HS I - Module

WOLLO UNIVERSITY
KOMBOLCHA INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE –I
MODULE
PREPARED BY
1. REBUMA WAKESA(MSC &ASALF SHUMETE(MSC)
DECEMBER 1, 2022
Hydraulic structure-I
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to element of dam engineering ............................................................. 4
1.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Dams and Reservoirs. ................................. 5
1.2. Dam Structures components And Reservoir ...................................................... 6
1.2.1. Dam structures Components ............................................................................ 6
1.2.2. Types of Reservoirs ......................................................................................... 7
1.2.3. Available Storage Capacity of a Reservoir ...................................................... 9
1.2.4. Components of dam and reservoir ................................................................. 12
1.3. Classification of Dams ........................................................................................ 15
1.3.1. Classification According to Use .................................................................... 15
1.3.2. Classification by Hydraulic Design ............................................................... 15
1.3.3. Classification based on rigidity ..................................................................... 16
1.3.4. Classification by Materials ............................................................................ 16
1.4. Embankment dam types and characteristics.................................................... 16
1.4.1. Earth fill embankments: ................................................................................. 17
1.4.2. Rockfill embankments: .................................................................................... 1
1.5. Concrete dam types and characteristics .................................................................. 3
1.6. Dam Site Assessment and Investigation .............................................................. 8
1.6.1. Parties Involved In Dam Engineering.................................................................. 8
1.6.2 Phases of Engineering Activities ....................................................................... 8
1.6.3 Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data .......................................................... 10
1.6.4 Stages in Project Planning and Implementation ................................................. 15
1.7. Selection of Type and Site of Dams ................................................................... 15
1.7.1 Selection of Different Types of Dams. ............................................................... 16
1.7.2 Selection of Dam Site ....................................................................................... 21
2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF CONCRETE DAMS ...................................................... 23
2.1. Gravity Dam Design and Analysis ........................................................................ 23
2.1.1. Forces Acting On Gravity Dams ....................................................................... 24
2.1.2. Load Combinations ........................................................................................ 34
2.1.3. Gravity Dam Analysis ................................................................................... 36
2.1.4. Theoretical Versus Practical Profile of Gravity Dam .................................... 48
2.1.5. Design Methods of Gravity Dam ................................................................... 52
2.1.5.2. Single Step Method .................................................................................... 54
2.1.6. Stabilizing and Heightening .......................................................................... 55
2.2. Arch Dam design and analysis ........................................................................... 58
2.2.1. Arch geometry and profile. ................................................................................ 59
2.2.2. Type of Arch dams ........................................................................................ 59
2.2.3. Loads on Arch Dam ....................................................................................... 62
2.2.4. Methods of Design of Massive Arch Dams. .................................................. 63
2.2.4.1. The thin cylinder theory ............................................................................. 63
2.2.4.2. Thick cylinder theory ................................................................................. 65
2.2.4.3. Elastic arch theory (Arch dam analysis) .................................................... 65
2.3. Buttress Dams ...................................................................................................... 67
2.3.1. Component Parts of Buttress Dams ................................................................... 67
2.3.2. Types of Buttress Dams ................................................................................. 69
2.3.4. Design Procedure of Flat-Slab Type Buttress Dams ..................................... 73

2.3.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Buttress Dams ......................................... 82
3. EMBANKMENT DAMS............................................................................................... 83
3.1. Key elements of Embankment dam ...................................................................... 83
3.2. Appurtenances of Embankment Dam .................................................................. 87
3.3. Earth Dams (earth fill dams) ................................................................................. 87
3.2.1. Types of Earth Dams ......................................................................................... 88
3.2.2. Causes of Failure of Embankment dams ........................................................... 93
3.2.3. Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam .............................................................. 95
3.2.4. Design of an Earth Dam .................................................................................... 96
3.2.5. Seepage Analysis ............................................................................................. 100
3.2.6. Characteristics of Phreatic line (Seepage line) ................................................ 108
3.2.7. Graphical determination of flow net ................................................................ 109
3.2.7. Stability Analysis ............................................................................................. 111
3.2.8. Control of Seepage through Earth Dam and Its Foundation ............................ 120
3.4. Rock fill Dams ........................................................................................................ 128
3.4.1. Components of Rockfill Dam .......................................................................... 129
3.4.2. Rock Fill Embankment Design ........................................................................ 131
4. FOUNDATIONS OF DAMS AND THEIR TREATMENT......................................... 134
4.1. Foundation treatment ....................................................................................... 134
4.2. Measures against leakage ................................................................................ 135
4.3. Stability of Dams and Strength of Rock Foundation ..................................... 137
4.4. Earth Foundation ................................................................................................. 137
4.5. Estimation of seepage amount ......................................................................... 138
4.6. Uplift pressure and control of seepage ............................................................ 141
4.6.1. Theories of Seepage Flow ........................................................................... 145
4.6.2. Uplift pressure and seepage under masonry structures on pervious
foundations ................................................................................................................ 147
5. RIVER DIVERSION ................................................................................................... 150
5.1. River Diversion for construction purpose .......................................................... 150
5.1.1. Components of A diversion Scheme ............................................................... 151
5.1.2. Ways of River Diversion ................................................................................. 151
5.2. Optimization of River Diversion Components ................................................... 153
5.2.1. Basic Planning Considerations ......................................................................... 154
Reference: ......................................................................................................................... 156
1. Introduction to element of dam engineering

What is hydraulic structure?
“All structures in contact with water”.
Hydraulic structures are engineering structures which can be used to control, store, divert,
distribute, measure and transport natural flow of water resources.
Hydraulic structures are old as civilization. There could not be developed civilization
without water management, so if we look back to ancient major settled civilization they
were using water supply systems and irrigation. E.g. Before 4000 BC dam built on Nile
River to provide water to ancient city Memphis.
Brief list of Hydraulic Structures (including those out of the scope of this lecture note are:
- Dams
- Intakes
- Outlets
- Spillways
- Energy Dissipaters: Stilling basins, Plunge pools, Flip Buckets, Ski Jumps, Aprons,
- Navigation structures- Locks, Ship-lifts and inclined plane, inland ports
- Pumping stations
- Canals, (Navigation and Water Conveyance), (Spawning canals)
- Other conveyance structures like pipelines
- Drop structures, Culverts and siphons
- Steel structures like gates, valves, air vessels, air vents, silt outlets
- Diversion work structures (Diversion dams and Weirs, river intakes, settling basins,
- Fish ladders and passes
- Check dams
- Hydropower stations
- Earth retaining structures
- other river training structures
- Bridges, aqueducts
- Tunnels
- Irrigation structures
- Levees and canal dikes
- Revetments
- Breakwaters
The Common Hydraulic Structures Definitions.
 Dam:-is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow,
often creating a Reservoir.
 Dike: - is a stone or earthen wall constructed as a defense or as a boundary. The

best-known form of dyke is a construction built along the edge of a body of water
to prevent it from flooding onto adjacent lowland.
 Levee: - is a natural or artificial structure, usually earthen, which parallels the

course of a river. It functions to prevent flooding of the adjoining countryside.
However, it also confines the flow of the river resulting in higher and faster water
flow.
 Weir: - is a small overflow type (designed to be overtopped) dam commonly used

to raise the level of a small river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir,
although some weirs have sluice gates which release water at a level below the top
of the weir.
 Barrage:-an obstruction across a river to raise water level and divert it. It has
control gates
 Check Dam: - is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil
erosion.
 Coffer dam: - is a temporary structure constructed of any material like timber,

steel, concrete, rock or earth. It is built to enclose certain work site or to divert the
flow to enable construction activity in the main river channel
1.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Dams and Reservoirs.

 The specific main functions /advantages of dams and reservoirs are:
 Temporal and quantitative balancing between available water and demand.
 Water storage for days, weeks, months, years, and over years for power
generation and sediment control
 Water supply (municipal, industrial or community water supply, irrigation
purposes)
 Flood control
 Regulation/balancing of river flow (such as navigation, low flow
augmentation)
 Recreation
 Multipurpose
 The presence of a dam with its storage reservoir interferes with the natural system.
Associated to this, the main disadvantages include:
 Resettlement and relocation
 Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley
 Interference in the landscape through dams and reservoirs
 Change of ground water level
 Strong influence on sediment balance
 Change in water temperature
 Decrease downstream water
 Spread of water born disease/home to disease-bearing insects)

 Failure problem
 Influence on fish
1.2. Dam Structures components And Reservoir
 Dam is structure/ barrier/obstruction constructed across the river to store water u/s
(behind the dam) for different purposes.
 Dams are structures controlling the flow of a river by completely blocking the
valley of a given river or drainage system.
 The artificial lake created/the retained water/ behind the dam is called reservoir.
 The side on which water gets collected is called the upstream side and the other
side of the barrier is called the downstream side.
 Dams are generally constructed in the mountainous reach of the river where the
valley is narrow and the foundation is good.
1.2.1. Dam structures Components

Structure related to dams includes; the dam structure, reservoir, diversion structure,
appurtenant structures such as spillways, bottom outlets, intakes and gates as well as
service roads and bridges.
Figure 1: Components dam structures

Key:-
1. Reservoir 5. Spill structure

2. Dam 6. Diversion structure
3. Service Intake 7. Service road
4. Bottom outlet
Reservoir: is an artificial lake created by flooding land behind a dam. Some of the
world's largest lakes are reservoirs.
Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir
to downstream side, many spillways have gates designed to control the flow through
the spillway.
Bottom outlets (Sluice way): An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is
used to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.
Diversion structure: are constructed for diverting water before the construction of
dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry.
Service Intake: it is one component of reservoir/ Dam that is located above the dead
storage elevation. This used to pass from active storage to service place.
Service road: access for transportation way.
1.2.2. Types of Reservoirs

A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam across a river. Broadly
speaking, any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir. However, the term reservoir
in water resources engineering is used in a restricted sense for a comparatively large body
of water stored on the upstream of a dam constructed for this purpose. Thus a dam and a
reservoir exist together. The discharge in a river generally varies considerably during
different periods of a year. Generally, based on quantity of function reservoir can be
classified; a single-purpose reservoir and a multipurpose reservoir.
 A single-purpose reservoir: a reservoir serves only one purpose.
 A multipurpose reservoir: if it serves more than one purpose.
The various purposes served by a multipurpose reservoir include;
(i) irrigation
(ii) municipal and Industrial water supply,
(iii) flood control
(iv) hydropower,
(v) navigation,
(vi) recreation,
(vii) development of fish and wild life,
(viii) soil conservation
(ix) pollution control and
(x) mosquito control.
Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five
types:
1. Storage (conservation) Reservoirs 4. Distribution Reservoir
2. Flood control Reservoirs 5. Balancing reservoir

3. Multipurpose Reservoirs
1. Storage reservoirs: Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because
they are used to conserve water. Storage reservoirs are constructed to Store the water in the
rainy season and to release it later when the river flow is low. storage reservoirs are usually
constructed for irrigation, the municipal water supply and hydropower. Although the
storage reservoirs are constructed for storing water for various purposes, incidentally they
also help in moderating the floods and reducing the flood damage to some extent on the
downstream. However, they are not designed as flood control reservoirs.
2. Flood control reservoirs: A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose of
flood control. It protects the areas lying on its downstream side from the damages due to
flood. However, absolute protection from extreme floods is not economically feasible. A
flood control reservoir reduces the flood damage, and it is also known as the flood-
mitigation reservoir. Sometimes, it is called flood protection reservoir. In a flood control
reservoir, the floodwater is discharged downstream till the outflow reaches the safe
capacity of the channel downstream. When the discharge exceeds the safe capacity. The
excess water is stored in the reservoir. The stored water is subsequently released when the
inflow to reservoir decreases. Care is, however, taken that the discharge in the channel
downstream, including local inflow, does not exceed its safe capacity. A flood control
reservoir is designed to moderate the flood and not to conserve water. However,
incidentally some storage is also done during the period of floods. Flood control reservoirs
have relatively large sluice-way capacity to permit rapid drawdown before or after the
occurrence of a flood.
3. Multipurpose Reservoirs: A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to

serve two or more purposes. Most of the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose reservoirs
to store water for irrigation and hydropower, and to effect flood control.
4. Distribution Reservoir: A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over

the peak demand of water for municipal water supply or irrigation. The distribution
reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It stores water
during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the period of high demand.
As the storage is limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per demand for a day or
so and not for storing it for a long period. Water is pumped from a water source at a
uniform rate throughout the day for 24 hours but the demand varies from time to time.
During the period when the demand of water is less than the pumping rate, the water is
stored in the distribution reservoir. On the other hand, when the demand of water is more
than the pumping rate, the distribution reservoir is used for supplying water at rates greater
than the pumping rate. Distribution reservoirs are rarely used for the supply of water for
irrigation. These are mainly used for municipal water supply.
5. Balancing reservoir: A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s of the

main reservoir for holding water released from the main reservoir.
Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water during
floods and to release it later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most
important characteristics. The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the
topography of the site and the height of dam. To determine the available storage capacity
of a reservoir up to a certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually conducted.
For accurate determination of the capacity, a topographic survey of the reservoir area is
usually conducted, and a contour map of the area is prepared. A contour plan of the area is
prepared to a scale of 1 cm = 100 m or 150 m with a contour interval of 1 to 3 m,
depending upon the size of the reservoir. The storage capacity and the water spread area
at different elevations can be determined from the contour map, as explained below.
1.2.3. Available Storage Capacity of a Reservoir

Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water during
floods and to release it later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most
important characteristics. The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the
topography of the site and the height of dam. To determine the available storage capacity
of a reservoir up to a certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually conducted.
For accurate determination of the capacity, a topographic survey of the reservoir area is
usually conducted, and a contour map of the area is prepared. A contour plan of the area is
prepared to a scale of 1 cm = 100 m or 150 m with a contour interval of 1 to 3 m,
depending upon the size of the reservoir. The storage capacity and the water spread area
at different elevations can be determined from the contour map, as explained below.
(A) Area- Elevation Curve: from the contour plan, the water spread of the reservoir at
any elevation is determined by measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding contour.
Generally, a planimeter is used for measuring the area. An area- elevation curve is then
drawn between the surface as abscissa and the elevation as ordinate (Fig.1.2).
Figure 2: Area- Elevation Curve

(b) Elevation-Capacity Curve: The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is
determined from the water spread area at various elevations. The following formulae are
commonly used to determine the storage capacity (i.e. storage volumes).
1. Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula, the storage volume

between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by:
∆v= ( ) (1.1)
Where h is the contour interval.
Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by;
V = V1 + V2 + V3 +............. = ∑
or V = [A1+2A2+2A3+...............+2An-1+An] (1.2)
Where n is the total number of areas.
2. Cone formula: According to the cone formula, the storage volume between two
Successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by:
∆v1 = ( √ ) (1.3)
The total volume V is given by:
V = V1 + V2 + V3 +............. = ∑
(1.4)
3. Prismoidal formula: According to the prismoidal formula, the storage volume between
three Successive contours of areas is given by:
∆v1 = ( ) (1.5)
The total volume is given by:
V = [(A1 + An) +4(A2 + A4 + A6 +....) + 2 (A3 + A5 + ...)] (1.6)
Where:- A3, A5, etc are the areas with odd numbers: A2, A4, A6, etc are the areas with
Even numbers A1 and An are respectively, the first and the last area.
The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd numbers of areas ( i.e. n
should be an odd number). In the case of even number of areas, the volume up to the last
but one area is determined by the prismoidal formula, and that of the last segment is
determined by the trapezoidal formula.
Storage Volume from cross-sectional areas: In the absence of adequate contour maps,
the storage volume can be computed from the cross-sectional areas of the river. Cross-
sectional areas are obtained from the cross-sections of the river taken upstream of the dam
up to the u/s end of the reservoir. The volume is determined from the prismoidal formula,
V = [(A1 + An) +4(A2 + A4 +.......) + 2 (A3 + A5 + .....)] (1.7)
Where A1, A2 etc. are the area of the cross-section of the river up o the full reservoir
level and d is the distance between the sections. The formula is applicable for odd number
of sections.
Figure 1-3 Elevation-Capacity Curve
(C) Combined diagram: it is the usual practice to plot both the elevation are curve and the
elevation-storage curve on the same paper (Fig. 1.4). The reader should carefully note the
abscissa marking as the areas and volumes increase in the opposite directions:
Figure 1-4 Area – Elevation-Capacity Curve
Figure 1-5 Reservoir-Capacity Contour View

Submerged area: In addition to finding out the capacity of a reservoir, the contour map of
the reservoir can also be used to determine the land and property which would be
submerged when the reservoir is filled up to various elevations. It would enable one to
estimate the compensation to be paid to the owners of the submerged property and land.
The time schedule, according to which the areas should be evacuated, as the reservoir is
gradually filled, can also be drawn.
1.2.4. Components of dam and reservoir

A large number of terms are commonly used for reservoir planning. These terms are
defined below. It may be noted that various terms are sometimes used to indicate the same
quantity.
 Full reservoir level (FRL): The full reservoir level (FRL) is the highest water
level to which the water surface will rise during normal operating conditions. The
effective storage of the reservoir is computed up to the full reservoir level. The FRI
is the highest level at which water is intended to be held for various uses without
any passage of water through the spil1way. In case of dams without spillway gates,
the FRL is equal to the crest level of the spillway [Fig 1-6(a)]. However, if the
spillway is gated, the FRL is equal to the level of the top of the gates [ Fig. 1-6(b)].
Figure 1-6 components of dam and reservoir

