greater information sharing and transparency to begin to address this. In
situations where there is significant generation in these other networks, possibly a distribution network, the TSO
may be exposed to security issues by the performance of generators connected to these non-governed adjacent
networks. Ultimately, wherever the VNSR sources are they will need to be controllable to achieve high penetration
levels efficiently and securely.
Observation 8 – Grid Code Requirements, Practice and Enforcement
system. A strong theme emerged from the survey that to successfully achieve high penetrations of VNSR, the
capabilities of all generation will need to be improved, including ramping capability and other ancillary services
(such as reserve, reactive power and fault ride through). Credible enforcement of the existing standards appears
problematical at best and needs to be addressed in a comprehensive manner going forward. The likely mechanism
to achieve this will require ongoing performance monitoring and commissioning testing.
Observation 9 – Long Term Signals for Portfolio Mix
With the new operational policies it is expected that VNSR will be required to produce energy and ancillary
services. In addition, existing conventional plants will be operated in modes that are likely to increase wear and
tear, and thus require greater flexibility. The long term commercial signals for the appropriate investment will be a
critical success factor in achieving this. These commercial signals will also have to be cognisant of the changing
financial mix of the system portfolio regarding increases in capital expenditure and the move towards low variable
cost technologies.
Observation 10 – Ancillary Services
There is a clear signal that ancillary services will play an increasing role in the secure operation of the future power
systems worldwide. The level of ancillary services needed, and ultimately portfolio performance, will vary from
system to system and synchronous region to region. Managing to incentivise the necessary investment in these
technologies in line with current market structures will be challenging.
Observation 11 – Storage
The JWG were surprised that the survey results did not show any strong trend towards the large-scale deployment
of storage technologies. Arising from group discussions, the JWG believe that in order to manage higher levels of
variable generation the deployment of storage technologies may be beneficial. However, there is no evidence at
this stage to definitively state whether these technologies are the optimum partner to mange increased variability
and uncertainty, as it ultimately comes down to the economics of each individual system.
Observation 12 – Working Group Discussion of Findings
In the final meeting of the JWG, it was noted that a number of issues were beginning to emerge since the JWG
survey was issued in early 2010. Some of the issues that have not been covered in this survey, but were felt to be
of some relevance were:
• Offshore wind parks are becoming more prevalent. This is likely to lead to the development of significant
HVDC grids. The control and interaction of these grids with the power systems is an area that would benefit
from future studies.
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• Challenges are emerging in the connection of non-synchronous generation in relatively weak parts of
electricity networks. This is increasing the need for detailed 3 phase Electromagnetic transients’ studies.
• The evolution of energy markets will be a critical success factor. There is evidence that markets, originally
designed to accommodate conventional low capital cost and high marginal cost generation, are
experiencing challenges to incentivise build of VNSR in the absence of support mechanisms.
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Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Non-synchronous renewable generation will form the largest share of new renewable energy that is expected to be
integrated into power systems across the world up to 2020. Due to the technical characteristics of non-synchronous
renewable generation, the dynamic characteristics of the power system will alter, making it more challenging for
system operators to meet the needs of the consumer in a reliable, secure, safe and economical manner.
Understanding the changing inputs is therefore fundamental to fulfilling the basic requirement of the electricity
system – meeting the needs of system end-users. The penetration of renewable generation has a direct impact on
the operational strategies used by system operators to manage the power system and on the characteristics of the
power system. The characteristics of the power system affected include synchronising torque, fault levels, voltage
stability and frequency control.
Many power systems have already started to consider the need and some have already implemented new
operational strategies with this in mind. However, many power systems have yet to develop the necessary
operational strategies to cater for this transition, especially at medium to high levels of penetration.
The TSO is charged with managing a number of internal and external factors that impact on the smooth functioning
of the power system. These factors include changes in system demand, in plant portfolios (for example, scheduled
and unscheduled outages), in interconnector flows, and in the behaviour of an adjacent power system. Beyond
these core issues, the TSO must manage changes in network configuration and power system characteristics. With
the expanding non-synchronous renewable generation, managing these different variables is likely to be
increasingly challenging in the years ahead.
To date, the majority of challenges that have been experienced are being dealt with by TSOs. However, these
occur at relatively low penetrations of renewables. At higher penetrations, it is likely TSO’s will have to conduct
complex simulations and studies and/or use expert opinion and studies from other power systems to understand
the changing system behaviour. This challenge is made more difficult in highly interconnected areas as the studies
may need to model the characteristics and behaviour of neighbouring systems. Consequently, there is a need for
strong stakeholder buy-in and management to successfully achieve this.
In addition, the challenges in understanding the issues being faced are dependent on the level of penetration being
attempted to be reached. For the highest level of penetrations, it is likely that characteristics such as voltage
stability, transient and small signal stability, and system frequency response will need to be studied, as well as the
standard contingency analysis. A review of the flexibility requirements of the system is needed as well and the
requirements should be aligned with market structures in the future.
The following is a set of recommendations that power system operators should undertake to enhance system
readiness to cater for this change:
• Power system operators need to develop a broad understanding of the policy objectives that will materially
impact on the operation of the power system. These might include increasing levels of renewable energy,
the introduction of EVs or energy efficiency measures.
• Research examining the impact of high levels of RES appears to be limited. While the full range of impacts
are not clear, more technical studies are required to examine the impact of renewable penetration on
voltage levels and interconnector flows. There is concern that many of the limits to RES integration will be
caused by voltage stability, reactive power and transient stability.
• A strict adherence to grid code provisions is required and enforcement is needed.
• The increasing levels of VNSR will fundamentally change the characteristics of power systems across the
world. In order to manage these changes, system operators will need greater system performance, which
might include system flexibility through demand side management, energy storage and smart grid
initiatives.
• The design of markets needs to consider the technical requirements of the power system (such as
flexibility, ramping, frequency control and storage).
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Bibliography/References
CIGRE Brochure 450 (2011), “Grid Integration of Wind Generation”.
EC, (European Commission) (2010) National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAP), available at
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/transparency_platform/action_plan_en.htm.
(ECF) European Climate Foundation (2010), Roadmap 2050: A Practical Guide to a Prosperous, Low Carbon
Europe, Brussels, Belgium.
EirGrid (2010), Facilitation of Renewables, Dublin, Ireland.
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) (2010), “The European Wind
Integration Study: Towards A Successful Integration of Wind Power into European Electricity Grids”, Brussels,
Belgium.
IEA (International Energy Agency) (2010), “World Energy Outlook 2010”, OCED/IEA, Paris.
IEA (International Energy Agency) (2009), (Wind Task Force 25 report) “Design and Operation of Power Systems
with large amounts of Wind Power”, OCED/IEA, Paris.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2011), Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and
Climate Change Mitigation, IPCC, Geneva.
REN21 (2010), Renewables 2010 Global Status Report, REN21 2010, Paris.
U.S. Department of Energy, (The National Renewable Energy Laboratory) (Revised 2011), Eastern Wind
Integration and Transmission Study, Colorado, USA.
U.S. Department of Energy, (The National Renewable Energy Laboratory) (May 2010), Western Wind and Solar
Integration Study, Colorado, USA.
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Annex
Summary of the EWITS Report
• Name of Study: Eastern Wind Integration and Transmission Study (EWITS)
• Year: 2010
• By: DOE/NREL, funded study completed by Enernex Corp.
• Length: 242 pages, see http://www.nrel.gov/wind/systemsintegration/ewits.html
• Purpose: The study was designed to answer questions posed by a variety of stakeholders about a range of
important technical issues related to a 20 percent wind integration scenario for the Eastern Interconnection
of the US electric system.
• Methodology: The EWITS project consisted of three major tasks: (1) wind plant output data development,
(2) transmission requirements analysis, and (3) wind integration analysis. The study assumed seven large
balancing areas operating under a similar market structure. An hourly production cost model was run for 3
years to as the basis for calculating the wind integration costs.
• Main Findings: The study provided the following major findings:
o High penetrations of wind generation—20 percent to 30 percent of the electrical energy requirements
of the Eastern Interconnection—are technically feasible with significant expansion of the transmission
infrastructure.
o New transmission will be required for all the future wind scenarios in the Eastern Interconnection,
including the Reference Case. Planning for this transmission is imperative because it takes longer to
build new transmission capacity than it does to build new wind plants.
o Without transmission enhancements, substantial curtailment of wind generation would be required for
all the 20 percent scenarios.
o Interconnection-wide costs for integrating large amounts of wind generation are manageable with
large regional operating pools and significant market, tariff, and operational changes, at an
approximate cost of $5/MW in 2009.
o Transmission helps reduce the impacts of the variability of the wind, which reduces wind integration
costs, increases reliability of the grid, and helps make more efficient use of the available generation
resources. Costs for aggressive expansions of the existing grid are significant, but they make up a
relatively small portion of the total annualized costs in any of the scenarios studied.
o Carbon emission reductions in the three 20 percent wind scenarios do not vary by much, indicating
that wind displaces coal in all scenarios and that coal generation is not significantly exported from the
Midwest to the eastern United States. Carbon emissions are reduced at an increased rate in the 30
percent wind scenario as more gas generation is used to accommodate wind variability. Wind
generation displaces carbon-based fuels, directly reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
andemissions continue to decline as more wind is added to the supply picture. Increasing the cost of
carbon in the analysis results in higher total production costs.
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Summary of the WWSIS Report
• Name of Study: Western Wind and Solar Integration Study (WWSIS)
• Year: 2010
• By: DOE/NREL, funded study completed by GE Energy
• Length: 536 pages, see http://www.nrel.gov/wind/systemsintegration/wwsis.html
• Purpose: This study investigated the operational impact of up to 35 percent energy penetration of wind,
photovoltaics (PVs), and concentrating solar power (CSP) on the power system operated by the
WestConnect group of utilities in the Western Interconnection of the US.
• Methodology: WWSIS looked at the impact of wind on operations in the regulation (seconds to minutes),
load following (minutes to hours), and unit commitment (hours to days) time frames with three years of
simulated wind and solar data. Hypothetical wind, solar and transmission build-outs were added to the
existing system, which was analysed over these time frames through hourly production simulations and
statistical analysis of data for the intra-hour period. The study assumed extensive balancing area
cooperation and an economically rational operation of the system with a coordinated five minute dispatch.
• Main Findings: The technical analysis performed in this study shows that it is operationally feasible for
WestConnect to accommodate 30 percent wind and 5 percent solar energy penetration, assuming the
following changes to current practice could be made over time:
o Substantially increase balancing area cooperation or consolidation, real or virtual;