The full reservoir level is also called the full tank level (FTL) or the normal pool level
(NPL).
 Normal conservation level (NCL): It is the highest level of the reservoir at which
water is intended to be stored for various uses other than flood. The normal
conservation level is different from the FRL as the latter may include a part of the
flood. However, if there is no storage for flood up to FRL, the normal conservation
level and the FRL become identical.
 Maximum water level (MWL): The maximum water level is the maximum level
to which the water surface will rise when the design flood passes over the spillway.
The maximum water level is higher than the full reservoir level so that some
surcharge storage is available between the two levels to absorb flood. The
maximum water level is also called the maximum pool level (MPL) or maximum
flood level (MFL).
 Minimum pool level (MPL): The minimum pool level is the lowest level up to
which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary conditions. The
minimum pool level generally corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet (or
sluiceway) of the dam. However, in the case of a reservoir for hydroelectric power,
the minimum pool level is fixed after considering the minimum working head
required for the efficient working of turbines. The storage below the minimum pool
level is not useful and is called the dead storage.
 Useful storage: The volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL)
and the minimum pool level is called the useful storage. The useful storage is
available for various purposes of the reservoir. In most of the reservoirs, the useful
storage is the conservation storage of the reservoir. However, in the case of
multipurpose reservoirs in which the flood control is also a designed function, the
useful storage is subdivided into (a) the conservation storage for other purposes and
(b) the flood control storage for the flood control, in accordance with the adopted
plan of operation of the reservoir. The useful storage is also known as the live
storage.
 Surcharge storage: The surcharge storage is the volume of water stored above the
full reservoir level up to the maximum water level. The surcharge storage is
uncontrolled storage which exists only when the river is in flood and the flood
water is passing over the spillway. This storage is available only for the absorption
of flood and it cannot be used for other purposes.
 Dead storage: The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called
the dead storage. The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any
purpose under ordinary operating conditions.
 Bank storage: If the banks of the reservoir are porous, some water is temporarily
stored by them when the reservoir is full. The stored water in banks later drains into
the reservoir when the water level in the reservoir falls. Thus the banks of the
reservoir act like mini reservoirs. The bank storage increases the effective capacity
of the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation-storage curve. However, in
most of the reservoirs, the bank storage is small because the banks are usually
impervious.
 Valley storage: The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley
up to the top of its banks before the construction of a reservoir is called the valley
storage. The valley storage depends upon the cross section of the river, the length
of the river and its water level. The net increase in the storage capacity after the
construction of a reservoir is equal to the total capacity of the reservoir up to FRL
minus the valley storage. However, this distinction between the net storage capacity
and the total storage capacity is not of much significance in a conservation or
storage reservoir where the main concern is the total water available for different
purposes. But in the case of a flood control reservoir, the difference between the net
storage capacity and the total storage capacity is quite important because the
effective storage for flood control is reduced due to the valley storage. The
effective storage is equal to the sum of the useful storage and the surcharge storage
minus the valley storage in the case of a flood control reservoir.
 Yield from a reservoir: Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn
from a reservoir in a specified period of time. The time period for the estimation of
yield is selected according to the size of the reservoir. It may be a day for a small
reservoir and a month or a year for a large reservoir. The yield is usually expressed
as Mha-m/year or Mm3/year for large reservoirs. As discussed later, the yield is
determined from the storage capacity of the reservoir and the mass inflow curve.
 Safe yield (Firm yield): Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be
supplied from a reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year.
Generally, the lowest recorded natural flow of the river for a number of years is taken
as the critical dry period for determining the safe yield. However, there is a possibility
that a still drier period may occur in future and the yield available may be even less
than that determined on the basis of past records. This factor should be kept in mind
while fixing the safe yield. There is generally a firm commitment by the organization
to the consumers that the safe yield will be available to them. It is therefore also called
the firm yield or the guaranteed yield.
 Secondary yield: Secondary yield is the quantity of water which is available

during the period of high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe
yield. There is no firm commitment (or guarantee) to supply the secondary yield. It
is supplied on as and when basis at the lower rates. The hydropower developed
from secondary yield is sold to industries at cheaper rates. However, the power
commitment for domestic supply should be based on the firm yield.
 Average yield: The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the
secondary yield over a long period of time.
 Design yield The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The
design yield is usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and
the amount of risk involved. The design yield should be such that the demands of
the consumers are reasonably met with, and at the same time, the storage required
is not unduly large. Generally, a reservoir for the domestic water supply is planned
on the basis of firm yield. On the other hand, a reservoir for irrigation may be
planned with a value of design yield equal to 12 times the firm yield because more
risk can~ be taken for the irrigation water supply than for domestic water supply.
1.3. Classification of Dams

1.3.1. Classification According to Use
Dams may be classified according to the broad function they serve, such as storage,
diversion, or detention. Refinements of these classifications can also be made by
considering the specific functions involved.
Storage dams: are constructed to impound water during periods of surplus supply for
use during periods of deficient supply. These periods may be seasonal, annual, or
longer. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for use in the dry summer season.
Storage dams may be further classified according to the purpose of the storage, such as
water supply, recreation, fish and wildlife, hydroelectric power generation, irrigation,
etc. The specific purpose or purposes to be served by a storage dam often influence the
design of the structure and may establish criteria such as the amount of reservoir
fluctuation expected or the amount of reservoir seepage permitted.
Diversion dams: are ordinarily constructed to provide head for carrying water into
ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. They are used for irrigation
developments, for diversion from a live stream to an off-channel-location storage
reservoir, for municipal and industrial uses, or for any combination of the above.
Figure 1-8 shows a typical small diversion dam.
Detention dams: are constructed to retard flood runoff and minimize the effect of
sudden floods. Detention dams consist of two main types. In one type, the water is
temporarily stored and released through an outlet structure at a rate that does not
exceed the carrying capacity of the channel downstream. In the other type, the water is
held as long as possible and allowed to seep into pervious banks or into the foundation.
The latter type is sometimes called a water-spreading dam or dike because its main
purpose is to recharge the underground water supply. Some detention dams are
constructed to trap sediments; these are often called debris dams. Although it is less
common on small projects than on large developments, dams are often constructed to
serve more than one purpose. Where multiple purposes are involved, a reservoir
allocation is usually made to each distinct use. A common multipurpose project
combines storage, flood control, and recreational uses.
1.3.2. Classification by Hydraulic Design

Dams can be classified as overflow or non overflow dams, and may also rigid and none
rigid dam classification.
Overflow dams: are designed to carry discharge over their crests or through spillways
along the crest. Concrete is the most common material used for this type of dam.
Non-overflow dams: are those designed not to be overtopped. This type of design
extends the choice of materials to include earth fill and rock fill dams. Often the two
types are combined to form a composite structure consisting of, for example, an
overflow concrete gravity dam with earth fills dikes.
1.3.3. Classification based on rigidity

Rigid and None Rigid Dams: rigid dam are those which are constructed of rigid
materials like masonry, concrete, steel, timber, etc while non-rigid dams are
constructed of earth and rock-fill.
1.3.4. Classification by Materials

Generally dam constructed by these materials; earth, rock, steel, masonry, timber and
concrete.
Earth dams: are made of soil that is pounded down solidly. Earth dams are non-rigid
dams constructed of naturally excavated materials (clay, sand and gravel) placed
without addition of binding material other than those inherent in the natural material.
Hydraulic Fill Dams: are suitable in valleys of soft material and are constructed by
pumping soft material duly consolidated up to moderated heights up to 30m. A
hydraulic fill is an embankment or other fill in which the materials are deposited in
place by a flowing stream of water, with the deposition being selective. Gravity,
coupled with velocity control, is used to effect the selected deposition of the material.
Rock fill dams: are formed of loose rocks and boulders piled in the river bed.
Steel dams: these are not used for major works. Today, steel dam are used as
temporary coffer dams needed for the construction of permanent dams. Steel coffer
dams are usually reinforced with timber or earthfill.
Timber dams: these are short lived, since in a few years time, rotting sets in. Their life
is not more than 30 to 40 years and must have regular maintenance during that time.
However they are valuable in agricultural areas, where a cattle raiser may need a pool
for his live stock to drink from Masonry dams: are more durable and solid than earth
and rock dams. They can be constructed on any dam site, where there is natural
foundation strong enough to bear the great weight of the dam. They designed as solid
and hollow gravity dam.
Concrete dams: are requiring processed natural materials of suitable quantity and
quality for aggregate., and for meeting other such low-level needs.
1.4. Embankment dam types and characteristics

The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from natural materials
excavated or obtained close by.
An embankment dam can be constructed of excavated materials (clay, sand and

gravel) in a such away that;
– the material is usually obtained at or near dam site
– placed without addition of binding materials
– compacted using high capacity mechanical plant
The materials available are utilized to the best advantage in relation to their
characteristics as an engineered bulk fill in defined zones within the dam section.
The natural fill materials are placed and compacted without the addition of any
binding agent, using high-capacity mechanical plant. These dams depends on shear
strength of soil for stability. Embankment construction is consequently now an
almost continuous and highly mechanized process, weather and soil conditions
permitting, and is thus plant intensive rather than labor intensive. Embankment
dams can be classified in broad terms as being earthfill or rockfill dams.
1.4.1. Earth fill embankments:

An embankment may be categorized as an earthfill dam if compacted soils account
for over 50% of the placed volume of material.
An earthfill dam is constructed primarily of selected engineering soils compacted
uniformly and intensively in relatively thin layers and at a controlled moisture
content
Outline sections of some common variants relatively thin layers and at a controlled
moisture content. Outline sections of some common variants of the earthfill embankment
are illustrated in Fig. 1-10
Figure 1-7 Principal variants of earthfill and earthfill–rockfill embankment dams
(values of m are indicative only)
1.4.2. Rockfill embankments:

In the rockfill embankment the section includes a discrete impervious element of
compacted earthfill or a slender concrete or bituminous membrane. The
designation „rockfill embankment‟ is appropriate where over 50% of the fill
material may be classified as rockfill, i.e. coarse-grained frictional material.
Modern practice is to specify a graded rockfill, heavily compacted in relatively
thin layers by heavy plant. The construction method is therefore essentially similar
to that for the earthfill embankment. The terms „zoned rockfill dam‟ or „earthfill–
rockfill dam‟ are used to describe rockfill embankments incorporating relatively
wide impervious zones of compacted earthfill. Rockfill embankments employing a
thin upstream membrane of asphaltic concrete, reinforced concrete or other
manufactured material are referred to as „decked rockfill dams. The saving in fill
quantity arising from the use of rockfill for a dam of given height is very
considerable. It arises from the frictional nature of rockfill, which gives relatively
high shear strength, and from high perme-ability, resulting in the virtual
elimination of pore water pressure problems and permitting steeper slopes. The
variants of earthfill and rockfill embankments employed in practice are too
numerous to identify all individually.
Figure 1-8 Principal variants of rockfill embankment dams
(values of m are indicative only)
The embankment dam possesses many outstanding merits which combine to ensure its
continued dominance as a generic type. The more important can be summarized as
follows:
 The suitability of the type to sites in wide valleys and relatively steep sided gorges
alike;
 Adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions, ranging from competent
rock to soft and compressible or relatively pervious soil formations;
 The use of natural materials, minimizing the need to import or transport large
quantities of processed materials or cement to the site;
 Subject to satisfying essential design criteria, the embankment design is extremely
flexible in its ability to accommodate different fill materials, e.g. earthfills and/or
rockfills, if suitably zoned internally;
 The construction process is highly mechanized and is effectively continuous;
 Largely in consequence of 5, the unit costs of earthfill and rockfill have risen much
more slowly in real terms than those for mass concrete;
 Properly designed, the embankment can safely accommodate an appreciable
degree of settlement–deformation without risk of serious cracking and possible
failure.
The relative disadvantages of the embankment dam are few. The most important
include an inherently greater susceptibility to damage or destruction by overtopping,
with a consequent need to ensure adequate flood relief and a separate spillway, and
vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or foundation.
Examples of alternative types of embankment dam are illustrated and described in
Thomas (1976), Golze (1977) and Fell, MacGregor and Stapledon (1992).
1.5. Concrete dam types and characteristics
Concrete dams are a dam made of stone or concrete materials.
General: Rubble masonry or random masonry was successfully employed for many
early dams. In the latter half of the 19th century, masonry was used for high dams
constructed in accordance with the first rational design criteria. Cyclopean masonry
(i.e. stones of up to c.10 t mass individually bedded in a dry mortar) was generally
used, with a dressed masonry outer facing for durability and appearance (Binnie,
1987b). Mass concrete, initially without the formed transverse contraction joints,
began to displace masonry for the construction of large non-embankment dams from
about 1900 for economic reasons and also for ease of construction for more complex
dam profiles, e.g. the arch. Early mass concrete commonly employed large stone
„displacers‟ (cf.cyclopean masonry). From about 1950 mass concrete increasingly
incorporated bulk mineral additives, e.g. slags or pulverized fuel ash (PFA), in
attempts to reduce thermal problems and cracking and to contain escalating costs.
Concrete dams are mainly divided in to gravity dam, arch dam and buttress dam.
1. Gravity dams: A concrete gravity dam is entirely dependent upon its own mass for
stability. The gravity profile is essentially triangular, with the outline geometry
indicated on Fig.1.11 to ensure stability and to avoid overstressing of the dam or its
foundation. Some gravity dams are gently curved in plan for aesthetic or other reasons,
and without placing any reliance upon arch action for stability. Where a limited degree
of arch action is deliberately introduced in design, allowing a rather slimmer profile,
the term arched or arch-gravity dam may be employed.
Figure 1-9 Example of concrete Gravity dam

(Shasta Dam impounds the Sacramento River in northern California)
2. Buttress dams: In structural concept the buttress dam consists of a continuous
upstream face supported at regular intervals by downstream buttresses. The solid head or
massive buttress dam, as illustrated by Fig.1.13 is the most prominent modern variant of
the type, and may be considered for conceptual purposes
as a lightened version of the gravity dam.

Figure 1-10 Profile of buttress dam (Lake Tahoe Dam impounds the Truckee River in
northern California)
3. Arch dams: The arch dam has a considerable upstream curvature. Structurally it
functions primarily as a horizontal arch, transmitting the major portion of the water load to
the abutments or valley sides rather than to the floor of the valley. A relatively simple
arch, i.e. with horizontal curvature only and a constant upstream radius, is shown in Fig.
1.14 It is structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing the
volume of concrete required. A particular derivative of the simple arch dam is the cupola
or double curvature arch dam Fig. 1.15 The cupola dam introduces complex curvatures in
the vertical as well as the horizontal plane. It is the most sophisticated of concrete dams,
being essentially a dome or shell structure, and is extremely economical in concrete.
Abutment stability is critical to the structural integrity and safety of both the cupola and
the simple arch.
Figure 1-11 Simple of Arch dams (Monticello Dam impounds Putah Creek west of
Sacramento, California)
Figure 1-12 cupola (multiple) of Arch dams (Bartlett Dam impounds the Verde River
northeast of Phoenix, Arizona)
4. Other concrete dams: are include hollow gravity, decked buttress, flat slab
(Ambursen) buttress, multiple arch, and multiple cupola dams, as illustrated in Fig. 1-15.
The type names are self-explanatory, and the structural parentage of each as a derivative
of one or other of the principal types is apparent from the figures. In view of this and of
the relative rarity of the variants they are not considered further in this module.
The characteristics of concrete dams are outlined below with respect to the major types,
i.e. gravity, massive buttress and arch or cupola dams. Certain characteristics are shared
by all or most of these types; many are, however, specific to particular variants. Merits
shared by most concrete dams include the following:
 Arch and cupola dams excepted, concrete dams are suitable to the site topography
of wide or narrow valleys alike, provided that a competent rock foundation is
accessible at moderate depth (5 m).
 Concrete dams are not sensitive to overtopping under extreme flood conditions (cf.
the embankment dam).
 All concrete dams can accommodate a crest spillway, if necessary over their entire
length, provided that steps are taken to control downstream erosion and possible
undermining of the dam. The cost of a separate spillway and channel are therefore
avoided.
 Outlet pipe work, valves and other ancillary works are readily and safely housed in
chambers or galleries within the dam.
 The inherent ability to withstand seismic disturbance without catastrophic collapse
is generally high.
 The cupola or double-curvature arch dam is an extremely strong and efficient
structure, given a narrow valley with competent abutments.
A comparison of the general characteristics of concrete dams with those of the
embankment dam suggests the following inherent disadvantages for the former.
 Concrete dams are relatively demanding with respect to foundation conditions,

requiring sound and stable rock.
 Concrete dams require processed natural materials of suitable quality and quantity
for aggregate, and the importation to site and storage of bulk cement and other
materials.
 Traditional mass concrete construction is relatively slow, being labor intensive and
discontinuous, and requires certain skills, e.g. for formwork, concreting, etc.
 Completed unit costs for mass concrete, i.e. cost per cubic meter, are very much
higher than for embankment fills, typically by an order of magnitude or more. This
is seldom counterbalanced by the much lower volumes of concrete required in a
dam of given height.
However, the limitations of generalizations on the merits of either type must be
appreciated. An open mind must be maintained when considering possible dam types
in relation to a specific site, and evaluation must attach proper weight to local
circumstances. Economic comparisons apart, other non engineering factors may be of
importance.
1.6. Dam Site Assessment and Investigation
General: Most failures of dams are due to lack of appreciation of how the particular
dam site would react to the superposition of the dam and reservoir. It is therefore
essential that a detailed site investigation takes place and the results are appropriately
used by Engineers.
1.6.1. Parties Involved In Dam Engineering

Parties directly involved in engineering of dam activities are:
 Owner: public or private organization.

 Provision of financial resources
- Establishment of general objectives
 Consulting Engineer:
- Planning and design
- Construction supervision
 Contractor for civil works:
- Construction of required infrastructure
- Construction of civil works
- Assembly of equipments
1.6.2 Phases of Engineering Activities
Before a specific project is implemented and planned in a basin, a MASTER PLAN for
the use of water resources in the basin has to be established. (Refer the course on water
resources planning). Usually the site investigation and planning activity comprises of
hydraulic engineer, hydrologist, civil engineer, surveyor, geologist (or hydro geologist),
and sociologist (sometimes) with whom the hydraulic engineer is the team leader. The
following sequences of activities are focused on a particular dam that is part of the
proposed master plan development.
A) Prior to construction:
 Preliminary studies;-
- Collection and evaluation of existing data
- Field trips- reconnaissance of dam site and reservoir area, downstream area
- Preliminary dam design including selection of type, main dimensions,
approximate site, costs, etc
 Feasibility studies;-
- Detailed investigation of site conditions
- Final selection of site
- Final selection of dam type, main dimensions, lay out
 Basic design;-
- Completion of detailed site investigations
- Detailed design, cost estimates construction schedules,
- Development of:
 Basic report
 Tender documents for the construction of civil works (drawings,
specifications, general and special contract conditions)
B) During Construction:
 Detailed (construction execution design);-

- Stepwise detail of dam design a head of construction
- Site investigations oriented towards construction
 Construction activities;-
- Preliminary installation of contractor at site
- Construction of required infrastructure (road, camp, plant, water and energy
supply, etc)
- River diversion
- Construction of dam and associated structures
 Construction and assembly supervision
 Commissioning and operation manuals
- Preparation of manuals for testing, monitoring and operation of equipment.
Maintenance
C) After construction:
 Monitoring, surveillance, operation

- Reading of instruments, evaluation of results
- Planning of operation
- Execution of operation activities
1.6.3 Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data
In order to carry out reliable dam engineering activities there are major aspects that could
be regarded as basic „input‟ data that must be carefully studied. Topography and
geomorphology, geology and hydrogeology, metrology and climate, hydrology and
hydraulics are among those.
A) Topographic survey: No engineering work can be done without topographic maps.