o Increase the use of sub-hourly scheduling for generation and interchanges;
o Increase the utilisation of transmission;
o Enable coordinated commitment and economic dispatch of generation over wider regions;
o Incorporate state-of-the-art wind and solar forecasts in unit commitment and grid operations;
o Increase the flexibility of dispatchable generation where appropriate (e.g., reduce minimum generation
levels, increase ramp rates, reduce start/stop costs or minimum down time);
o Commit additional operating reserves as appropriate;
o Build transmission as appropriate to accommodate renewable energy expansion;
o Target new or existing demand response programs to accommodate increased variability and
uncertainty; and
o Require wind plants to provide down reserves.
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Summary of the Facilitation of Renewables Report
• Name of Study: All-Island Facilitation of Renewables Studies
• Year: 2010
• By: EirGrid and SONI (research consultants ECOFYS,Siemens-PTI and Ecar)
• Length: 77 pages, see http://www.eirgrid.com/media/FacilitationRenewablesFinalStudyReport.pdf
• Purpose: Ireland and Northern Ireland have ambitious targets for electricity generated from renewable
energy sources by 2020. Early in 2009, EirGrid and SONI initiated a suite of studies entitled the Facilitation
of Renewables designed to examine the technical challenges with integrating significant volumes of wind
generation onto the power system of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The Facilitation of Renewables (FoR) is
a suite of pioneering studies that aim to identify the dynamic issues associated with operating a power
system with high levels of renewable generation, and how to best solve these issues. The final results were
released in June 2010 and contain a full review of the scope of the project, the methodologies employed
and the results and conclusions from the analysis.
The Facilitation of Renewable Energy in Ireland
• Main Findings: The key findings from the studies indicate that the integrity of the frequency response and
the dynamic stability of the power system are compromised at high instantaneous penetrations of wind.
While there are mitigation measures which can be employed, it will be necessary to limit or “curtail” at
times the aggregate output of windfarms on the island in order to operate a secure power system. For
frequency response, some of the key mitigation measures include disabling aspects of the standard
distribution connected protection schemes for windfarms, as well as ensuring that conventional generators
provide appropriate reserve in a timely manner following an energy imbalance. To mitigate the dynamic
stability issue, the use of fast acting reliable reactive power response devices during and following
disturbances is required.
• In addition to these key findings, the modelling suggested that the voltage and reactive behaviour of the
system will require significant management and is directly related to the performance of all generators on
the island, as well as how the network is developed. Finally, the studies did indicate that voltage
disturbances could result in the temporary loss of windfarm output. At high instantaneous penetrations, this
could result in a voltage dip, inducing significant frequency response challenges on the power system.
• The key findings indicate that to operate the power system securely, a limit on the aggregate windfarm
output is required. This limit is related to the capability of the conventional and renewable generation, the
protection of distribution connected windfarms and the level of imports and exports on the system.
• The results from the studies provide sufficient information that EirGrid are confident that secure and reliable
operational strategies can be developed so that by 2020 Ireland and Northern Ireland can meet the
renewable targets set down in policy. However, this is based on four key assumptions:
o That the network capability is such that the performance capabilities of all generators, both
conventional and renewable, do not have to be limited in any way. This network capability includes
transmission and distribution generators;
o That the use of standard protection relays on the distribution network including the Rate of Change of
Frequency (RoCoF) relay is reviewed for its suitability;
o That the conventional generators meet the standards of primary reserve that the models provided
suggest and which the grid code requires; and
o That all windfarms have the appropriate control, capability and response, particularly for reactive
power (voltage) support during disturbances that the grid code requires.
Page 36
Summary of Current Status of Tools and Techniques for Risk-Based and Probabilistic Planning in Power
Systems
• Year: October 2010
• By: Cigre Working group C4.601 (Technical Brochure #434)
• Length: 132 pages
• Purpose: Between April 2007 and March 2010, CIGRE WG C4.601 was tasked with reviewing the potential
tools and techniques for risk based and probabilistic planning. Historically, both transmission and
operational planning studies and criteria were for the most part deterministic. As a result of the new market
paradigm, the number of scenarios and uncertainties associated with day-to-day operations and planning
of the power system has significantly increased. This report serves as an overview of the present status of
risk-based and probabilistic techniques and identifies:
o Why they are needed?

o What tools and techniques presently exist?
o What gaps and concerns exist with the present tools?
o What other possible approaches may be taken?
o What should be the goal of these approaches to complement existing deterministic methods?
• Methodology: This WG task was completed by a group of members and contributors constituting of 65
experts from 18 countries. These included experts from equipment manufacturers, utility engineers,
consultants and research organisations around the world. The report included relevant case studies from
Australia (transmission planning with generation uncertainty) and Denmark, Western Australia (balancing
with high penetration of wind).
• Main Findings: Renewable generation such as wind, small hydro, geothermal, tidal, solar etc, poses a
number of unique challenges including:
o uncertainty in size as they are often scalable from tens to many hundreds of megawatts;
o transparency of investment plans because there is often intense competition for projects and investors
are not necessarily forthcoming until the last possible moment;
o energy balancing which can be a major issue that requires consideration; and
o additional generator reserves may be required, particularly if renewable (wind) generators are not
operated below maximum capacity to provide reserves in the event of a frequency decline.
• Variable power flows from renewable energy are already presenting operational and transmission planning
challenges. Correlations of wind energy output across geographically separated sites can cause significant
changes in power flow and corresponding challenges in voltage control, line congestion and frequency
regulation. Tools that allow consideration of stochastic variables to assess such impacts are needed.
• Most of the existing programs can be generally subdivided into the two different categories of system
adequacy evaluation and system security assessment tools. Based on available information, the existing
risk-based or probabilistic tools used for power system planning and operation studies are predominantly in
the domain of adequacy. Most existing tools have limited capabilities to address market related
uncertainties such as: uncertainties related to power generation location, capacity, timing and availability
for proposed new conventional and renewable energy sources.
• Three scenarios have been of particular interest to the Australian Energy Market Operator: forecasting wind
fronts to be prepared for large changes in wind output, loss of wind due to high temperatures to ensure
supply adequacy, and impacts of conventional generator displacement on voltage stability. In western
Page 37
Demark, the maximum penetration of wind has reached the level of 54 percent. As the penetration
increases in Denmark to potentially greater than 200 percent, tools are being developed to determine the
probability of unserved energy. Setting wind power to zero is no longer a realistic assumption for adequacy
studies.
Page 38
Summary of Grid Integration of Wind Generation
• Year: February 2011
• By: Cigre Working group C6.08 (Technical Brochure #450)
• Length: 140 pages
• Purpose: Between August 2004 and August 2009, CIGRE WG C6.08 was tasked with gathering and
sharing System Operators experience gained so far in order to identify the most important issues related to
fluctuating generation.
• Methodology: This WG task was completed by a group of members and contributors constituting of 21
experts from 11 countries. These included experts from utilities, consultants and research organizations
around the world. The majority of contributions came from the experts with a short survey that covered
technical issues and regulatory support schemes.
• Main Findings: The report focused on the following main topics:
o Power flow control and contingency management;