Most of the countries in the world have ready-made maps for all or most of the area up to
certain scale (it is usually 1:10,000 in Ethiopia. Those, if existent, can be used for
preliminary studies. However, more detailed maps are required for each particular project,
and those are to be done on purposes, covering the areas determined by the project team.
 aims to determine and present:
- Configuration of the dam site
- Configuration of the reservoir area
- Accessibility to the site
- Accessibility to construction material sources and deposits
 Reasons:
- Importance in dam type selection
- Importance in the selection of appurtenant structures
 Methods:
- Arial surveying (used both for preparation of maps and for different
analysis of the data such as geological, geo-morphological, topographical,
etc)
- Ground surveying (scale maps, ground profiles –sections …)
Generally the following are minimum requirements for scale maps:
 Master plan: 1:100000, 1:50000, 1:25000, 1:20000, 1:10000

 Pre-feasibility: 1:10000, 1:5000, 1:2500, 1:2000,1:1000
 Feasibility: 1:2500, 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500
 Final (detailed design): 1:500, 1:250,1:200,1:100,1:50
B) Geological and Geotechnical Investigations: Geological and geotechnical
investigations of dam site selected for detailed evaluation is directed to determination of
geological structure, stratigraphy, faulting, foliation and jointing, and to establishing
ground and groundwater conditions adjacent to the dam site, including the abutments. The
general objectives of these and allied objectives are:
 To determine engineering parameters which can be safely used to evaluate
stability of the dam foundation and, on compressible foundations, i.e. soils, to
estimate the probable settlement and deformation,
 The determination of seepage patterns and parameters enabling assessment of
the probable seepage regime, including quantities and pressures and
 To confirm the containment integrity of the reservoir basin and the stability of
its margins.
 Confirmation of the nature, suitability and availability of natural construction
materials, including the determination of the design parameters for fill
materials.
Geological investigation also assess the availability (source, soil classification), quantity
and quality (types – gradation and mineral content, properties and characteristics, shear
strength, permeability, compressibility, penetration resistance) of the construction
material. The quality terms of the construction material are the suitability of the
material for:
 Embankment
 Rip rap and rockfill
 Concrete aggregate
Foundation competence of the dam site will be assessed in terms of stability, load
carrying capacity, compressibility (soils) or deformability (rocks), and effective mass
permeability. Foundation seepage is less critical in embankment das than for the concrete
dams, as seepage paths are much longer. Discontinuity shear strength is generally of less
importance in case of embankment dams.
The presence of extensive solution cavities and fissures renders all such sites peculiarly
difficult. It is essential that the extent of the karstic features and their configuration in
terms of void continuity be established. Geological studies can be useful for the initial
interpretation of the karstic landforms as a guide to the planning of the detailed
investigation. Aerial survey often reveals shallow karstic cavities, and geophysical
methods can also be of value. Exploration and investigation methods for both foundation
and construction material are:
 Surface exploration
- Fluvial-lacustrine (flood plain deposits)
- Residual soils
 Geophysical (surface) explorations
- Seismic refraction
- Seismic reflection
- Electrical resistivity profiling
 Subsurface exploration
- Accessible methods: Test pits, large diameter borings, trenches, tunnels et.
- Inaccessible methods: Cone penetration methods, standard penetration,
auger drilling, percussion drilling, rotary drilling, core drilling
 Field and laboratory tests
- Field permeability tests
- In-place unit weight test
- Vane shear test
- Laboratory tests on soils (gradation, moisture, specific gravity, compaction,
density), aggregate (specific gravity, absorption, abrasion, soundness) and
rock (mono-axial, tri-axial compression tests, shear resistance etc.)
C) Hydrogeology: is especial branch of geology that deals with interaction of water and
rock/soil. That determines-
 groundwater seepage paths and connections
 mechanical and chemical actions of water on geological formations
 Inter-relation of different hydrogeological formations (barriers, conductors,
anticlines, synclines ...etc).
Explorations:
 water permeability tests

 piezometric measurements
 marking and tracing groundwater seepage paths
D) Metrology and Climatology:
Metrology and climate has to be studied for two main reasons:
 One is backing up of the hydrological data analysis. Studying precipitation and
temperature distributions, humidity and moisture content (of air and soil) can
help a great deal in determining flow regimes, supporting necessary
considerations to obtain reliable hydrological data. In some cases it may be
useful to “fill in the blank”, i.e. restoring missing data in conjunction with
runoff characteristics of the catchment area. In other cases it is essential for the
determination of PMF through determination and application of PMP.
 Other is to help making decisions up on construction schedules and methods by
analysis of temperature distributions, air humidity, precipitations, winds, solar
radiations, etc. With those data carefully studied scheduling of special phases
can be determined, e.g. storing aggregates for pre-cooling purposes, for concrete
placement, placing materials during periods without (or not intensive)
precipitations or during appropriate (acceptable) temperatures.
Methods of measurement and analysis:-
 Metrological gauging stations

 Triangular interpolation
 Statistical correlations
E) Hydrological Aspects and Related Hydraulic Aspects
 River discharge serious: is variation of discharges in time at a given section on a

river (preferably at sections of interest). Its importance is:
 Determination of availability of water
 Study of discharge regulation by use of reservoir
 Determination of production capabilities for different purposes (hydropower,
irrigation, water supply, etc).
 Completing discharge series:
 Rainfall-runoff models: transformation of precipitation in runoff + routing
(SSAR, HEC)
 Regression models; statistical correlation
 Stochastic models, stochastic hydrology
 Safety standards for dams:
 Design dams and spillways large enough to ensure that the dam will not be
overtopped by floods up to probable maximum categories.
 Design the dam and associated structures so that they can be overtopped without
destruction or if possible without serious damage.
 Design the dam and associated structures so to ensure a slow breaching to
protect downstream reaches design in such a way that repairs may be carried out
most economically.
 Keep the dam low enough and impoundment small enough to avoid serious
hazards downstream
 Determination of design floods:
 Envelope curves for river basins- Myers. Creager. Crippen Qmax= CAn
 Observation of floods- flood hydrographs
 Statistical distribution- Gummbel, Log. Pearson. Other distribution
 Empirical methods based on runoff. Precipitations, basin characteristics.
 Unit hydrographs techniques.
 Storm patterns, PMP/PMF techniques.
 Important factors to be taken in to account:
 Antecedent conditions- moisture of ground. Pervious precipitations. Base flow
 Sources of runoff; rainfall, snowmelt
 Intensity, duration geographic distribution of rainfall
 Storm patterns, hydro-meteorological condition
 Routing through channel system.
Usually design procedure application of several methods. More and more widespread use
of PMP/PMF approach; checked against statistical methods. PMP/PMF methods are
followed by divided drainage basin in meteorologically homogeneous sub- basins and
Study applicable maximum moisture content of atmosphere.
1.6.4 Stages in Project Planning and Implementation
Strategic Planning:
Project Initiative
Field Reconnaissance Mapping, Surveys, Data collection
Feasibility study and report Technical resources, options, etc.
Phase 1 dam site evaluation: reservoir site evaluation
Confirmation of dam type
Phase 2 dam site

investigations
Dam design
Construction foundation feedback
Figure 1-13 Stages in dam site appraisal and project development (P. Novak, 2001)
1.7. Selection of Type and Site of Dams
General: During the early stages of planning and design, selection of the site and the
type of dam should be carefully considered, and it is only in exceptional circumstances
that only one type of dam or appurtenant structure is suitable for a given dam site.
Generally, preliminary designs and estimates for several types of dams and
appurtenant structures are required before one can be proved the most suitable and
economical. It is, therefore, important to understand that the project is likely to be
unduly expensive unless decisions regarding the site selection and the type of dam are
based upon adequate study. The selection of the type of dam requires cooperation
among experts representing several disciplines-including planners; hydrologists;
geotechnical, hydraulic, and structural engineers; and engineering geologists-to ensure
economical and appropriate designs for the physical factors, such as topography,
geology and foundation conditions, available materials, hydrology, and seismicity.
Protection from spillway discharges, limitations of outlet works, the problem of
diverting the stream during construction, availability of labor and equipment,
accessibility of the site, physical features of the site, the purpose of the dam, and dam
safety all affect the final choice of the type of dam. Usually, the final choice of the
type of dam is based on a comparison of the costs to construct the various dam types
studied.
1.7.1 Selection of Different Types of Dams.

The engineer should proceed on the premise that every dam site is unique. Many factors
may affect the selection of type of dam. The main factors are:-
(1) Topography.-Topographic considerations include the surface configuration of the dam

site and of the reservoir area and accessibility to the site and to construction materials.
Topography, in large measure, dictates the first choice of the type of dam. A narrow
stream flowing between high, rocky walls would naturally suggest a rock fill or concrete
overflow dam. On the other hand, low, rolling plains would suggest an earth fill dam.
Intermediate conditions might suggest other choices, such as a composite structure. The
point is that topography is of major significance in choosing the dam type. Topography
may also have an important influence on the selection of appurtenant structures. For
example, if there are natural saddles, it may be possible to locate a spillway through a
saddle. If the reservoir rim is high compared with the dam height, and it is unbroken, a
chute or tunnel spillway might be necessary. The spillway considerations can influence the
type of dam. In a deep, steep-walled canyon, it might be more economical to construct a
concrete dam with an overflow spillway than to provide a spillway for a rock fill dam. In
general terms for V shaped valleys – concrete dams: for wide U shaped valleys with mild
lateral slopes – earth or rock fill dams (or RCC – roller compacted concrete gravity
dam).The shape of cross section is shown below the figure 1-14.
Figure 1-14 valley shape (forms)
(2) Geology and Foundation Conditions.
The suitability of the various types of rock and soil as foundation and construction
materials is geologic questions that must be considered. The foundation geology at a dam
site often dictates the type of dam suitable for that site. The strength, thickness, and
inclination of strata; permeability; fracturing; and faulting are all important considerations
in selecting the dam type. Some of the different foundations commonly encountered are
discussed below.
 Rock Foundations: Competent rock foundations, which are free of significant

geologic defects, have relatively high shear strengths, and are resistant to erosion
and percolation, offer few restrictions as to the type of dam that can be built upon
them. The economy of materials or the overall cost should be the ruling factor. The
removal of disintegrated rock together with the sealing of seams and fractures by
grouting is frequently necessary. Weaker rocks such as clay shale‟s, some
sandstones, weathered basalt, etc., may present significant problems to the design
and construction of a dam and may heavily influence the type of dam
 Gravel Foundations: Gravel foundations, if well compacted, are suitable for earth
fill or rock fill dams. Because gravel foundations are frequently subjected to water
percolation at high rates, special precautions must be taken to provide adequate
seepage control or effective water cutoffs or seals.
 Silt or Fine Sand Foundations: Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for low
concrete gravity dams and earth fill dams if properly designed, but they are
generally not suitable for rock fill dams. Design concerns include non uniform
settlement, potential soil collapse upon saturation, uplift forces, the prevention of
piping, excessive percolation losses, and protection of the foundation at the
downstream embankment toe from erosion.
 Clay Foundations: Clay foundations can be used for the support of earth fill
dams, but requires relatively flat embankment slopes because of relatively lower
foundation shear strengths. Clay foundations under dams can also consolidate
significantly. Because of the requirement for flatter slopes and the tendency for
clay foundations to settle a lot, it is usually not economical to construct a rock fill
dam on a clay foundation. Clay foundations are also ordinarily not suitable for
concrete gravity dams. Tests of the foundation material in its natural state are
usually required to determine the consolidation characteristics of the foundation
strata and their ability to support the superimposed load.
 Non-uniform Foundations.- Occasionally, situations occur where reasonably
uniform foundations of any of the types described above cannot be found and
where a non-uniform foundation of rock and soft material must be used if the dam
is to be built. Nevertheless, such conditions can often counterbalanced by special
design features. Even dam sites that are not highly unusual present special
problems requiring the selection of appropriate treatment by experienced
engineers. The details of the foundation treatments mentioned above are given in
the appropriate chapters on the design of earth fill, rock fill, and concrete gravity
dams.
(3) Materials Available:
Elimination, or reduction of transportation expenses for construction materials,

particularly those used in great quantities, reduce the total cost of the project considerably.
The most economical type of dam is often the one for which a large quantity of materials
can be found within a reasonable distance from the site. The availability of suitable sand
and gravel for concrete at a reasonable cost locally and, perhaps, even on property to be
acquired for the project is a factor favorable to the selection of a concrete structure. The
availability of suitable rock for rock fill is a factor favorable to the selection of a rock fill
dam. Every local resource that reduces the cost of the project without sacrificing the
efficiency and quality of the final structure should be used.
(4) Hydrology: There is a close relationship between the hydrologic and economic
factors governing the choice of the type of dam and appurtenant structures. Stream flow
characteristics and precipitation may appreciably affect the cost of construction by
influencing the treatment and diversion of water and extending the construction time.
Where large tunnels are required for diversion, conversion of the tunnels to tunnel
spillways may provide the most economical spillway alternative.
(5) Spillway size and location: A spillway is a vital appurtenance of a dam. Frequently,
its size and type and the natural restrictions in its location are the controlling factors in the
choice of the type of dam. Spillway requirements are dictated primarily by the runoff and
stream flow characteristics, independent of site conditions or type or size of the dam. The
selection of specific spillway types should be influenced by the magnitudes of the floods
to be passed. Thus, it can be seen that on streams with large flood potential, the spillway is
the dominant structure, and the selection of the type of dam could become a secondary
consideration. The cost of constructing a large spillway is frequently a considerable
portion of the total cost of the project. In such cases, combining the spillway and dam into
one structure may be desirable, indicating the selection of a concrete overflow dam. In
certain instances, where excavated material from separate spillway channels can be used
in the dam embankment, an earth fill dam may prove to be advantageous. Small spillway
requirements often favor the selection of earth fill or rock fill dams, even in narrow dam
sites. The practice of building overflow concrete spillways on earth or rock embankments
has generally been discouraged because of the more conservative design assumptions and
added care needed to forestall failures. Inherent problems associated with such designs are
unequal settlements of the structure caused by differential consolidations of the
embankment and foundation after the reservoir loads are applied; the need for special
provisions to prevent the cracking of the concrete or opening of joints that could permit
leakage from the channel into the fill, with consequent piping or washing away of the
surrounding material; and the requirement for having a fully completed embankment
before spillway construction can be started.
Consideration of the above factors coupled with increased costs brought about by more
conservative construction details, such as arbitrarily increased lining thickness, increased
reinforcement steel, cutoffs, joint treatment, drainage, and preloading, have generally led
to selection of alternative solutions for the spillway design. Such solutions include placing
the structure over or through the natural material of the abutment or under the dam as a
conduit. One of the most common and desirable spillway arrangements is the use of a
channel excavated through one or both of the abutments outside the limits of the dam or at
some point removed from the dam. Where such a location is adopted, the dam can be of
the no overflow type, which extends the choice to include earth fill and rock fill structures.
Conversely, failure to locate a spillway site away from the dam requires the selection of a
type of dam that can include an overflow spillway. The overflow spillway can then be
placed so as to occupy only a portion of the main river channel.
(6) Seismicity (earthquake risk): Finite element methods now make possible the analysis
of the behavior of dams under dynamic loading. A rock fill dam provided with filters,
material from which could move into and seal cracks in the core material, appear to be one
of the safest type in earthquake regions. As another option a gravity dam can be built as an
assembly of large concrete blocks separated from one another by laterally by gravel filling
in the joints: this should permit relative movements of parts of the dam.
(7) Availability of Technical skills: At many sites neither skilled contractor nor artisans
are available. This can preclude the adoption of dams that require intricate framework or
very high quality concrete. The embankment type dams or a masonry gravity dam may
then prove most suitable.
(8) Cost effectiveness: Site conditions naturally influence the cost of various types of
dam. For a very high dam, for instance, the cost may be high compared with concrete
dams. For concrete dams costs for external spillway can be saved in case of spillway
located at the dam crest. However, standard prices of earth and rock fill materials in the
past have not risen as much as those of mass concrete dams.
(9) Time and Money: Time and money may be unavailable for sophisticated investigation
and design, like arch dams. Embankment dams can be continuously constructed to reduce
construction time with high degree of mechanization.
(10) Environment and Public Opinion: One large dam was proposed as central core rock
fill dam. Core material was available only in thin beds and to obtain sufficient would
despoil a very large area of beautiful land. Public opinion was a major factor in the
adoption of a thin arch dam – despite difficulties with the foundation.
(11) Height of the Dam: Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than
30m or so. Hence, for greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.
Generally, the appropriate dam type selection factors may summarize below in table;
Table 1.15: Dam selection: Type characteristics
Type Notes and Characteristics
Embankment
Earth fill Suited to either rock or soil foundation and can accept limited differential
settlement given relatively wide and plastic core. Cut-off to sound, i.e. less
permeable, horizon required. Low contact stress
Rock fill Rock foundation preferable; can accept variable quality and limited
weathering. Cut-off to sound horizons required. Rock fills suitable for all
weather placing. Requires materials for core, filter, etc.
Concrete
Gravity Suited to wide valleys, provided that excavation depth is less than c. 5m.
Limited weathering of rock acceptable. Check discontinuities in rock with
regard top sliding. Moderate contact stress. Requires imported cement.
Buttress As gravity dam, but higher contact stress require sound rock. Concrete
save relative to gravity dam 30-60%.
Arch/Cupola Suited to narrow gorges, subject to uniform sound rock of high strength
and limited deformability in foundation and most practically in abutments.
High abutment loading. Concrete saving relative to gravity dam is 50-85%
1.7.2 Selection of Dam Site

The selection of site for constructing a dam should be governed by the following
factors:
(1) Suitable foundation (as determined in the previous article) must be available.)
(2) For economy, the length of the dam should be as small as possible, and for a given
height, it should store the maximum volume of water. It, therefore, follows, that the
river valley at the dam site should be narrow but should open out upstream to provide
a large basin for reservoir. A general configuration of contours for a suitable site is
shown in Fig. 1.18
Figure1-18 Configuration of contours for a suitable site.
(3) The general bed level at dam site should preferably be higher than that of the river
basin. This will reduce the height of the dam and will facilitate the drainage problem
(4) The suitable site for the spillway should be available in the near vicinity. If the
spillway is to be combined with the dam, the width of gorge should be such as to
accommodate both. The best dam site is one, in which a narrow deep gorge is
separated from the flank by a hillock with its surface above the dam. If such a site is
available, the spillway can be located separately in flank, and the main valley spanned
by an earthen or similar dam. Sometimes, the spillway and concrete masonry dam may
be compositely spanned in the main gorge, while the flanks are in earth at low cost.
(5) Material required for the construction should be easily available, locally or in the near
vicinity, so that the cost of transporting them is as low as possible.
(6) The reservoir basin should be reasonably water-tight. The stored water should be not
escape out through its side walls and bed.
(7) The valley of land and property submerged by the proposed dam should be as low as
possible.
(8) The dam site should be easily accessible, so that it can be economically connected to
important towns and cities by rails, roads, etc
(9) Site for establishing labour colonies and a healthy environment should be available in
the near vicinity.
2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF CONCRETE DAMS

General: As illustrated on section 1.5 the principal variants of the modern concrete dam
are gravity, buttress and arch dams. In this chapter will see the design principles of
concrete dams in detail, which is manly based on load acting on dams. It is convenient to
classify individual loads as primary, secondary, or exceptional. Classification in this
manner assists in the proper appreciation of load combinations to be considered in
analysis. The classification is made in terms of the applicability and/or the relative
importance of the load.
Primary loads: are identified as universally applicable and of prim importance to all
dams, irrespective of type, e.g. water and related seepage loads, and self-weight loads.
Secondary loads: are generally discretionary and of lesser magnitude (e.g. sediment load)
or, alternatively, are of major importance only to certain types of dams (e.g. thermal
effects within concrete dams).
Exceptional loads: are so designated on the basis of limited general applicability or

having a low probability of occurrence (e.g. tectonic effects, or the inertia loads associated
with seismic activity).
2.1. Gravity Dam Design and Analysis

Basically, gravity dams are solid concrete structures that maintain their stability against
design loads from the geometric shape and the mass and strength of the concrete.
Generally, they are constructed on a straight axis, but may be slightly curved or angled to
accommodate the specific site conditions. Gravity dams typically consist of a non-
overflow section(s) and an overflow section or spillway.
2.1.1. Forces Acting On Gravity Dams
The structural integrity of a dam must be maintained across the range of circumstances or
events likely to arise in service. The design is therefore determined through consideration
of the corresponding spectrum of loading conditions.
In all foreseeable circumstances the stability of the dam and foundation must be ensured,
with stresses contained at acceptable levels and watertight integrity essentially
Where:
FWA
FV H = Head water depth
H’ = Tail Water depth

FW
FWA = Wave pressure force
FWA
W
FH
F'V FH = Horizontal hydrostatic force
FS = Silt/sediment pressure force

Fs F'H
FOD
Heel Toe FEQ = Earthquake/Seismic force
FU FW = Wind pressure force

unimpaired.
FH’ = Tail water hydrostatic force
W = Weight of dam
Figure 2-1 Representation of typical loads acting on Gravity dam
FOD = Internal pore water pressure
A. Water pressure FU = Uplift pressure force [base of dam]
Water pressure is the force exerted by the water storedFVin=the