o Frequency control;
o Grid stability;
o Reactive power and voltage control;
o Influence on conventional generation; and
o Regulation and support strategies.
• Large unexpected fluctuations in wind power can cause loop flow and congestion that has to be balanced
by other sources in the network. At present, there is no clear legislation related to this issue. The active
participation of wind plants in congestion management may be required. Congestion can also result as to
the philosophy of transmission grid capacity sizing (i.e. is the grid sized for nameplate wind or for the
expected firm on-peak capacity level of wind).
• Frequency control is discussed in detail. Frequency control is divided into primary (inertial response),
secondary (automatic generation control (AGC) or spinning reserves) and tertiary (quick-start generation
reserves) control. Each country has its own set of terms and rules, which can lead to misunderstanding.
Most wind generators are not required to contribute to frequency control. The effect of wind generation on
the inertial response in Ireland is presented. Replacement of conventional generation with wind generation
is shown to increase both the rate of change of frequency and minimum frequency. The ability of controlling
the ramp rate of wind is shown to have some influence on secondary frequency response performance,
although modifying the AGC gain was slightly more effective. Grid codes will be modified in the future to
require at minimum overfrequency control and possibly inertial response to underfrequencies.
• Generator regulating reserves are influenced by the magnitude of combined load and wind forecast error.
The amount of additional reserves required is system specific and no general conclusions could be made.
For example, if probabilistic methods are used, the level of risk (i.e. ±2ó provides 95% confidence but ±3ó
provides 99.7 percent) accepted has a large influence on reserves. Increases in reserves are expected for
penetration levels in the 5 to 20 percent range and below 5 percent, the impact on reserves is expected to
be minor.
• High levels of penetration of wind in a local area can cause voltage or transient stability issues if the grid is
weak. Distribution connected generators have additional issues because they are typically installed without
voltage control and are operated at a constant power factor. Accordingly, dynamic reactive support can
help increase the penetration level of wind in local areas which might be constrained by voltage or transient
stability.
Page 39
• Integrating wind into a predominantly thermal system can help to reduce green house gas emissions.
However, the reduction may not be as great as expected if thermal plants are needed to address the
variability. An example is given where the expected GHG reduction is reduced 10 to 15 percent when a
highly variable plant is considered.
• Capacity credits for wind generation tend to decrease as the penetration level increases if geographic
dispersion is not sufficient. Low penetration levels (5 to 10 percent) may have a capacity credit near 35
percent, but this credit can drop to 5 to 10 percent for penetration levels near 50 percent.
• A brief survey of regulatory and support schemes in various countries was also undertaken. Ten countries
provided information on their technical issues and regulatory support schemes.
Page 40
Summary of the International Energy Agency (IEA) WIND Task 25 summary report
• Name of Study: Design and operation of power systems with large amounts of wind power, Final report,
IEA WIND Task 25, Phase one 2006-2008
• Year: 2009
• By: IEAWIND Task 25 group, (full list of authors: H. Holttinen, P. Meibom, A. Orths, F.van Hulle, B.Lange,
M. O’Malley, J. Pierik, B. Ummels, J.O. Tande, A. Estanqueiro, M. Matos, E. Gomez, L. Söder, G. Strbac,
A. Shakoor, J.Ricardo, J. C. Smith, M.Milligan, and E. Ela)
• Length: 229 pages, see http://www.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/tiedotteet/2009/T2493.pdf
• Purpose: Summary and covers state-of-the-art of wind integration studies and their methodologies.
• Methodology: The summary lists wind integration study results, with input and methodology information in
three groups: balancing, grid and capacity value. It provides summary graphs where quantifiable results
exist (MW increased reserve requirements due to wind power, €/MW increased balancing cost for the
system, relative to all wind power production, € grid reinforcements due to wind power, and MW capacity
value of wind power).
• Main Findings: The studies cover different penetrations and systems and exhibit a wide range of results.
Comparisons are difficult due to different assumptions, models and methodologies used in the studies. The
main conclusions are as follows:
• There is a required increase in short-term reserve of 1 to 15 percent of installed wind power capacity at 10
percent penetration and 4 to 18 percent of installed wind power capacity at 20 percent penetration. The
increased reserve requirement was calculated for the worst case (static, not dynamic) and does not
necessarily require new investments for reserve capacity; rather, generators that were formerly used to
provide energy could now be used to provide reserves. The reserve requirements will be lower if shorter
time scales are used in operation as wind power predictions will get more accurate.
• There is an increase in balancing costs at wind penetrations of up to 20 percent amounted to roughly 1 to 4