Weight of water
reservoir onabove dam [u/s]
the upstream
and the water depth at the tail of the dam. FV’ = Weight of water above dam [d/s]
i. External water pressure load
External water pressure can be calculated by the law of hydrostatics according to which in
a static mass of liquid the pressure intensity varies linearly with the depth of liquid and it
acts normal to the surface in contact with the liquid. For the non-overflow section of the
dam water pressure may be calculated as follows and for the overflow portion the loading
will be discussed in section six of the course.
FH = horizontal component of hydrostatic force, acting along a line 1/3 H above the base
= ½ wH2 (2.1)
w = Unit weight of water (=9.8110kN/m3)
Fv = Vertical component of hydrostatic pressure
= Weight of fluid mass vertically above the upstream face acting through the center of
gravity of the mass.
ii. Internal water pressure (Uplift Pressure)
Internal water pressure is the force exerted by water penetrating through the pores, cracks
and seams within the body of the dam, at contact surface between the dam and its
foundation, and within the foundation. It acts vertically upward at any horizontal section
of the dam as well as its foundation and hence it causes a reduction in the effective weight
of the portion of the structure lying above this section.
The computation of internal pressure involves the consideration of two constituent

elements, i.e,
 Hydrostatic pressure of water at a point

 The percentage C, area factor, of the area on which the hydrostatic pressure
acts
Both these elements are discussed below.
 Hydrostatic pressure
In practice dams are usually provided with cut-off walls or grout curtains to reduce
seepage and drain to relieve pressure downstream from the cutoff. Actually cutoff and
grout curtains may not be perfectly tight and hence fail to dissipate the head (h1 – h2)
Usually a distribution like 1-2-3-4 is used with 3-4 a straight line as shown in Figure 2-3.
Opinions about the value of uplift reduction factor,  (Zeta), are varied, the tendency is to
take:
 = 0.85 (for normal loading cases)
 = 1.00 (for exceptional loading cases like earthquake)

h2 h2
h1
When flow from u/s to d/s face is allowed With u/s effective cutoff
h1 h2 h2

h1
With d/s effective cutoff With an intermediate cutoff
Figure 2-2 Uplift pressure distribution for perfectly tight cutoff walls.
Figure 2-3 Uplift pressure distribution for less tight cutoff.
 Uplift area factor, C
Uplift area factor describes the percentage of area over which the up lift pressure acts.
Uplift pressure generally does not occur on the entire horizontal area, because in some
portions there are no pores in which water can enter.
Some of the earliest investigators recommended, for both concrete and rock, a value of
area factor ranging from one third to two-thirds of the area to be considered as effective
area over which the uplift pressure acts. However, Harza, Terzaghi and Lelivakey have
indicated that, for both concrete and rock, the value of area factor is nearly equal to unity.
Table 2-1 Values suggested for uplift area factor are
Value of C Suggested by
0.25 to 0.40 Henry
1.00 Maurice Levy
0.95 to 1.00 Terzaghi
As such the present practice followed in the design of dams is that the uplift pressure is
assumed to act over 100 percent of the area within the body of the dam as well as its
foundation. Hence, under all conditions, the value C = 1.00 is recommended.
B. Wight of Structure
For a gravity dam the weight of the structure is the main stabilizing force, and hence the
construction material should be as heavy as possible.
Structure self weight is accounted for in terms of the resultant, W, which acts through the
centroid (center of gravity) of the cress-sectional area. The weight of the structure per unit
length is
W = c * A (2.2)
Where:c is the unit weight of concrete
A is the cross-sectional area of the structure
The unit weight of concrete may be assumed to be 24 kN/m3 in the absence specific data
from laboratory test trials. For final designs the specific weights shall be based on actual
test data. Where crest gates and other ancillary structures or equipments of significant
weigh are present they must also be accounted for in determining the weight of the
structure.
It is essential to make sure that the actual specific weight obtained for the construction
material is more than or at least equal to that assumed in the design.
C. Earth and Silt Pressure
The gradual accumulation of significant deposits of fine sediment, notably silt, against the
face of the dam generates a resultant horizontal force, Fs. The magnitude of this force in
additional to water load, FWH, is a function of the sediment depth, hs, the submerged unit
weight, ss, and the active pressure coefficient, Ka, and is determined according to
Rankine‟s formula.
Fs = ½ Kass hs2 (2.3)
Where Ka = (1-sin) / (1+sin)
 = angle of internal friction of material.
For representative values of s 18-20KN/m3 & s300
D. Wind Pressure
When the dam is full, wind will act only on the downstream face, thus contributing to
stability. When the dam is empty, wind can act on the upstream face, but the pressure is
small compared to the hydraulic pressure of the water. Hence for gravity dams wind is not
considered. For buttress dams, wind load on the exposed buttresses has to be considered.
E. Wave Pressure and Wave Height
Wave exerts pressure on the upstream face. This pressure force, Fwv depends on fetch
(extent of the water surface on which the water blows) and wind velocity. It is of relatively
small magnitude and, by its nature, random and local in its influence. An empirical
allowance for wave load may be made by adjusting the static reservoir level used in
determining FWV. According to Molitor the following formula could be used to determine
the rise in water level, hw
hw  0.763  0.032 vf  0.271 f 1 / 4 for f  32km

hw  0.032 vf for f  32km (2.4)
Fwz  2.0 w hw2
where: hw in meters
v wind velocity in km/hr and
f fetch in km
Figure 2-4 Wave configuration and wave pressure on a gravity dam
For high dams the wave pressure is small compared to other forces. The point of
application of Fwv can be taken as 3/8hw from the still water level. The wave rides up
higher on inclined dam faces as compared to the vertical one.
F. Ice Load
Ice load can be introduced in circumstances where ice sheets form to appreciable
thicknesses and persist for lengthy periods. In such situations ice pressures may generate a
considerable horizontal thrust near crest level. An acceptable initial provision for ice load,
Pica, where considered necessary, is given by Pica 145kNm-2 for ice thicknesses in excess
of 0.6m (USBR, 1976). Where ice thicknesses are unlikely to exceed 0.4m and/or will be
subject to little restraint, as on a sloping face, ice load may be neglected. In the infrequent
circumstances where ice load is deemed critical, expected pressures can be estimated by
reference to the charts presented in USBR (1976, 1987).
G. Thermal and Dam–Foundation Interaction Effects
Cooling of large pours of mass concrete following the exothermic hydration of cement and
the subsequent variations in ambient and water temperatures combine to produce complex
and time-dependent temperature gradients within a dam. Equally complex interactions
develop as a result of foundation deformation or by load transfer between adjacent blocks
of the dam. The prediction of such forms of interactive load response lies beyond the
scope of this text. Secondary loads in very large dams can be comparable to the primary
loads in order of magnitude. Their influence upon deformation and stress distribution in
such cases is significant, and is discussed comprehensively in USBR (1976).
H. Earthquake forces
Dynamic loads generated by seismic disturbances must be considered in the design of all
major dams situated in recognized seismic “high risk” regions. The possibility of seismic
activity should also be considered for dams located outside those regions, particularly
where sites in close proximity to potentially active geological fault complexes.
Seismic activity is associated with complex oscillating patterns of accelerations and

ground motions, which generated transient dynamic loads due to the inertia of the dam and
the retained body of water. For design purposes both should be considered operative in the
sense least favorable to stability of the dam. Horizontal accelerations are therefore
assumed to operate normal to the axis of the dam. Under reservoir full conditions the most
adverse seismic loading will then occur when a ground shock is associated with:
 horizontal foundation acceleration operating upstream, and
 vertical foundation acceleration operating downward
Reservoire full
Reservoir empty
Earthquake Direction
Direction of vibraion
Figure 2-5 Direction of ground acceleration and the respective horizontal earthquake force
on gravity dam
 An earthquake wave may move in any direction, but for design purposes the
earthquake acceleration is resolved into horizontal and vertical acceleration h and
v.
1. Effect of vertical acceleration
- It may act upward or downward direction.
 When vertical acc/n. act in upward d/n:-
 Foundation of the dam lifted upward and becomes closer to the body of the dam
 Effective weight of the dam will increase.
 When vertical acc/n. act in downward d/n:-
 Foundation moves away from the dam body.
 Reduce effective weight and stability of the dam, hence this is worst case for
design.
• Vertical acceleration exerts an inertia forces given by:
(i.e. Force = Mass * acceleration)
• W = Total weight of dam
• The net effective weight of dam
• If, is fraction of gravity adopted for vertical

acceleration such as 0.1, 0.2.. etc. e.g. 0.1g, 0.2g
• Then, The net effective weight of dam =
• So, vertical acceleration reduces the unit weight of dam material and that of water
to their original unit weights.
2. Effect of horizontal acceleration
• Can occur in either u/s or d/s directions.
• Horizontal acc/n may cause the following two forces. This are Inertia forces in the
body of the dam and hydrodynamic forces of water.
i. Inertia forces
- It is the force due to the load of the dam under earthquake incidences.
- It acts in d/n opposite to earthquake force.
- It is product of mass of the dam and acc/n i.e. Inertia=mass*acc/n.
 Dam design can be done taking in to account the conditions for which worst
incidences occurs:-
a. Reservoir full condition:
• the worst case occurs when the earthquake acceleration moves from d/s to u/s and
inertia force is acts from u/s to d/s.
b. Reservoir empty condition:
• the worst case occurs when the earthquake acceleration moves from u/s to d/s and
inertia force acts from d/s to u/s direction.
ii. Hydrodynamic pressure
• When horizontal acc/n acts u/s towards reservoir dam and its foundation
accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the movement owing to its
inertia, and hence the water pressure increased The additional water pressure is
known as the hydrodynamic pressure.
• Direction of hydrodynamic force is opposite to d/n of earthquake forces.
 Magnitude of hydrodynamic force is calculated by;
a. Van Korman’s methods: suggested that the hydrodynamic pressure has parabolic
variation and the total water pressure force due to earthquake is given by;
 Pe = 0.555*Kh*w*H2 …acts at 4H/3Π above the base.
 Where, Kh = is fraction of gravity adopted for horizontal acceleration such as 0.1,

0.2.. etc. e.g. 0.1g, 0.2g
 Moment of this force about the base,
( )
 Similar pressure will be developed by tail water on d/s if direction of earthquake is

reversed.
b. Zanger’s methods:
• The intensity of the hydrodynamic pressure at a depth y below the water surface in
the reservoir with the total depth of water H is given by;
• , C is dimensionless coefficient and given by
• The value of the coefficient C depends upon the slope of the u/s face of the dam
and the depth of reservoir, as explained below
A). U/s face of the dam either vertical or having constant slope for the entire height
• The value of C is given by;
• [ ( ) √ ( )] , and
• = max. value of coeff. C for given slope of u/s face of dam
• Where, Ф is angle in degree the upstream face of the dam makes with the vertical
• Y is depth below water surface
• For vertical face, =0 & = 0.735
• = horizontal accn. Coefficient
• Also the value of can be calculated from the graph below

B). Partly vertical and partly sloping u/s face
• Two cases;
1. If the height „h‟ of the vertical portion of the u/s face is equal to or greater than
one-half of the total height H of the dam, consider the entire face as vertical. (i.e.
)
2. If the height „h‟ of the vertical portion is less than one-half of the total height H of
the dam, consider the entire face as sloping with uniform slope. (i.e.
and C will be calculated).
The slope is taken equal to the slope of the line joining the point of intersection of
the face of the dam with the water surface in the reservoir and the heel of the dam.
2.1.2. Load Combinations

A concrete dam should be designed with regard to the most rigorous adverse
groupings or combinations of loads which have a reasonable probability of
simultaneous occurrence. Combinations which include transitory loads of remote
probability, and therefore have a negligible likelihood of occurrence in service, are not
considered a valid basis for design. Such combinations may be investigated when
verifying the design of the most important dams, but are generally discounted in the
analysis of lesser structures.
The loads discussed in the preceding section have differing but individually distinctive
operating envelopes in terms of probability of occurrence, intensity and duration.
Individual load maxima which can reasonably be anticipated to act in concert under
service conditions can be grouped into a structured sequence of defined load
combinations for design purposes. Within such a sequence the probability of
occurrence associated with the nominated load combinations diminishes as their
severity is progressively raised. Three nominated load combinations are sufficient for
almost all circumstances. In ascending order of severity they may be designated as
normal (sometimes usual), unusual and extreme load combinations, here denoted as
NLC, ULC and ELC respectively, or by similar terms (USBR, 1976, 1987; Kennard,
Owens and Reader, 1996). A tabular summary of nominated load combinations
derived from representative UK (and US) practice is presented in Table 2.2. In
studying Table 2.2 it will be observed that a necessary element of flexibility is ensured
by the provision of note. The nominated load combinations as defined in the table are
not universally applicable. An obligation remains with the designer to exercise
discretion in defining load combinations which properly reflect the circumstances of
the dam under consideration, e.g. anticipated flood characteristics, temperature
régimes, operating rules, etc
Table 2-2 Nominated load combinations (after Kennard, Owens and Reader, 1996)
Load
source Qualification Load combination
NLC ULC ELC
Primary
At DFL X
Water At NML X X
Tailwater At TWL X X
Minimum X
Self-weight – X X X
Drains
Uplift functioning X X
Drains inoperative X X
Secondary
Silt – X X X
Ice Discretionary X X X
Exceptional
SEE
Seismic (discretionary) X
Where:- DFL=design flood level; NML=normal maximum level, i.e. maximum

retention level of spill weir (or gates, if fitted); TWL=maximum tail water level;
SEE=safety evaluation earthquake
Note: - ice load should normally include both thermal expansion and wind drag but
for the unusual case with a reservoir at flood level, only wind drag need be
considered. the possibility of blocked uplift relief drains and the degree of
blockage is a matter of judgement as to whether it is „usual‟, „unusual‟ or
„extreme‟ in likelihood. If deemed „usual‟ or „unusual‟, in that it could happen
more frequently than „extreme‟ events, the effect should be studied but an
appropriately lower shear friction safety factor (in the range1.25–2.00) is often
accepted.
2.1.3. Gravity Dam Analysis

The dam as whole should be structurally safe, stable and should be able to withstand
the stress developed due to imposed loads. Also foundation should be strong to carry
the loads.
Gravity dam must be designed in a such that it is safe against all possible modes of
failure, with adequate factor of safety.
Gravity dam may fail in the following way:-
1. Overturning/rotation/ about toe
2. Sliding/translational
3. Compression or Crushing/overstressing
4. Tension.
Criteria1 and 2 control overall structural stability. Both must be satisfied with respect
to the profile above all horizontal planes within the dam and the foundation. The
overstress criterion, 3, must be satisfied for the dam concrete and for the rock
foundation. The sliding stability criterion, 2, is generally the most critical of the three,
notably when applied to the natural rock foundation.
1. Overturning stability
Overturning failure occurs when the resultant of all forces (R) at the base or at any
horizontal section passes outside of the base or horizontal section i.e. when R cuts near
the downstream toe of the dam.
A simplistic factor of safety with respect to overturning, F0, can be expressed in terms
of the moments operating about the downstream toe of any horizontal plane. F0 is then
defined as the ratio of the summation of all restoring (i.e. positive) moments, ΣM-ve, to
the summation of all overturning moments, ΣM -ve: thus
F0=ΣM-ve /ΣM+ve. (2.10)
It may be noted that ΣM-ve is inclusive of the moment generated by uplift load.
Seismic loads are excluded from overturning calculations on account of their
transient and oscillatory nature. Values of F0 in excess of 1.25 may generally be
regarded as acceptable, but F0=1.5 is desirable (Kennard, Owens and Reader,
1996).
2. Sliding stability
The sliding failure occurs when the dam slides over its base or when part of the
dam lying above any horizontal plane slides over that plane.
Sliding stability is a function of loading pattern and of the resistance to

translational displacement which can be mobilized on any plane. It is
conventionally expressed in terms of a factor of safety or stability factor against
sliding, Fs, estimated using one or other of three definitions:
A. sliding factor (FSS)

B. shear friction factor (FSF)
C. limit equilibrium factor, (FLE)
A. Sliding Factor ( F SS)

It is assumed that resistance is purely frictional, and no shear strength or cohesion
can be mobilized. FSS can then be defined as the ratio of the summation of all
horizontal load components, ΣH, to the summation of all vertical loads, ΣV, on the
plane considered, i.e. for a horizontal plane:
FSS=ΣH/ΣV. (2.11)
If the plane is inclined at a small angle, o the foregoing expression is modified to
 H  tan 
Fss 
V (2.12)
H 
1   tan  .
 V 
 
B. Shear Friction Factor (Fsf)

Fsf is defined as the ratio of the total resistance to shear and sliding which can be
mobilized on a plane to the total horizontal load. With this approach both cohesion
and the frictional components of shear strength are accounted for and
s
Fsf  (2.13)
H
In the above expression S is the maximum shear resistance which can be
mobilized. Referring to Fig. 2-7 it may be defined as
CAh
s   V tan(   ) KN / m.
cos (1  tan  tan  )kN / m
forhoriontalplane(  0)
s  cAh   V tan  .
CS h   V tan 
 Fsf 
 H.
(2.14)
Where:- C is Cohesion that represents the unit shearing strength of concrete or rock
under conditions of zero normal stress, the coefficient tan ø represents frictional
resistance to shearing, where is the angle of shearing resistance or of sliding friction,
and Ah is surface area of sliding.
Figure 2-7 Sliding and shearing resistance: shear friction factor
In some circumstances it may be appropriate to include downstream passive wedge

resistance, Pp, as a further component of the total resistance to sliding which can be
mobilized. This is illustrated in Fig 2-8 and may be affected by modifying equation (2.11)
accordingly:
s  pe
Fsf 
H
(2.15)
CAas
Where pp   Ww tan(   ) (2.16)
cos (1  tan  tan  )
Figure 2-8 Sliding: weak seams and passive wedge resistance
and WW is the weight of the passive wedge, as shown. In the presence of a horizon with
low shear resistance, e.g. a thin clay horizon or clay infill in a discontinuity, as illustrated
in Fig 2-7, it may be advisable to make the assumption S=0 in equation (2.15). With the
normal load combination applicable, the shear friction factor required in the foundation
zone is generally FSF=4.0. On planes within the dam and at the base interface, FSF=3.0 is
representative. Values of FSF required under alternative load combinations are summarized
in Table 2-3 (USBR, 1987).
Table 2-3 recommended shear friction factors, FSF (USBR, 1987)
Location of sliding plane Load combination
Normal Unusual Extreme
Dam concrete, base

interface 3 2 >1.0
Foundation rock 4 2.7 1.3

Acceptance of the marginal stability permissible under extreme load combination is a
question of engineering judgment, and should only be contemplated for smaller structures
and after the most rigorous investigation. For major dams it is recommended practice to
relax the values of FSF required for normal load combination by 33% for any load
combination which includes seismic effects.
Additional Note:- for determining shear friction factor (Fsf) and sliding factor (FSS). If
H is the summation of all the horizontal forces causing the sliding and V are sum of the
all vertical forces, factor of safety against sliding is given by:
∑
∑
If represents the coefficient of static friction of the material above and below the joint,
∑
V will be frictional resistance to sliding. For equilibrium, V H or ∑
=
tan where is the angle between the vertical and the resultant. Values of f for
masonry on masonry and masonry on rock foundation varies b/n 0.6 and 0.75; >1.
It is considered that a low gravity dam should be safe against sliding considering friction
alone. However in large dams, shear strength of the joints should also be considered for an
economical design. The factor of safety in this case is, therefore, known as Shear Friction
Factor ( Fsf .) and is defined by the equation
∑
Fsf = ∑
where B=width of the dam at joint,
q=Average shear strength of the joint which varies from about 1400 KN/m2 (14Kg/cm2)
for poor rocks to about 4000 KN/m2 (40Kg/cm2) for good rock. The value of generally
varies from 0.65 to 0.75.
Attempts are always made to increase this shear strength (q) at the base and at other
joints. For this purpose, foundation is stepped at the base, as shown in Figure 2-9 and
measures are taken to ensure a better bond between the dam the rock-foundation.
Figure 2-9 Horizontal Joints and Foundation
C. Limit Equilibrium Factor (F LE)
The limit equilibrium approach to sliding stability follows conventional soil mechanics
logic in defining the limit equilibrium factor, FLE, as the ratio of shear strength to mean
applied shear stress across a plane, i.e.
f
FLE = (2.17)

Where  f is the shear strength available, and  is the shear stress generated under the
applied loading.
 f is expressed by the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion ,and equation (2.17) may be

rewritten accordingly:
c   n tan 
FLE  (2.18)

In the foregoing expression,  n . is the stress acting normal to the plane of
sliding.
Referring to Fig. 2-6 which illustrates a single-plane sliding mode, application of

equation (2.18) with appropriate substitutions yields.
FLE 
CAh  V cos   H sin tan 
 H cos  V sin .
(2.19)
Note that for the case of a horizontal sliding plane  = 0, equation (2.19) simplifies to the
expression given in equation (2.14), i.e. FLE=FSF ( = 0).
Equation (2.19) can be developed further for application to multiple plane sliding
surfaces within a complex foundation (Corns, Schrader and Tarbox, 1988). Recommended
minima for limit equilibrium factors of safety against sliding are FLE=2.0 in normal
operation, i.e. with static load maxima applied, and FLE=1.3 under transient load
conditions embracing seismic activity.
3. Stress analysis: gravity method
Straight gravity dams are generally analyzed by the gravity method of stress analysis. The
approach is particularly suited to dams where adjacent monoliths or blocks are not linked
by shear keys or by grouted transverse contraction joint. The gravity method is, however,
also suitable for preliminary analysis of dams where such continuity is provided. More
sophisticated analytical methods are briefly referred to in.
Gravity stress analysis derives from elastic theory, and is applied to two-dimensional
vertical cantilever sections on the basis of the assumptions listed in Section 2.2.4.The
stress analysis makes two further assumptions, namely
 Vertical stresses on horizontal planes vary uniformly between upstream and

downstream face (the „trapezoidal law‟) and
 Variation in horizontal shear stress across horizontal planes is parabolic.
Rigorous analytical techniques reveal that assumptions are less appropriate for horizontal
planes near base level. Stress concentrations develop near heel and toe, and modest tensile
stresses may be generated at the heel. Gravity stress analysis is, however, adequate for the
initial design of all but extremely large or geometrically complex gravity dams. In the
latter instances, the need to account for influences such as, interalia, dam and foundation
deformation and interaction between adjacent monoliths will require the use of advanced
analytical methods which are the province of specialist texts (e.g. USBR, 1976; Jansen,
1988).
The primary stresses determined in a comprehensive analysis by the gravity method are as
follows:
A) Vertical normal stress, z, on horizontal planes.

B) Horizontal & vertical shear stress,  zy ,&  yz
C) Horizontal normal stress, y ,on vertical planes and

D) Principal stress, 1 & 3 (direction & magnitude)
Uplift load is excluded from the equations for stress determination set out in this
section. It can, if necessary, be accounted for by superposition of local uplift pressures
onto calculated stresses (Zienkiewicz, 1963; Moffat, 1976). In practice the influence of
internal uplift upon stress patterns is generally disregarded other than in relation to
possible horizontal cracking.
A. Vertical normal stresses
Vertical normal stresses on any horizontal plane are determined by application of the
equation for cantilever action under combined axial and bending load with suitable
modifications, i.e.
z 
V   M * 1
y
(2.20)
Ah I
Where:- v- resultant vertical load above the plane considered exclusive of uplift.
M* - summation of moments expressed with respect to the centroid of the plane.
y‟ - distance from the centroid to point of considerations
I - second moment of area of the plane with respect to centroid.
Applied to a regular two-dimensional plane section of unit width parallel to the dam axis,
and with thickness T normal to the axis, equation (2.20) may be rewritten as
V vey1
z   12 3 and at y‟=T/2 (2.21)
T T
v  6e 
z  1   (2.21a)
T  T 
i.e. for the reservoir full load state ;
v  6e 
At the u/s face  zu  1 (2.21b)
T  T 
v  6e 
At the d/s face  zd  1 (2.21c)
T  T 
where e is the eccentricity of the resultant load, R, which must intersect the plane
downstream of its centroid for the reservoir full condition. The signs in equations (2.21b)
and (2.21c) interchange for the reservoir empty condition of loading.)
The eccentricity is determined by evaluating the moments, M*, given by
M *
e Where v - excludes uplift
V
For e> T/6, at u/s face –ve stress is developed, i.e. tensile stress. In design, tensile stress
has to be prohibited, but difficult to totally eliminate low tensile stress in gravity dam.
Total vertical stresses at either face are obtained by the addition of external hydrostatic
pressure.
B. Horizontal shear stresses
Numerically equal and complementary horizontal (zy) and (yz) shear stresses are
generated at any point as a result of the variation in vertical normal stress over a horizontal
plane. It is normally sufficient to establish the boundary, i.e. upstream and downstream, 
values. If the angles between the face slopes and the vertical are respectively u upstream
and  d downstream, and if an external hydrostatic pressure, pw, is assumed to operate at

the upstream face, then
(2.22a)
 u  Pw   zu  tan u
& (2.22b)
 d   zd tan d
Between the boundary values given by equations (2.22a) and (2.22b) the variation in shear
stress is dependent upon the rate of change in vertical normal stress. A graphical solution
may be used if it is considered necessary to determine the parabolic distribution generally
assumed to apply.
C. Horizontal normal stresses

The horizontal stresses on vertical planes, y, can be determined by consideration of the
equilibrium of the horizontal shear forces operating above and below a hypothetical
element within the dam. The difference in shear forces is balanced by the normal stresses
on vertical planes. Boundary values for y at either face are given by the following: for the
upstream face,
 yu  Pw   zu  Pw  tan 2u
(2.23a) for the downstream face,
 yd   zd tan 2 d
(2.23b)
D) Principal stresses
Principal stresses  1 and  3 may be determined from knowledge of z and y and
construction of a Mohr‟s circle diagram to represent the stress conditions at a point, or by

application of the equations given below: for the major principal stress,
z  y
Major Principal Stress 1    max
2
(2.24a)
 z  y
Minor principal stress 3    max
2
(2.24b)
z  y
Where  max   2
2
(2.24c)
The upstream and downstream faces are each planes of zero shear, and therefore planes of
principal stress. The boundary values for 1 & 3 are then determined as follows: for the
upstream face,
1u= zu (1+ tan2u)-Pw tan 2u (2.25a)
3u=Pw (2.25b)
for the downstream face, assuming no tail water,
1d=zd (1+tan 2d)

(2.25c)
3d=0
(2.25d)
Permissible stresses and cracking
The compressive stresses generated in a gravity dam by primary loads are very low,
seldom exceeding 2.0–3.0MNm-2 except in the largest structures. A factor of safety, Fc,
with respect to the specified minimum compressive strength for the concrete, σc is
nevertheless prescribed; Fc=3.0 is a common but seldom critical criterion. Some
authorities (USBR, 1976) relate the values prescribed for Fc to the load combination
applied, but qualify them in terms of absolute maxima, as shown in Table 2-4. The table
also summarizes corresponding factors of safety, Fr, specified with regard to the
compressive strength of the rock foundation, σr
Table 2-4 Permissible compressive stresses (after USBR, 1976)
load combination Minimum factor of safety on compressive strength
Fc(concrete) Fr, (rock)
Normal 3.0 (max not greater 10 MN/m2 ) 4.0
Unusual 2.0 (max not greater 15 MN/m2 ) 2.7
Extreme 1.0 1.3
Horizontal cracking is sometimes assumed to occur at the upstream face if zu (computed
without uplift) falls below a predetermined minimum value:
 wz t
 zu min  k d
1
(2.26)
Ft1
where k d is a drainage factor ( k d =0.4 if drains are effective k d =1.0 if drains are not
present, or blocked), Ft‟ is the tensile strength of the concrete across a horizontal joint
surface and Ft‟ is a factor of safety, scaled to load combination (Ft‟=3.0 for NLC, 2.0 for
ULC and 1.0 for ELC). Cracking is normally permissible only under the extreme load
combination, except in the case of old dams. The crack is assumed to propagate to the
point where σz=pw. Stability and stresses are then reassessed for the uncracked thickness of
the section, and the dam is considered safe if the resulting stresses remain within specified
maxima and sliding stability remains adequate (USBR, 1976, 1987).
2.1.4. Theoretical Versus Practical Profile of Gravity Dam

1. Theoretical Profile of Gravity Dam
The elementary (theoretical) profile of a dam, subjected to the external water pressure
on the upstream side, will be a right-angled triangle, having zero width at the water
level and a base width (B) at bottom i.e, the point where the maximum hydrostatics
water pressure acts. In other words, the shape of such a profile is similar to the shape
of the hydrostatic pressure distribution (Fig. 2-10).
Figure 2-10 Elementary Profile of a Dam
When the reservoir is empty; the only single force acting on it is the self- weigh
(w) of the dam and it acts at a distance B/3 from the heel. This is the maximum
possible innermost position of the resultant for no tension to develop. hence, such a
line of action of w is the most ideal, as it gives the maximum possible stabilizing
moment about the toe without causing tension at toe, when the reservoir is empty.
The vertical stress distribution at the base, when the reservoir is empty, is given as:
v  6e 
z  1  
T  T 
Where T=B (base width), Here, v =W and e =B/6
v  6 * T 
Therefore,  z  1  
T  T *6
 2W 
 Z max   
Or  T 
And  Z min  0
2W
Hence, the maximum vertical stress equal to will act the heel (because the resultant is
T
nearer the heel) and the vertical stress at toe will be zero.
When the reservoir is full: the base width is governed by:
(i) The resultant of all the forces, i.e. FH, W and U (Fig.2-10) pass through the outer most
middle third point ( i.e lower middle third point).
(ii) The dam is safe in sliding.
(i) For the 1st condition to be satisfied, we proceed as follows: Taking moments of all the
forces (Fig.2-10) about the lower middle third point (i.e the point through which resultant
is passing), we get
( ) ( ) ( ) =R*0
Or ( ) =0
But, W = *T*H*1*SC* W
Where:- Sc=specific gravity of concrete, i.e that of material of dam.
 w =unit Wight of water =9.81 KN/m3

Let the uplift at the heel be  w , where  is constant which according to U.S.B.R.
recommendation is taken equal to 1.0 when no uplift is considered.
Therefore, U= (   w )
= w = w H2
Therefore, =0, becomes
 w H2 =0
Or  w (SC  ) =  w H3
Or T2 (SC  ) =H2
T= (2.27)
√ 
Hence, If T is taken equal to or greater than T= , no tension will be developed at the

√ 
heel with full reservoir,
When  =1, T=
√
(2.27a)
If the uplift is not considered, T=

√
(2.27b)
(ii) For the 2nd condition (i.e dam is safe in sliding) to be satisfied: the frictional resistance
∑ or should be equal to more than the horizontal forces ∑ =P
Or P
Or ( w  w ) w H
Or ( )  w H*T  w H2
Or ( )T H
Or T 
Under limiting condition
Or T (2.28)

If  =1 B (2.28a)
If  =0, i.e on uplift is considered, then
T (2.28b)
 The value of T chosen should be greater of the two values given by equation (2.27)
& (2.28)
2. Practical Profile of Gravity Dam
The elementary profile of gravity dam, (i.e a triangle with maximum water surface at
apex) is only theoretical profile. Certain changes will have to be made in this profile in
order to cater to the practical needs. These needs are: (i) providing a straight top width, for
a road construction over the top of the dam and (ii) providing a free-board above the top of
the water surface, so that water may not spill over the top of the dam.
(i) Free Board: the margin between the maximum reservoir level and top of the dam is
known as freeboard. This must be provided in order to avoid the possibility of water
spilling over the dam top due to wave action. This can also help as a safety for unforeseen
flood, higher than the designed flood. The freeboard is generally provided equal to hw.
Where hw is given by equations (2.4). However, this day, a free-board equal to 3-5% of the
dam height is provided.
(ii) Top width: The effects produced by the addition of top width at the apex of an
elementary dam profile. Thus, increases in top width, will increase the masonry in the
added element and increase it on u/s face, but shall reduce it on d/s face. The most
economical top width, without considering earthquake force has been found by creager to
14% of the dam height. It‟s useful value between 6 to 10 and is generally taken
approximately equal to√ , where H is the height of max. water level above the bed.
2.1.5. Design Methods of Gravity Dam
The various methods used for the design of concrete gravity dams are as follows:
1. Stability analysis method

a. Gravity method.
b. Trial load twist method
i. Joints keyed but not grouted
ii. Joints keyed and grouted
c. Experimental method
i. Direct method
ii. Indirect method
d. Slab analogy method
e. Lattice analogy method
f. Finite element method
2. Zoned (multiple-step) method of determining profile of dam.
3. Single step method.
Two procedures of design will be discussed in this course: – multiple-step method and
single-step method.
2.1.5.1.Multiple step method of determining profile of gravity dam

This method deals with designing the dam joint by joint (block by block) beginning at
the top and making each joint confirm to all gravity dam design requirements. The
procedure results in a dam with polygonal face that may be smoothened up for
appearance with no appreciable change in stability or economy. The multiple-step
method is almost always used for the final design of dams with a height that does not
encroach greatly on Zone V.
Zoning of high non-overflow dams
A high gravity dam may be divided into seven zones according to design and stability
requirements. The characteristics and limits of these zones are described below.
Zone I: is a rectangular section from the top of the dam to the water surface. The
resultant force passes through the mid-point of the base.
Zone II: is also a rectangular section and extends to a depth where the resultant in the
reservoir full condition reaches the outer middle third point of the base.
Zone III: upstream face of the dam is vertical but the downstream face is gradually
inclined so that the resultant in the reservoir full condition has exactly at the outer
middle third point of the base. This zone extends to a depth where the resultant in the
reservoir empty condition reaches the inner middle third point of the base.
Zone IV: in this zone both the upstream and downstream faces are inclined so that the
resultant both in the reservoir full and empty conditions lie at the middle third point.
The zone extends to a point where maximum permissible compressive stress is reached
at the toe of the dam.
Zone V: the slope of the downstream face is further increased to keep the principal
stresses within permissible limits. Resultant in the reservoir full condition is kept well
within the middle third section. The resultant in the reservoir empty condition follows
the upper middle third section. This zone extends to a depth where the stress at the
heel of the section reaches the permissible limits in the reservoir empty case.
Zone VI: the slope of the upstream face is rapidly increased so as to keep the principal
stress at the heel within the permissible limits in the reservoir empty condition. The
inclination of the downstream face should also be adjusted so that the principal stress
at the toe does not exceed the maximum allowable stress. The resultants in both
reservoir empty and full conditions lie within the middle third section. This zone
extends to a point where the slope of the downstream face reaches 1:1. This normally
happens when the dam is 80 to 90 meters high.
Zone VII: in this zone the inclination of both upstream and downstream faces increase
with the height of the dam. Consequently, at some plane the value of (1 + tan2) may
become so great that the principal stress at the downstream face may exceed the
allowable limit. If one reaches this zone during design, it is better to avoid it and start
again with a fresh design with increased crest width and/or better quality concrete.
Zoning of overflow dams (Spillways)
Zone I: the resultant in the reservoir full condition is outside the middle third point
both horizontal and vertical forces are existing. End of zone I is at a depth where
resultant intersects downstream middle third point. Upstream face needs reinforcement
to take tension.
Zone Ia: this is the zone below zone I. The end of zone Ia is established by the plane
where only friction is sufficient to resist sliding.
Zone II: similar to zone II of non overflow dam with the only difference that the
downstream face is inclined in overflow dams. The rest of the zones are similar to
those of non-overflow dams.
2.1.5.2. Single Step Method
This method considers the whole dam as a single block. It is used for final design of
very high dams that extend well beyond zone V. it can also be used with an accuracy
of 2 to 4% on the safe side; for preliminary designs to obtain the area of the maximum
section of the dam.
The dam designed by single step method has a straight downstream face. When extended
it intersects upstream face at the headwater surface.
Consider the sketch given:
L = 10-15% of h1
H10 = 2L (when earthquake is considered)
= 3L (when earthquake is not considered)
H6 = 1.33L
When designing (analyzing) a dam in the single step method, the dam is considered as a
single block; and dam dimensions are determined in such a way that rules of Zone IV are
satisfied.
Figure 2-11 Gravity dam section relationship in single step method of design
 Comparison of Single step and multiple step design of gravity dam:
 Dams of smaller height can be designed economically by Multiple step method
 High dams beyond zone IV are designed by Single step method so that convex
curvature of downstream face and excessive flat slope of upstream face are
avoided
 It may be economical to increase the concrete strength through the use of more
expensive material, so that even a high dam designed by dividing it into only four
zones, thus eliminating zone V and VI.
2.1.6. Stabilizing and Heightening

A number of older gravity dams are under designed by present-day standards, having
undesirably low stability. The under design is a reflection of past limitations on the
understanding of loads, materials and dam behavior. In some cases stability margins
have been eroded by revised loading criteria, e.g. updated flood maxima. In others,
distress has resulted from progressive deterioration. Remedial action to improve
stability can be taken by:
1. Vertical prestressing of the dam or
2. Construction of a downstream supporting shoulder or berm.

(a) Prestressing
Prestressing provides an additional vertical load with a resultant line of action

close to the upstream face. It requires the introduction of highly stressed steel-
strand cables or tendons into the dam, anchored at crest level and at depth within
the foundation. A necessary condition for prestressing is therefore the presence of
rock competent to accept the high anchorage loads imposed.
At suitable intervals along the crest holes are cored through the dam and into the
foundation. Prestressing cable or tendon assemblies are inserted and a grouted
lower anchorage formed as shown. The strands are carried through an upper
anchorage assembly at crest level, where they are stressed to the desired load
before being finally secured. The prestress load is thus distributed into the dam
from the upper anchorage, and careful detailing with local reinforcement will be
necessary to avoid overstress of the adjacent concrete.The resultant prestress load
operates as an adjunct to Pm, and so improves sliding stability. Its positive moment
with respect to the toe acts to increase overturning stability. The compressive
stresses generated internally must be superimposed on the stresses generated by
other loads. Note that for the reservoir full condition the effect of superposition is
to eliminate any upstream tensile stresses, but that under the reservoir empty
condition tensile stresses may develop at the downstream face due to the prestress.
The design prestress, Pps (KN should satisfy the more demanding of the
stability modes, i.e. overturning or sliding, having regard to the safety factor
desired for each. Sliding stability generally proves the more demanding criterion.
Pps is determined by the inclusion of a separate prestress term alongside F0 and FSF
in the stability expressions of sections 2.2.4 and solving for Pps in terms of the
specified stability factors of safety. For overturning (F0, from equation (2.10)),
Pps  F0
M   M  KN / m
 ve  ve
y2
where y2 is the moment arm of Pps with respect to the toe. For sliding (FSF, from
equation (2.14)),
FSF H  CAh
Pps   V
tan 
Equivalent expressions may be derived giving Pps for sliding in terms of FSS or FLE.
The prestressing tendons are typically located at 3–7m centers along the crest. The
prestress load required for each, PT (kN), is the appropriate multiple of Pps. A recent UK
instance of prestressing, at Mullardoch dam, is described by Hinks et al. (1990).
Prestressing also provides a structurally efficient and economical approach to heightening
existing dams. In its absence additional concrete must be placed to thicken as well as raise
the profile in order to ensure adequate stability. Prestressing is technically preferable,
avoiding questions about compatibility and structural unity of old and new concrete in a
thickened profile.
b) Downstream supporting shoulder
A supporting shoulder can be constructed, employing compacted earthfill or rockfill.