€/MW of wind power produced. Balancing costs reflect an increased use of reserves and less efficient
scheduling of power plants. Though there is an increase in balancing costs and less efficient scheduling of
power plants, the studies show a significant overall reduction of operational costs (fuel usage and costs)
due to wind power, even at higher penetration levels.
• The capacity credit of wind is in the range of 5 to 40 percent of installed capacity depending on penetration,
wind regime and correlation between wind and load.
• The cost of grid reinforcements due to wind power is very dependent on where the wind power plants are
located relative to load and grid infrastructure. Grid reinforcement costs roughly vary from 0 €/kW to 270
€/kW reflecting different systems, countries, grid infrastructure and calculation methodologies. The costs
are not continuous; there can be single, very high cost reinforcements, as well as differences in how the
costs are allocated to wind power.
Page 41
Recommended Future Work
This report has identified some of the challenges and solutions with integrating large amounts of variable non-
synchronous generation. It raises the following issues for further study :
• Further investigation is needed to identify the technical challenges and solutions for wind penetration levels
in excess of 20 to 30 percent.
• Further investigations are also needed to study the simultaneity of wind availability over larger cross-
national regions. Until now, at low market penetration, it has been possible to export wind power to
neighbouring regions/countries during excess situations or to import additional power when there is locally
a lack of wind. It is of particular importance to know if this will hold true for high area-wide market
penetration of wind power plants as well.
• When studying the impact of power produced from RES, it is not sufficient to consider only wind energy but
also solar energy. For example, it has been shown that there is less wind available during summer months
which could, however, be compensated for by solar power plants that deliver their maximum output during
this period. Also, the future potential of biogas and biomass needs to be analysed regarding its potential to
activate these resources at low wind conditions.
• Future work should also focus on the interaction of distributed (embedded) small-scale generation with bulk
generation (large wind parks on and offshore, large solar-thermal power plants in the sun-belt as well as
conventional generation). Although not only a domain for electricity, the future energy demand for heating
issues has to be taken into account. In this context, the possible contribution from distributed generation in
small-scale, gas-fired CHP-plants (mainly seen for domestic heating issues) has to be considered as their
operation will also be influenced by RES.
Page 42