Support is provided from the positive contribution to stability made by the weight of fill
above the downstream face, WF. A further contribution is
WF =
and may be considered to act through the centroid of the fill profile of area A above the
toe, and Pds= Ko ZAB*Z
Where K0 is the „at rest‟, or zero lateral strain, pressure coefficient and ZAB and Z
Downstream shoulder. Pds is considered to act at height ZAB/3 above the base plane.
Illustrative values for K0 are shown in Table 2-5.
Table 2-5 Pressure Coefficients(K0)
Shoulder fill Coeff. Ko
Compacted rock fill 0.2 – 0.3
Compacted sand 0.45 – 0.55
Compacted clay 1.0 – 2.0
Heavy compacted clay > 2.0
The selection of compacted rockfill for the supporting shoulder offers the advantage, as
opposed to earthfill, of good drainage and steeper side slopes. A further material for
shoulder construction is rolled dry lean concrete (RDLC). The construction of a
downstream rockfill shoulder to improve stability of the 45m high Upper Glendevon dam
in the UK is described in MacDonald, Kerr and Coats (1994).
2.2. Arch Dam design and analysis
General: Concrete arch dam is a concrete dam with a considerable upstream curvature,
structurally resisting the imposed loads by arch and cantilever action. Arch dam transmits
the major portion of the water load to the abutments or valley sides rather than to the floor
of the valley, hence, large horizontal reactions are required by the abutments. Arch dams
are restricted to relatively narrow valley sections with strong abutments. They are
structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress counterparts, greatly reducing the
volume of concrete required.
Valleys suited to arch dams are narrow gorges. The ratio of crest length to dam height is
recommended not to exceed five. To determine the site suitability for an arch dam the
following equation of canyon shape factor (CSF) is proposed:
B  H (sec 1  sec 2 )
CSF 
H
Usual values of CSF are from 2 to 5. The lower the CSF value the thinner the section.
Table 2-7 Classification of valley shapes based on CSF value
Valley type Bottom width 1 2 CSF

B
U shaped <H < 150 < 150 < 3.1

Narrow V shaped 0 < 350 < 350 < 2.4
Wide V-shaped 0 > 350 > 350 > 2.4
Composite U-V < 2H > 150 > 150

shaped  4.1
Wide and flat shapes > 2H 1 2 > 4.1
Unclassified Highly irregular valley shape
2.2.1. Arch geometry and profile.

The horizontal component of arch thrust must be transferred in to the abutment at a safe
angle β as shown in the figure below. In general abutment entry angle of 45 0 to 700 is
acceptable.
average rock contour
a
Foundation rock contours
t
en
ng
ί
ta
Figure-12 Angle between arch thrust and rock contour
2.2.2. Type of Arch dams

Arch dams may be grouped into two main divisions: Massive arch dams and multiple
arch dams:
 Massive arch dam:- the whole span of the dam is covered by a single
curved wall usually vertical or nearly so.
 Multiple arch dam:- series of arches cover the whole span of the dam,
usually inclined and supported on piers or buttresses. These are usually
considered as a type of buttress dam and will be described later.
Massive arch dams in turn are divided into the following types:
i. Constant radius arch dams,

ii. Constant angle arch dams
iii. Variable radius arch dams
iv. Double curvature or Cupola arch dams
v. Arch gravity dams
i. Constant radius arch dams: - It has simple geometry. A constant radius of arch dam is
the dam in which the radius of extrados (outside curved surface of the arch) is constant,
most of the time, all elevations from the top of the dam to its base. However, the radius of
the d/s face (or intrados) gradually decreases as the depth below the crest is increases to
provide increased concrete thickness towards the base to account the hydrostatic water
pressure. Thus, in this case, the u/s face of the dam is vertical and the dam is triangular in
cross section with increased width at crest. In constant radius Arch dam, the arch center
for the u/s face d/s face and the centerline of horizontal arch rings, at various elevations lie
on a straight vertical line that passes through the center of the horizontal arch rings of the
u/s face at the crest. Hence it is also known as Constant center arch dam.
Figure 2-13 Constant Radius Arch Dam
In this type of dam the central angles of arch rings of the intrados vary at various
elevations, the maximum being at the top of the dam and a certain minimum at the bottom
of the dam. Due to reduction in central angle and the central rise of arch rings at the lower
elevations near the base of the dam, considerably low arch action will be developed for
these arch rings. Hence relatively large proportion of the water load at the lower elevations
will be carried by cantilever action for which the arch rings at the lower elevations will
have to be made considerably thick. This will result in uneconomical design. For U–
shaped valleys the constant radius arch dams are found suitable since there is a relatively
less reduction in the central angle and the central rise of the arch rings at the lower
elevations. Reduction at the central angle at the lower elevations would be considerable in
the case of narrow V shaped valleys and would result in uneconomical design for such
types of dams.
ii. Constant angle arch dam: - The central angle of the horizontal arch rings is of the
same magnitude at all elevations. Theoretically, for economical design of constant angle
arch dams central angle of arch rings equal to 1330 34‟ may be adopted. However, the
practical range of central angle from 1000 to 1500 depending on the valley shapes. Due to
large central angle greater arch action will be developed for the arch rings at all elevations.
Hence water load at all elevations is carried by arch action. In general, the thickness of
constant angle arch dam is smaller than that of constant radius arch dam. As a result, under
same condition it requires only about 70% of concrete as compared to constant radius arch
dam. The radii of arch rings of constant angle arch dam decreases as the depth below the
crest increases since the central angle at all elevations has the same magnitude. Moreover,
the curvature of each arc ring will be different and the various arch rings may be arranged
to have the crowns of either extrados or intrados of all arch rings flushing. These
arrangements will result in an overhang of the u/s face near the abutments and that of the
d/s face near the crown of the arch. Hence, the formwork required is complicated and
costly than that of constant radius arch dam. Constant angle arch dams are suited to
narrow V-shaped valleys with large central angle fairly large arch action will be developed
even at lower elevations & hence the design will be economical.
Figure 2-14 Constant angle Arch dam

iii. Variable Radius Arch Dam: Neither the radius nor the central angle is constant.
Radius is maximum at the top & minimum at the base. The central angle of the arch rings
usually vary b/n 80 to 1500 & these are so adjusted that large arch action is developed
even for arch rings at lower elevations. The radii at various elevations are also so adjusted
that the over hangs are avoided or minimized. Further in this dam, centers of the arch rings
at various elevations do not lie on the same vertical line. This type of arch dam is suited to
u-shaped valleys as well as for narrow V-shaped Valley b/c by adjusting the radii & the
central angles a fairly large arch action may be developed even for arch rings at lower
elevations. This type of arch dam is suited to U-shaped valleys as well as V-shaped valleys
since large arch action will be developed at lower elevations for arch rings having smaller
spans by adjusting the radii and the central angles. As compared to the constant angle arch
dam a variable radius arch dam is less economical since under the same conditions a
variable arch dam requires about 17% more concrete than constant radius arch dam since
under the same conditions the concrete required for a variable radius arch dam is only
about 82% of that required for a constant radius arch dam. Hence it is a compromise b/n
constant radius & constant angle arch dams.
Figure 2-15 Variable Radius Arch dam
2.2.3. Loads on Arch Dam
The forces acting on arch dam are the same as that of gravity dams. Uplift forces are less
important (not significant). Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and yielding
of abutments are very important. Foundation stresses are generally small. An arch dam
transfers loads to the abutments and foundations both by cantilever action and through
horizontal arches.
2.2.4. Methods of Design of Massive Arch Dams.

Commonly used methods of design or arch dams are
i) Thin cylinder theory
ii) Thick cylinder theory
iii) Elastic arch theory
iv) Trial load analysis
2.2.4.1.The thin cylinder theory
It is envisaged that the weight of concrete and water in the dam is carried directly to the
foundation. The horizontal water load is carried entirely by arch action. The theory
assumes that the arch is simply supported at the abutments and that the stresses are
approximately the same as in thin cylinder of equal outside radius ro.
Figure 2-17 Thin cylinder model of an Arch dam
Summing forces parallel to the stream axis
2R sin / 2  2 w hre sin / 2

R   w hre
The transverse unit stress

R  hr
   w e
t *1 t
for a given stress
 w hre
t (2.29)
 all
Note: the hydrostatic pressure wh may be increased by earth quake and other pressure
forces where applicable:
since re = rc + 0.5t and re = ri + t
 w hrc
t (2.29a)
 all  0.5 w h
 w hri
Or t (2.29b)
 all   w h
Most Economical central angle
The concrete volume of any given arch is proportional to the product of the arch thickness
and the length of the center line arc. For a fixed combination of span, loading and
permissible cylinder theory stress, the following can be shown. The Volume of Concrete,
V, per unit depth of Arch Ring is given by V r( )A
Where A = tx1 = cross sectional area of arch ring for unit height
= in radians
V  (t *1)r
 hr
t  w  kr

2
 B 
V  kr 2  k 
 2 sin  / 2 
Differentiating V with respect to  and setting to zero,  = 133.5o which is the most
economical angle for arch with minimum volume.
For  = 133.50 r = 0.544B

2.2.4.2. Thick cylinder theory
In thin cylinder theory the stress distribution across the thickness of the arch is assumed to
be uniform. While in the thick cylinder theory this stress is larger at the intrados and
smaller at the extrados. The stress distribution across the thickness of a thick cylinder is
computed from:
 wh ( )
r= (2.30)
Where re and ri are respectively the upstream and downstream face radii of the arch
element considered. Ring stress  r has a maximum at the downstream face. Ring thickness
tr, equal to re-ri, is assumed uniform at any elevation. For r=ri equation (2.30) may
consequently be rewritten in terms of  r max, with
Pw=  w h , thus
 wh
 r Max = (2.31)
Note in theory, t should diminish towards crown & increase towards abutments. In
practice, t usually is constant at any elevation on a simple arch profile, and correction for
maximum stress at abutment made by factor, Kr, determined as a function of θ & from
curves.
For thin rings theory, therefore,
K r  w h re
h  at abutment.
t
2.2.4.3.Elastic arch theory (Arch dam analysis)

The theory assumes complete transfer of load by arch action only. Horizontal arch rings
are assumed fixed to the abutments, but acting independently of neighboring rings. Effect
of temperature variation on arch stress is considered. This method can be used for
preliminary design to determine the adequacy of the section designed by the thin cylinder
theory.
Modified Cain‟s Equations are used for calculating forces and moments at the crown and
at abutments.
crown
h
*
?w Ho
p =
Mo
Ru
R
Rd
?
Ma abut
men
t
Ha
Figure 2-18 Constant thickness circular arch, fixed at abutments.
pr t2
Ho  pr  2 sin  ; wh ere  is in radians
D 12r
 t  
2
sin 2 
D  1     
2 
  2 sin 
2
; if shear is neglected.
 12r   2 
 t2   sin 2  3t 2  sin 2 
D  1        2 sin 2
      ; if shear is considered.
  2   2 
2
 12r 12r 2
 sin  
Moment at crown : Mo  r ( pr  Ho)1  
  
Force at abutment : Ha  pr  ( pr  Ho) cos
 sin  
Moment at abutement : Ma  r ( pr  Ho)  cos 
  
After determining forces and moments, stresses at intrados and extrados are calculated
from
 H 6M 
   2 
 t t 
Advanced method of analysis /design
The assumptions made in elastic ring analysis simplified & discrete & independent
horizontal rings which are free of any mutual interaction and the uniform radial
deformation are both untenable. Early recognition of the importance of arch- cantilever &
arch- abutment interactions led to the development to trial load analysis (TLD) which is
similar to trial load twist analysis used in gravity dam. Finite element analysis (FEA) is
also extensively applied in arch dam analysis .Although FEA is most powerful reliable &
well proven approach it is a highly specialist analytical method demanding experience.
2.3. Buttress Dams

General: Efforts have been made from time to time to innovate methods for affecting
economy in the use of concrete, by cutting down concrete from concrete gravity dam‟s
portion where it remains unstressed. Attempts have therefore been made to provide hollow
gravity dams. Buttress dams are an improvement innovation over the hollow concrete
gravity dams in which solid wall of specified thickness & section are constructed parallel
to the flow at some suitable intervals called buttress & include slabs which are supported
on u/s side on these buttresses.
2.3.1. Component Parts of Buttress Dams

A buttress dams consists of the following component parts.
1) Sloping membrane: - The sloping membrane or u/s deck supports the water and
transmits the water load to a series of buttresses at right angle to the dam axis.
2) Buttresses: - are constructed at right angles to the axis of the dam at certain intervals.
They support the slopping membranes & transfer the load to the foundation. They are thin
walls of triangular profile with sloping u/s face.
3) Mat foundation or Footings: - Footings are required for the buttresses to transfer the
loads to the foundation. If the foundation is relatively strong, spread footings are provided
but for relatively weak foundation mat footing is required.
4) Lateral Braces (strut):- are provided b/n adjacent buttresses at right angles to them to
reduce unsupported length & thus provide lateral stiffness and resistance to buckling of
buttresses.
5) Haunches or Corbels: - The wide upstream end of buttresses which help in transiting
the load from the u/s deck to the buttresses.
6) Cutoff (Concrete): - is provided at the upstream end of the dam to reduce/prevent the
seepage & up lift.
Figure 2-19: Deck slab or flat slab or Amberson Type buttress dam
2.3.2. Types of Buttress Dams

They may be classified in the following two ways
1. on the basis of the sloping membrane
2. on the basis of joint b/n the sloping membrane & buttresses
1. Classification Based on the Type of Sloping Membrane
This is further classified in the following categories
i. Deck slab or flat slab or Ambursen type buttress dams
ii. Multiple -arch type buttress dams
iii. Multiple -dome type buttress dams
iv. Massive head type buttress dams or bulk head type buttress dams
i. Deck slab/Flat Slab or Amburesn type Buttress Dam
In this type of buttress dam the u/s sloping deck slab consists of a reinforced concrete slab
supported by as series of buttresses. The slab is separated by buttress tounge and
supported by reinforced haunches which are constructed monolithically with the buttress.
The inclination of the deck slab is kept b/n 350 and 450 with the horizontal. The corbel or
haunch is always reinforced since tensile stress could develop. The rest of the buttress may
or may not be reinforced. Struts are of R.C. Deck slab may Further Sub divided into:-
a) Simple Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams (Simply Supported Slab)
The deck slab is not rigidly connected to the buttresses but it is in the form of simply
supported slab. In order to provide a wide support for the slab, the upstream end of the
buttress where it joints the slab is made wider by providing haunch or corbel. The joint b/n
the slab & the buttress tongue is filled with bituminous mastic or some flexible joint
compound. This permits each slab to act independently and allows free expansion of the
slab in the direction parallel to the base line of the dam. Reinforcement is placed only at
the downstream face (since it is simply supported). But it requires thicker slab. These
types of buttress dams are suitable for wide valleys where a long dam is required & the
foundation is weak. The main disadvantage of this type is that it requires a thicker slab as
compared to the fixed (continues) slab.
Figure 2-20: Simple Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams
b) Fixed (or continuous) Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams
The deck slab is cast monolithic with the buttresses and it acts as a continuous slab.
Reinforcement is provided both on upstream & downstream faces of the slab. This type of
deck can be used only when the foundation is strong; where it will be more economical
than the freely supported slab b/c the deck slab is thinner.
Figure 2-21: Fixed (or continuous) Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams
c) Cantilever Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams

The deck slab is cast monolithically with the buttresses in such a manner that it over hangs
on either side of the buttress and acts as cantilever.
Figure 2-22: Cantilever Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams
ii. Multiple Arch Types Buttress Dams
The sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C arches supported by a number
of buttresses. The u/s face of the damn is usually inclined at 450. The arches are cast
monolithic with the buttresses.
Figure 2-23: Multiple Arch Types Buttress Dams
iii. Multiple -Dome Type Buttress Dams:-
Sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C domes supported by a number of

buttresses.
iv Massive Head Type Buttress Dams:-
No Separate water retaining member (Deck) is provided but the water retaining member is
formed by enlarging the upstream end of buttress. The dam is thus made of a series of
buttresses with massive heads placed side by side. Buttress heads are so shaped that the
tensile stress are not developed in any portion of the buttress heads and hence the buttress
heads are not reinforced.
Figure 2-24: Multiple Arch Types Buttress Dams
These types of buttress dams may be further of the buttress heads and hence the buttress
heads are not reinforced. These types of buttress dams may be further subdivided on the
basis of the buttress head into:-
A) Round head buttress dams
B) Diamond head buttress dams
C) Tee head buttress dams
2. Classification Based on the joint b/n the sloping membrane Buttresses
Under this we have following categories
1) Rigid buttress dams: The upstream deck is cast monolithically with the buttresses and
hence the ends of the deck cannot move. E.g. continuous deck slab type, multiple arch
type & multiple dome type buttress dams
2) Flexible (or articulated) Buttress Dams: sloping membrane or deck is not constructed
monolithic with the buttresses. as such these dams are flexible. E.g. simple deck slab type.
3) Semi - rigid buttress Dams: It is neither as rigid as rigid buttress dam nor as flexible as
a flexible buttress dam. It is therefore in b/n that of rigid buttress dam & a flexible buttress
dam. E.g. The massive head type buttress dam.
2.3.3. Forces on Buttress Dams

They are the same as those on gravity dams. Uplift pressure acting on a buttress dam
depends on the type of the dam and type of foundation provided for buttresses. If separate
spread footings are used for each buttress then the uplift pressure is relieved by the gap b/n
the buttresses. Buttress dams on rock foundation are subject to the uplift pressure due to
head water is usually neglected and only the uplift pressure due to TW (if any) is
considered for the entire footing. However, in the same case if the foundation rock is such
that uplift pressure due to head water cannot be neglected, then under the deck and haunch
section full uplift pressure due to head water is considered and the remaining portion of
the footing full uplift pressure due to tail water is considered. If a mat foundation is
provided for all buttresses, uplift pressure may be computed in a similar manner as in the
case of gravity dam. Buttress dams should full fill stability requirements as that of gravity
dams. Further in the case of a buttress dam the total force acting per buttress unit must be
considered instead of force per unit length of dam as in the case of gravity dam.
2.3.4. Design Procedure of Flat-Slab Type Buttress Dams

The design involves the following steps:-
i) Determination of economic buttress spacing & upstream slope
ii) Design of deck slab &other details
iii) Preliminary design of buttress & check for overall stability
i) Economic Buttress Spacing
The spacing of the buttresses is governed by economy. If the spans are short, face slabs
may be thin with a small volume of concrete and reinforcement steel in deck but increase
in cost of form work. Wider buttress spacing result in reduction of cost of form work but
volume of concrete & reinforcing steel for the deck slab increase considerably. Thus
economic buttress spacing is that which gives economic balance of concrete reinforcing
steel and formwork & satisfy design requirement.
The most economical spacing depends up on the following factors
a) The mean height of dam
b) Type of footing (spread or mat foundation)
c) Unusual foundation and side hill conditions
d) Upstream slope of dam
a) Height of dam:-Economic buttress spacing increases with the height of the dam;
whereas for low dams the buttress spacing will be proportionally less. For buttress dams
on sound rock foundations the most economical buttress spacing for deck slab buttress
dams are given below.
Table 2-8 Height and spacing of buttress dam
Height of dam (m) Economical spacing c/c of buttress (m)
15 to 30 5 to 6
30 to 45 9 to 12
Above 45 12 to 15
b)Type of Footing: it is not economical to have very large spacing of buttresses b/c the
quantities of material required for spread footing (or mat foundation) & for the apron of
spillways increase with an increase in the buttress spacing and hence it will be economical
to have a smaller spacing for buttresses.
c) Upstream slope: Varies from 350 to 450 and is governed by the requirements of sliding
factor, i.e. H/v resistance against sliding is achieved from the vertical component of the
water pressure since self-weight of the buttress dam is relatively small. Vertical
component of the water pressure varies with the upstream slope. Further, for constant
buttress spacing, small variation in the u/s slope results in an appreciable change in the
quantity of concrete and hence it affects economy. Likewise, for constant u/s slop the
variation in the buttress spacing also results in change in the quantity of concrete and
hence affects economy. Thus for each value of u/s slop there would be an economical
buttress spacing which may be determined from a master curve which may be prepared as
indicated below. Further from the same curve, a combination of the most economical
buttress spacing and the u/s slope may also be determined.
 A master curve is extremely useful for determining the most economical spacing
for d/t upstream slopes.
Figure 2-25 Simplified diagram of buttress dam
Let H = height of dam in meters
Pv = Vertical component of water pressure per meter length of dam

PH = Horizontal component of water pressure per meter length of dam
Wc = Weight of dam per meter length of dam
Cq = Quantity of concrete (m3) per meter length of dam
f = sliding factor
= Unit weight of concrete
 wH 2  wH 2
PH  ; PV  cot ;
2 2
WC   C Cq
f 
H  P H
V P  W V C
 wH 2
f  2
  wH 2

 cot   C Cq  (2.32)
 2 
(Taking, =9.81KN/m3 and 24KN/m3)
Cq= 0.2083H2 ( cot )
(2.33) The equation shows that for a given height h and a given value of
the quantity of concrete depends up on cot . Thus for a given value of h and f the
quantity of concrete Cq, obtained are independent of the buttress spacing and hence this
will plot as vertical lines on the plot of buttress spacing vs quantity of concrete. Next
choosing certain value of , the dam is designed by considering a number of buttress
spacing and the quantity of concrete required per unit length of the dam for each buttress
spacing is determined. The value of the quantity of concrete so obtained are plotted
against the corresponding buttress spacing on the same graph to obtain a curve for the
chosen value of . By repeating the same procedure for d/t values of a series of such
curves are obtained as shown by joining the points of intersections of the curves and the
vertical lines corresponding to each value of which is shown by a solid line. The master
curve gives the value of economical buttress spacing for each value of for the given
height of dam. Further, the apex of the master curve gives the value of the most
economical buttress spacing as well as the corresponding value of and the quantity of
concrete per meter length of dam.
Figure 2-26 Master Curves
ii) Design of Deck Slab &Other Details
Design of Deck Slab
The deck slab is designed as a simply supported slab by using the standard methods of
R.C.C/ design. The slab thickness is controlled by bending moments at higher levels and
shear at lower levels. (Refer any R.C.C. text)
Design of a Haunch
The width of the bearing face of the haunch is determined from the permissible bearing
pressure and the assumed load distribution on the face. The load distribution on the
bearing face is usually assumed to be triangular with the maximum at the outer edge and
zero at the inside corner of the haunch.
a) Width (B): The actual load distribution on the bearing surface is indeterminate.
However the triangular distribution is usually assumed, with the maximum pressure p at
the outer edge and zero pressure at the inner edge of the haunch. Thus the total reaction R
is
Given by
R = 0.5pB
B = the width of the bearing surface and p = the maximum pressure.
b) Depth: The depth dm and ds are as per the design requirements respectively, for
bending moment and shear. These depths are so proportioned that the bracket profile
adequately envelopes the theoretical minimum depth profile for moment and shear. The
depths D1 and D2 are the actual depths provided
Figure 2-27 Design of a Haunch and Deck Slab
Though the conventional formulae of the design of RCC beams and cantilevers are not
strictly applicable for trapezoidal brackets of the haunch, approximate depth profile can be
determined from the conventional RCC design formula ( see any text on RCC DESIGN).
Resisting moment, M = Qbd2
Resisting Shear = sbjd
iii) Preliminary design of Buttress and Check for Overall Stability

For preliminary design of buttress only water pressure on the deck slab, weight of deck
slab and buttress are considered. The final design is checked for other forces such as
earthquake, uplift pressure, wave pressure, silt pressure etc…
Preliminary design of buttress is carried out on the bases of Unit column theory, in which
the buttress is assumed to be made of a number of unit columns.
A unit column is a curved column of unit width.
Figure 2-28 Unit columns and resultant forces for frictionless joints
Assumptions:
1) Each column transfers the load from the top of the column to the foundation
independently of the adjacent columns above or below it.
2) Each column is so proportioned that at every section of the column uniform

compressive stress is developed and it is curved to avoid eccentric loading. The magnitude
of the initial load Po depends on the type of joint b/n deck slab and the buttress. Thus if
the joint is frictionless then Po = Pw + Wdn (total water pressure on the deck and
component of the weight of the deck slab normal to the buttress face) Fig 2-28. On the
other hand if the joint is monolithic then Po is equal to the resultant of the total water
pressure on the deck slab Pw and the weight of deck slab Wd. In this method in general,
five columns distributed over the entire buttress will be adequate. For each unit column,
the value of the initial thickness to is obtained from:
to= (2.34)
Where fc is the permissible compressive stress in concrete
The thickness t at any point in the unit column at a vertical distance y from the origin o is
given by:
(2.35a) to is the thickness of buttress near the deck slab.
Where y is negative downwards c = a constant =

(2.35b)
Unit weight of concrete
Since the width of the column is constant (i.e. unity), the thickness of the column increases
from the deck to foundation.
Further, the equation of the axis of the unit column is
) (2.35c)
Where angle made by Po with horizontal
= angle made by the tangent to the column axis at any point on the axis to the
horizontal
The angle may also be expressed as
(2.35d)
By substituting value of from equation (2.35d) in to equation (2.35c), the coordinates

(x,y) of any point on the column axis with respect to origin o may be obtained from
)
(2.35e)
The minimum thickness of buttress determined on the bases of unit column theory is
usually much less than the minimum thickness required from practical considerations.
Thus the minimum thicknesses to be provided are given below.
Table 2-9 spacing and thickness buttress dam
Buttress spacing Min. Thickness of buttress

4.5 to 6 m 0.2 to 0.3m
> 6m 0.45 to 1.2m
The design of the unit column should therefore be carried out with actual thickness
provided as per the requirements of the minimum thickness (as given above).
Downstream Slope of Buttress: The unit column theory gives a curved d/s face for the
buttress. However, a buttress with a curved d/s face is difficult to construct and hence
from practical point of view a buttress a plane sloping d/s face is usually provided. The
slop of the d/s face should satisfy overall stability requirements. Usually the base length of
the buttress varies from 1.2 to 1.5 times the depth below the maximum water level in the
reservoir.
After determining the dimensions, the buttress has to be checked for overall stability
against overturning g and sliding. Using the same formula as that of the gravity dam
analysis, the direct stress sliding factor and S.F.F. are computed. After the buttress has
been found adequate for the axial loads, it should be investigated for column ration
(slenderness ratio) and massiveness factor.
Column Ratio: Is the ratio of unsupported length of buttress measured along lines of
principal stress to the thickness of the buttress. Low buttresses having no lateral support
may have a column ratio of b/n 12 and 14, but for high buttresses which require lateral
support the column ratio should be limited to the range 7 to 10.
Massiveness factor: Is the ratio of spacing of buttress to the thickness of the buttress. In
general its value varies b/n 2.5 and 3. Finally after calculating foundation pressure (of the
design deck slab and buttresses) spread footings and mat foundations are designed
depending on magnitude of foundation pressure.
2.3.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Buttress Dams

Advantages of buttress dams
1. - less concrete is used compared to a gravity dam of the same height,

- Increased surface area to volume ration
- Better heat dissipation
- Increased speed of construction
2. More safety against overturning and sliding because of the larger vertical component
of hydrostatic force exerted on the dam (highly inclined u/s face)
3. More equal distribution of stresses of foundation.
4. Less massive than gravity dam hence may be used on weak foundation not suitable for
gravity dam
5. Decreased uplift pressure ( if no spread footing, joining the buttresses is used)
Disadvantages of Buttress dam
1. needs reinforcement and expensive shuttering

2. needs more skilled labor
3. slabs and columns are highly stressed; danger of deterioration of concrete of the
u/s deck
4. more susceptible to damage by sabotage
3. EMBANKMENT DAMS
The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from natural materials
excavated or obtained nearby. The materials available are utilized to the best advantage, in
relation to their characteristics as bulk fill zones within the dam section. The natural fill
materials are placed and compacted without the addition of any binding agent, using high
capacity mechanical plant. An embankment dam is therefore a non rigid dam which resists
the forces exerted up on it mainly by its shear strength. These dams usually provide the
most economical and most satisfactory solution for sites at which suitable foundation at
reasonable depth may not be available for a dam of concrete or masonry.
The two main forms of embankment dams are:
(1) Earth (earth fill) dams made predominantly of earth or soil.
(2) Rock fill dams made predominantly of quarried rock.
However a composite earth and rock fill type of embankment dams are also being widely
used.
3.1. Key elements of Embankment dam

Every embankment dam consists of three basic components plus a number of
appurtenances which enable the basic components to function efficiently shown in .
i. Foundation:
The foundation of embankment dam could either be earth or rock material. The foundation
provides support resisting both vertical and horizontal loads. It may also resist seepage
beneath the embankment.
ii. Core or membrane:
The primary purpose of the core or membrane is to hold back free water. Depending on
the structural requirements of the dam, the core may be placed at the center or upstream
from the center, or on the upstream face (in the case of certain rock fill dams). When the
foundation is incapable of resisting under seepage the core is extended down into the
foundation to impervious layer. Such an extension of the core is termed cut-off.
Core material: Earth, concrete or masonry, steel sheeting, etc. are used as core material.
Lack of flexibility of concrete and masonry make them undesirable. An earth core (when
suitable material is available) is usually cheaper and more water tight than any other type.
Suitability of earth core depends on the character of the available soil.
Figure 3-1 Basic components and appurtenances of Embankment dam
Table 3-1: Permeability of different soil types
Permeability coefficient Typical soil Value as core
2 – 0.002 Sand Considerable leakage
0.002 – 0.0002 Silty clay Usable with good control if some

leakage is tolerable
0.0002 – 0.000006 Silts Little leakage if well compacted

≤ 0.000006 Silty clay, clay Impervious
A core should not be composed of silt which tends to swell upon saturation. To avoid
swelling tendencies, the elasticity index should not exceed 30.
Typical requirements for core compaction are
90 – 97% of standard proctor maximum, or
87 – 95% of modified proctor maximum.
Water content: - as high as possible consistent with the above requirements.
Core thickness: - to control erosion and provide good compaction a minimum core
thickness in meters is given by
b = 6 + 0.1h (clay)
b = 6 + 0.3h (silt)
Where: h = head difference at that point;
b = core width at that point.
iii. Shell
The purpose of shell is to provide structural support for the core and to distribute the loads
over the foundation. The shell also acts as foundation for most of the appurtenances.
Sometimes the core and shell of a dam are constructed of the same material (homogenous
dam). Shell (embankment) materials availability and strength are the requirements for
selection. These are
Strength: the strength for the upstream side should be that at the inundated condition. The
same strength should be used for the downstream face which is below the
maximum phreatic line.
Permeability: high permeability is desirable from the standpoint of pressure buildup

during construction and stability during sudden drawdown.
Typical compaction requirements:
95 – 100% of standard proctor maximum;

92 – 97% of modified proctor maximum.
Slopes: - shell slopes are based on stability analysis. When the stability is insufficient,
improvements are possible by adopting
a. Flatter slopes;
b. Increasing strength through high density;
c. Treatment for weak foundation;
d. Drainage of the foundation and embankment.
Table 3-2: Tentative slopes of shoulder for different embankment materials
Soil type Upstream Downstream
Gravel, sandy gravel with core 2.5H : 1V 2.0H : 1V
Clean sand with core 3.0H : 1V 2.5H : 1V
Low density silt, micaceous silt 3.5H : 1V 3.0H : 1V
Low plasticity clay 3.0H : 1V 2.5H : 1V
Composite slopes: - are used for large dams. They can be found in two ways: a series of
straight slopes or a constant slope with berms.
Figure 3-2 composite slopes for shell of embankment dam
A berm is a level surface on the slope that can serve the following purposes
1. Increases slope stability by increasing dam width;

2. Breaks the continuous downstream slope to reduce surface erosion
3. Provides level surface for maintenance operations, roads, etc.
Berm is also used at the bottom of a zone of riprap to provide supporting shoulder.
3.2. Appurtenances of Embankment Dam
i. Transition filter: it is provided between core and shell to prevent migration of the core
material into the pores of the shell material. It is particularly needed between
clay cores and rock and gravel shells. The objective of transition filter is to carry
away seepage that has passed through the core and cut-off and to prevent stratum
of the upper part of the downstream shell.
ii. Toe drain: it helps to prevent sloughing of the downstream face as a result of rain
water or seepage saturation. In small dams, the toe drain serves also as internal
drain. In large dams with pervious foundation, the toe drain and the internal drain
are sometimes combined. Drains need protective filter (inverted filter) to prevent
clogging of the drain.
iii. Riprap: required to cover the upstream/downstream face.
Normally riprap extended from above the maximum water level to just below the
minimum.
iii. Sod: required on the downstream face to prevent rain wash.
For economic reasons, the material available at the particular site has to be
employed as much as possible for the construction of the earth dam and the
quantity of imported material should be minimized.
iv. Internal drains: they are essential in large dams where the d/s shell is not so
pervious.
3.3. Earth Dams (earth fill dams)
An embankment may be categorized as an earth fill dam if compacted soils account for
over 50% of the placed volume of material.
The advantages of earth dam are:-
 Local materials is used which is readily available & easy to handle

 Can be built on almost all types of foundation
 Large base width of earth dams is suited for pervious foundation
 Easier and cheaper to extend up wards
 The natural appearance blends with the surrounding
The relative disadvantages of the embankment dam are:-
 Inherently susceptible to damage or destruction by overtopping

 Necessity of separate spillway structure
 Vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or foundation
The design of an earth dam involves both a hydraulic and structural analysis. The
hydraulic analysis deals with the determination of the seepage patterns and the magnitude
of seepage as well as the internal hydrostatic seepage forces for both the dam body and the
foundation. Of particular importance is the investigation for possible removal of fine
particles near the toe by emerging seepage water (piping). The structural analysis involves
the study of the stability of the embankment under the given conditions of seepage and
other forces. Settlement and stability studies of the foundation are also important.
3.2.1. Types of Earth Dams

Earth dams may be classified on the basis of methods of construction.
Accordingly we have:-
i) Rolled-fill earth dam
ii) Hydraulic-fill earth dam
iii) Semi-hydraulic fill earth dams
i) Rolled fill Dam
In rolled-fill earth dams the embankment is constructed in successive mechanically

compacted layers. The material (sand, clay gravel etc) is transported from the borrow pits
to the dam site by truckers or scrapers. It is then spread with in the dam section by
bulldozers to form layers of 15 to 45 cm thickness. Each layer is then thoroughly
compacted and bonded with the preceding layer by means of power operated rollers of
proper design and weight.
ii) Hydraulic fill dam
In the case of hydraulic-fill dam the materials are transported from borrow pits to their
final position (dam site) placed through the agency of water. Thus in this case, at the
borrow pits the material is mixed with water to form a slurry which is transported through
flumes or pipes and deposited near the faces of dam. The courser materials of the slurry
stay near the faces of the dam while the finer ones move towards the center and get
deposited there. This would provide a dam section with shoulders of the course free
draining particles and an impervious central core of fine grained material such as clay and
silt.
iii) Semi-hydraulic dam
In the semi-hydraulic fill dam construction, the material is dumped near the upstream and
downstream face of the dam to form rough levees as in the case of rolled fill dam with the
use of water. Then the space between the levees are filled with water and the material
placed in or upon the levees is washed towards the center of the dam. For this jets of water
are directed on the dumped fill which cause the finer material from the fill near the faces
of the dam to be washed away. The finer material moves towards the central portion of the
dam and is deposited there thus forming an impervious central core while course material
stays near the faces of the dam. However, in the absence of proper jetting action the
dumped fill at the faces of the dam may be more dense and impervious than the material
immediately below it on the inside of the dam which may result in the failure of the dam.
Out of these three types, the rolled-fill earth dams are the most common. This is so
because in the case of other two types of dam‟s lack of control in placing the material may
result in the failure of the dam.
Rolled Fill dams are of three types:
a) Homogenous type
b) Zoned type
c) Diaphragm type
Embankment Dam
Earth Dam Rockfill Dam Composite

Type
Accordint to design
According to method of
Constructuion
Homogenous Zoned Diaphriagm Rolled Hydraulic Semi Hydraulic

fill type fill type fill type
Figure 3-3 Classification of Embankment Dam
a) Homogenous type: A purely homogeneous type of dam is composed of a single kind

of earth material except for the slope protection. It is used when only a single type of
material is economically and locally available. Such a section is used only for low to
moderately high dams and for dykes. Large dams are rarely designed as homogenous
embankments. For a completely homogeneous section it is inevitable that seepage will
emerge on the downstream slope regardless of its flatness and the impermeability of the
soil if the reservoir level is maintained for a sufficiently long time. At the downstream
slope up to 1/3 of the height may be saturated if internal drainage arrangement is not
provided. Besides larger sections (flat slopes) are required to make it stable and safe
against piping.
Because of this an internal drainage system such as a horizontal drainage layer and a rock
toe is added so as to keep the phreatic line well within the body of the dam. These permits
the use of steeper slopes and thus smaller sections. The material comprising the dam must
be sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate water barrier & the slopes must be
relatively flat for stability. To avoid sloughing the upstream slope must be relatively flat if
rapid draw down of the reservoir is anticipated. Although formerly very common in the
design of small dams, the purely homogenous section has been replaced by a modified
homogeneous section in which small amounts of carefully placed pervious materials
control the action of seepage so as to permit much steeper slopes. The modified
homogeneous section is the one provided with internal drainage filter system in the form
of a horizontal drainage blanket or a rock toe or a combination of both.
Figure 3-4 Homogeneous Dam Section
b. Zoned embankment type: These are the most common for high dams of rolled fill
type. They are provided with a central impervious core, covered by a relatively pervious
transition filter which is finally surrounded by a more pervious outer zones or shells.
The core thickness should not be less than 3 m or the height of the dam above the section.
The central core checks the seepage; the transition filter zone prevents piping through
cracks which may develop in the core. The outer zones (shells) provide stability to the
core and also distribute the load over a larger foundation area. The core is usually a
mixture of clay and sand or gravel or silty clay. Pure clay that shrinks and swells
excessively is not suitable .Freely draining materials such as coarse sands and gravels are
used as the outer shells. This is necessary b/c the downstream pervious zone should act as
a drain to control the line of seepage. If a variety of soil is readily available, the choice of
type of earth fill dam should always be the zoned embankment type b/c its inherent
advantages will lead to economies in cost of construction.
Figure 3-5: Zoned Dam Section
c. Diaphragm type
In this type of section the bulk of embankment is constructed of pervious materials (Sand,
grave, or rock) and a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is provided to form the
water barrier. The position of this barrier may vary from a blanket on the upstream face to
central vertical core. If the diaphragm is provided as an impervious blanket on the u/s face
of the dam it needs to be protected against shallow sloughs and slide during draw down
and from erosion by wave action. For this the diaphragm is held buried below a thin layer
of pervious material over which the upstream slope protection is provided. The diaphragm
may be of earth, Portland cement or asphalt concrete or other material. If the core
thickness at any elevation is less than 3m or less than the embankment height above the
corresponding section then the dam embankment is considered to be the diaphragm type.
Figure 3-6: Diaphragm type.