Coping With Limits For Very High Penetrations of Renewable Energy

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Coping with Limits for Very High

American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA)

Distribution System Operators (DSO)

Electric Vehicles (EVs)

Independent System Operators (ISO)

International Energy Agency (IEA)

Regional Transmission Operators (RT0)

Renewable Energy Sources (RES)

Synchronous Renewable (SR)

Transmission System Operators (TSO)

Variable Non-Synchronous Renewable (VNSR)

Coping with Limits for Very High

Observation 2 – Increasing Operational Scheduling and Dispatch Challenges

Observation 3 – Development of New Dispatch Paradigms

Observation 5 – Voltage Stability, Transient Stability, Inertia, and Fault Levels

Observation 6 - Network Design and Build

Observation 8 – Grid Code Requirements, Practice and Enforcement

Observation 9 – Long Term Signals for Portfolio Mix

Observation 10 – Ancillary Services

Observation 12 – Working Group Discussion of Findings

Figure 1: Percentage Breakdown of Growth in Installed Renewable Capacity from Surveyed

Figure 2: Percentage Technology Mix of Non-Synchronous Generation

• the context for renewable generation across the world;

1.1 Methodology and Questionnaire Review

Figure 3: The Power System as a Control Process

Definition of Low, Medium and High Penetration of Renewables

Specifically, the definition of penetration used in this framework includes:

Chapter 2. The Global Context

Figure 4: Installed and Expected Percentage Level of Variable Non-Synchronous and

2.1 Regional Trends

2.2 European Union

Figure 5: Percentage of Installed (2007) and Expected Growth (2020) Non-Synchronous

2.3 North America (USA and Canada)

Figure 7: Percentage Variable Non-Synchronous and Synchronous RES in America (2007-2020).

Figure 8: Percentage Variable Non-Synchronous and Synchronous RES in Canada (2007-2020).

Figure 9: Percentage Variable Non-Synchronous and Synchronous RES in China (2007-2020).

Chapter 3. Impact of Increasing VNSR Generation

3.1 Network Infrastructure

3.2 Control Capabilities

Grid Code Development and Enforcement

3.3 Control Strategies

Forecasting Renewable Energy

Chapter 4. Discussion and Findings

Observation 2 – Increasing Operational Scheduling and Dispatch Challenges

Observation 3 – Development of New Dispatch Paradigms

Observation 5 – Voltage Stability, Transient Stability, Inertia, and Fault Levels

Observation 6 - Network Design and Build

Observation 8 – Grid Code Requirements, Practice and Enforcement

Observation 9 – Long Term Signals for Portfolio Mix

Observation 10 – Ancillary Services

Observation 12 – Working Group Discussion of Findings

Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations

CIGRE Brochure 450 (2011), “Grid Integration of Wind Generation”.

EirGrid (2010), Facilitation of Renewables, Dublin, Ireland.

Summary of the EWITS Report

• Name of Study: Eastern Wind Integration and Transmission Study (EWITS)

• By: DOE/NREL, funded study completed by Enernex Corp.

• Length: 242 pages, see http://www.nrel.gov/wind/systemsintegration/ewits.html

• Main Findings: The study provided the following major findings:

Summary of the WWSIS Report

• Name of Study: Western Wind and Solar Integration Study (WWSIS)

• By: DOE/NREL, funded study completed by GE Energy