3.2.2. Causes of Failure of Embankment dams
Embankment dams, like any other engineering structure, may fail due to improper design,
faulty constructions, lack of maintenance, etc. Generally, causes of failure are grouped
into three classes: Hydraulic failure, Seepage failure and Structural failure.
i. Hydraulic failures: About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to these
causes due to;
 Overtopping: Occurs when the design flood is less than the coming flood.
Spillway and outlet capacity must be sufficient to prevent overtopping. Freeboard
should also be sufficient to prevent overtopping by wave action.
 Erosion of upstream faces: Wind waves of water developed due to wind near the
top water try to notch-out the soil from u/s face and may even sometimes cause
the slip of the u/s slope.(upstream slope pitching or rip rap should be applied.)
 Erosion of downstream face by gully formation: Heavy rains falling directly over
d/s face and the erosive action of the moving water may lead to the formation of
gullies on the d/s face, ultimately leading to the dam failure.
 Cracking due to frost action: Frost in the upper portion of dam may cause
heaving of soil with dangerous seepage. Consequently failure. Provide an
additional free board allowance up to a maximum of say 1.5m may be provided.
ii) Seepage failure: uncontrolled or concentrated seepage through the dam body or
through the foundation may lead to piping and sloughing and subsequent failure of the
dam. The following are the common modes of seepage failure:-
 Seepage through pervious foundation: Presence of strata or lenses of sand or

gravel of high permeability or cavities and fissures in the foundation permit
concentrated flow of water from reservoir leading to piping.
 Leakage through embankment: This is mainly due to poor construction control,
in sufficient compaction adjacent to out let conduits, poor bond b/n embankment &
foundation or b/n successive layers of the embankment.
 Conduit leakage: failure may be either due to contact seepage along the conduit or
due to seepage caused by leakage in the conduit.
 Sloughing: This occurs when the downstream portion of the dam becomes
saturated either due to choking or filter toe drain or due to presence of highly
pervious layer in the dam body...
N.B:- piping is the progressive erosion and subsequent removal of soil grains from within
the body of the dam or the foundation of the dam.
iii) Structural failure: about 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to structural
failures. Structural failures are generally caused by shear failures, causing slides. This
consists of foundation slide and embankment slide.
� Foundation Slide: When the foundation of soft soil such as fine silts, soft clay etc. the
entire dam may slide over the foundation. Partial failures of embankment may also occur
over part of the foundation where seams of fissured rock, shale‟s or soft clay may occur.
� Embankment Slide: When the embankment slopes are too steep for the strength of the
soil, they may slide causing dam failure. For the upstream slope the critical condition is
during sudden draw down and for the downstream slope the full reservoir and steady
seepage condition is the most critical. Structural failures may be due to the following
reasons:
 Upstream and Downstream slope failures due to pore pressures

 Upstream slope failure due to sudden draw down
 Downstream slope failure during full reservoir condition.
 Foundation slide: Spontaneous liquefaction
 Failure by spreading
 Failure due to Earth quake
 Slope protection failures
 Failure due to damage caused by burrowing animals
 Damage caused by Water soluble material
Figure 3-7 a: Over Topping and Piping Failure

Causes of failure as categorized based on time of occurrence are:
During construction
 Unstable slop
 Heavy rainfall that washes the d/s face
 Weak foundation
After construction
 Failure of u/s face due to sudden drawdown

 Failure of d/s when the reservoir is full
 Overtopping
 Seepage failure.
3.2.3. Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam
An earth dam must be safe and stable during phases of construction and operation of
the reservoir. The practical criteria for the design of earth dams may be stated briefly
as follows.
1. No overtopping during occurrence of the inflow design flood.

a. appropriate design flood
b.Adequate spillway
c. Sufficient outlet works
d. Sufficient free board
2. No seepage failure
a. Phreatic (seepage) line should exit the dam body safely without sloughing
downstream face.
b. Seepage through the body of the dam, foundation and abutments should be
controlled by adapting suitable measures.
c. The dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure.
d.There should be no opportunity for free passage of water from U/S to D/S
both through the dam and foundation.
3. No Structural failure
a) Safe U/S & D/S slope during construction
b) Safe U/S slope during sudden draw down condition.
c) Safe D/S slope during steady seepage condition
d) Foundation shear stress within the safe limits.
e) Earth quake resistant dam.
4. Proper slope protection against wind & rain drop erosion.
5. Proper drainage arrangement provides.
6. Economic section is providing.
3.2.4. Design of an Earth Dam
The preliminary design of an earth dam is done on the basis of past experience and on the
basis of the performance of the dams built in the past. We shall discuss here the
preliminary selection of the following terms:
1) Top width
2) Free board
3) Casing or outer shells
4) slopes of the upstream and downstream
5) Central impervious core
6) Surface drainage
7) Filters
1) Top width: The crest width of an earth dam depends on the following
considerations:
Nature of the embankment materials and minimum allowable
percolation distance through the embankment at the normal reservoir
level.
Height of the structure
Importance of the structure
Width of highway on the top of the dam
Practicability of construction
Protection against earthquake forces.
Following are some of the empirical expressions for the top width b of the earth dam, in
terms of the height H of the dam:
H
b 3 For very low dam (H<10m)
5
b=0.55H1/2 + 0.2H For medium dam (10m<H<30m)
b=1.65(H+1.5)1/3 For large dam (H>10m)

2) Free board: Free board is the vertical distance between the horizontal crest of the
embankment and the reservoir level. Normal free board is the difference in the
level between the crest or top of the embankment and normal reservoir level.
Minimum free board is the difference in the elevation between the crest of the dam
and the maximum reservoir water surface that would result and spillway function
as planned. Sufficient free board must be provided so that there is no possibility
whatsoever of the embankment being overtopped.
The U.S.B.R suggests the following free boards:
Table 3-3: U.S.B.R practice for free board
Nature of spillway Height of dam Free Board

Free Any Minimum 2m and maximum 3m over
the maximum flood level
Controlled Less than 2.5 above the top of gates
Controlled Over 60m 3m above the top gates
3) Casing or outer shells: The function of casing or outer shells is to impart stability
and protect the core. The relatively pervious materials, which are not subjected to
cracking on direct exposure to atmosphere, are suitable for casing. Table 10.2 (a)
gives recommendations for suitability of soils used for earth dams as per IS: 8826-
1978.
Table 3-4: Suitability of Soils for Construction of Earth Dams
Relative Suitability Homogenous Zoned earth dam

section Previous casing Impervious core
1. very suitable GC SW,GW GC
2. Suitable CL,CI GM CL,CI
3. Fairly suitable SP, SM,CH SP,GP CM,GC,SM SC,CH
4. Poor - - ML,MI,MH
3. Not suitable - - OL, NI, OH ,Pt
4) slopes of the upstream and downstream:
The design slopes of the upstream and downstream embankments may vary widely,
depending on the character of the materials available, foundation conditions and the height
of the dam. The slopes also depend up on the type of the dam (i.e. homogeneous, zoned or
diaphragm).The upstream slope may vary from 2:1 to as flat as 4:1 for stability. A storage
dam subjected to rapid drawdown of the reservoir should have an upstream zone with
permeability sufficient to dissipate pore water pressure exerted outwardly in the upstream
part of the dam. If only materials of low permeability are available, it is necessary to
provide flat slope for the rapid drawdown requirement. However, a steep slope may be
provided if free draining sand and gravel are available to provide a superimposed weight
for holding down the fine material of low permeability. The usual downstream slopes are
2:1, where embankment is impervious.
Table 3-5: Side slopes for earth dams according to Terzaghi
Type of material Upstream Downstream slope

slope
Homogeneous well graded 2:1 2:1
material
Homogeneous coarse silt 3:1 1
2 :1
2
Homogeneous silty clay or clay
H less than 15 m 1 2:1
2 :1
2 1
2 :1 Table
H more than 15 m 3:1 2
3-6:
Sand or sand and gravel with 3:1 1
2 :1
clay core 2
Sand or sand and gravel with 1 2:1

2 :1
R.C core wall 2
Preliminary dimensions of earth dams (According to strange)
Height of dam Height of dam Top U/S D/S

above foundation above H.F.L width slope slope
level (m) (m) (m)
Up to 4.5 1.2 to 1.5 1.8 1:1 1
1 :1
2
4.5 to 7.5 1.5 to 1.8 1.85 1 3
2 :1 2 :1
2 4
7.5 to 1.5 1.85 2.5 3:1 2:1
15 to 22.5 2.1 3.0 3:1 2:1
5) Central impervious core: the core may be defined as a membrane built within an
embankment dam to form the impermeable barrier, the balance of the dam being provided
to ensure stability. It may be of natural materials clay, gravels etc. or prepared materials
such as cement or asphaltic concrete or of metal, plastic, rubber etc. The thickness of the
core will depend primarily on the martial available. A general core thickness is one half of
the height of the dam depending on materials available. Thin cores may be adequate for
impermeability but it is essential to provide well designed filters on either side.
6) Surface drainage: may be necessary to prevent gull eying at the contact of the
embankment and valley slopes. This is done by providing a gutter concrete or stone
pavement.
7) Filters: filers are always provided between any two dissimilar materials when the
difference in their particles is so great that the particles of the finer material can migrate in
to the voids of coarser material with seepage water & can cause piping. Therefore filters
are provided:-
 Between the drainage system & the adjoin soils to prevent the migration of the soil
particles in to the drains.
 Between impervious zones (cores) of fine-grained soils and the pervious zones
(shells) of the course -grained soils for the same purpose.
Criteria for filter design according to USBR
 Provided that the filter does not contain more than
5 percent of material finer than 0.074 mm
 5 or less
 = 2 or more
 The grain size curve of the filter should be roughly parallel to that of the base
material
Where D15 is the grain size with 15 percent of the total soil practices are smaller& D85 is
the grain size wit 85% of the total soil particles are smaller. If more than one filter is used,
the preceding layer is considered as the base material and the succeed in layer as the filter
and the same rules above are applied.
3.2.5. Seepage Analysis

Seepage analysis: is used
 To determine the quantity of water passing through the body of the dam and
foundation.
 To locate phreatic line inside the dam
 To obtain the distribution of pore water pressure.
Phreatic Line in Earth Dam
Phreatic line / seepage line / Saturation line is the line at the upper surface of the seepage
flow at which the pressure is atmospheric.
It is absolutely essential to determine the position of the phreatic line, as its position will
enable to determine the following:
i. The divide line between the dry (or moist) and submerged soil.
ii. The top stream line and hence, helps us in drawing the flow net.
iii. To ensure that the phreatic line doesn‟t cut the downstream face of the dam, which
is extremely necessary for preventing softening of the dam.
Generally, phreatic lines on homogeneous earth dam in different conditions are:
1. Phreatic line for a homogeneous Earth dam with horizontal Drainage blanket
2. Homogeneous dam section without horizontal filter
3. Phreatic Line for Homogeneous Erath Dam with Rock Toe
4. Phreatic Line for Zoned Erath Dam with a Central Core
1. Phreatic line for a homogeneous Earth dam with horizontal Drainage blanket
It has been found that the seepage line is pushed down by the filter and it is very nearly
parabolic except near its junction with u/s face. Since the u/s face of the dam (i.e. GB in
Error! Reference source not found.) becomes an equipotential line when fully covered
ith water, the seepage line shall be perpendicular to the face near its junction point B.
Figure 3-8 Seepage through homogenous dam section with horizontal filter
i) Graphical method
Steps:
 Starting point of base parabola is @ A AB = 0.3L

 F is the focal point
 Draw a curve passing through F center @ A
 Draw a vertical line EG which is tangent to the curve
 EG is the directrix of the base parabola
 Plot the various points P on the parabola in such a way that PF = PR
ii) Analytical Method
Let us take the origin (O) at the focus with X- positive u/s & Y-positive upward.
From the basic property of parabola: distance PF = distance PR
x 2  y 2  x  FD
Where; FD is the distance of the focus from the directrix, called focal distance and
is represented by S.
Hence the equation of the parabola of the seepage line becomes:
x2  y2  x  S
Location of A is approximately 0.33HB horizontal distance upstream from point B

according to Cassagrande. Where, H is the projection of the point G on the water surface.
If the horizontal distance between the already determined point A and the focus (F) is
taken as say b, then (b, H) represents the coordinates of the point A on the parabola. And
hence;
b2  H 2  b  S
S  b2  H 2  b (3.7)
The center point (C) of FD will then be the vertex of the parabola. When x = 0, y= S.
Hence the vertical ordinate FJ at F will be equal to S. Knowing the points A, C, and J and
working out a few more points from the equation, the parabola can be easily drawn and
corrected for the curve BI, so as to get the seepage line BIJC. The amount of seepage can
also be calculated easily from the equation of the seepage line as derived below.
Darcy‟s law is defined as, q = KiA. When steady conditions have reached, the discharge
crossing any vertical plane across the dam section (unit width) will be the same. Hence,
the value i and A can be taken for any point on the seepage line
dy
i
dx
A  y *1
dy
qK y
dx
But from the equation of the parabola,
y  S 2  2 xS
1

q  K  . S 2  2 xs
2

1
2
1 

.2S . S 2  2 xs


q  KS (3.8)
2. Homogeneous dam section without horizontal filter
The focus (F) of the parabola will be the lowest point of the downstream slope as shown in
Error! Reference source not found.. The base parabola BIJC will cut the downstream
lope at J and extend beyond the dam toe up to the point C i.e. the vertex of the parabola.
Figure 3-9 Homogeneous dam section without filter
The seepage line will, however, emerge out at K, meeting the downstream face
tangentially there. The portion KF is known as discharge face and always saturated (a).
The correction JK (say ∆a) by which the parabola is to be shifted downward can be
determined as follows:
i) Graphical general solution

The correction a, by which the parabola is to be shifted downwards, is found by the
a
value of given by Casagrande for various values of the slope  of the
a  a
discharge face. The slope angle  can even exceed the value of 900. Thus we observe
that
a
= value found from table 3-7……..… (i)
a  a
a+ a=KF from Fig 3-9………………(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), the value a and a can be found.
a
Table 3-7: for the value of with slope angle 
a  a
a
α0 in degrees
a  a
30o 0.36
60o 0.32
90o 0.26
120o 0.18
135o 0.14
150o 0.10
180o 0.0
α is the angle which the discharge face makes with the horizontal. a and ∆a can be
connected by the general equation;
180o   
a  a  a  o  (3.9)
 400 
ii) Analytical Solution for determine the position of point K, i.e the point at which the
seepage line intersect the downstream.
Case (a) when < 300
In order to find the value of a analytically, Schaffernak and Van Iterson assumed that the
dy
energy gradient i  tan   .
dx
This means that the gradient is equal to the slope of the line of seepage, which is
approximately true so long as the slope is gentle (i.e. <300).
Figure 3-10 the position of point K determination when < 300
For the vertical section JJ1

dy
qK y
dx
dy
but  i  tan  and y= JJ1= a sin 
dx
Substituting in in to q, we get
q = k (a sin) (tan) (3.10)
This is the expression for discharge.
dy
qk y  k (a sin  )(tan  )
Again: dx
a( sin  ) (tan  )dx  ydy
Integrating between the limits:
x= a (Cos ) to x=b
y= a (sin  ) to y = h , we get
b h
a sin  tan   dx
a cos 
   ydy
a sin
and
h 2  a 2 sin 2 a
 a sin  tan  (b  a cos ) 
2
From which, we obtain, after simplification,
b b2 h2
a   (3.11)
cos cos2  sin 2 
Case (a) for 300< <600
It will be observed that the previous solution gives satisfactory results for slope < 300. For
steeper slopes, the deviation from correct values increases rapidly beyond tolerable limits.
Casagrande suggested the use of sin  instead of tan. In other words, it should be taken
as (dy/ds) instead of (dy/dx), where s is the distance measured along the phreatic line.
Figure 3-11 the position of point K determination for 300< <600
dy
Thus q  kiA  k A
ds
dy
At J, s= a and y = a sin  then,  sin 
ds
Where s = distance measured along the curve.
Substituting into q we get
q = k. (sin) (a sin ) = k(a sin2) (3.12)
This is the expression for the discharge.
dy
Again q  k y  ka sin 2 
ds
 a (sin2 ) ds = ydy
Integrating between the following limits (s = a to s =S)
Where S = total length of the parabola
And (y = a sin to y=h), we get
S h
a sin 2   ds   ydy
a a sin 
h 2  a 2 sin 2 
a sin 2  .( S  a ) 
2
h2
or a 2  2aS  0
sin 2 
h2
From which a  S  S2  (3.13)
Sin2
Taking S (h2+b2)1/2 we get
h2
a  h b  h b  2
2 2 2 2
sin 
a  b 2  h 2  b 2  h 2 cot 2  (3.14)
3. Phreatic Line for Homogeneous Erath Dam with Rock Toe
The figure below shows an earth dam with rock toe. The u/s face of the rock toe is usually
> 900 as shown in figure below Fig. 3-12 However,
sometimes the u/s face of the rock toe is kept vertical. The drawing procedure for phreatic
line is the same as previous cases but the exit correction is somewhat d/t.
Figure 3-12 Phreatic line for homogeneous earth dam with rock toe
Exit Correction of Phreatic line for earth dam with rock toe
The u/s face of the rock toe acts as the discharge face. It makes an angle α with the
horizontal. The base parabola cuts the discharge face at point K. The value of (a + Δa )
may be obtained by measuring the distance FK or from equation given above for a given
value of α and calculated value of S. For the known value ofα , the value of Δa /(a + Δa)
can be obtained from Table 3-6. The exit correction,Δa , is then found from the values of
the equations. The joint J is then marked on the u/s face of the rock toe at a distance of Δa
from K. The phreatic line is drawn by making a transition curve by eye judgment from the
point J to the point M on the base parabola. The transition curve is tangential to the
vertical line at J, and it meets the base parabola tangentially at M. It may be noted that the
phreatic line drops vertically in to the rock toe.
4. Phreatic Line for Zoned Erath Dam with a Central Core
For zoned earth dam the phreatic line construction depends mainly on the geometry and
thickness of the core section. B/c the permeability of shell material (example sand) is quite
large as compared to core material (example clay), the effect of outer shells on the phreatic
line in the core is negligible. As such the u/s shell has practically no effect on the position
of the phreatic line. The phreatic line can just start from point B where the extension of the
water level cuts the core. The d/s shell in this case acts as a drain. Thus the usual practice
is to draw the phreatic line for the core section only. For drawing the phreatic line, the
focus F is to be located at the d/s toe of the core and assuming the u/s shell as a reservoir.
Then the core section is treated as a homogeneous dam and the same of constructing
phreatic line for homogeneous dam is considered. However, in this case, the phreatic line
at the exit end will be slightly above the base of the core so that the seepage water can
flow under gravity through the d/s shell which acts a drain.
Figure 3-13 Phreatic line for homogeneous earth dam with Central Core
3.2.6. Characteristics of Phreatic line (Seepage line)

Based on the above discussions, the characteristics of the phreatic line may be summarized
below:
1. At the entry point, the phreatic line must be normal to the upstream face since the
upstream face is a 100% equipotential line. For other entry condition (Fig.3.14), the
phreatic line starts ta11ngentially with the water surface.
Figure 3-14 Entry conditions of phreatic line
2. The pressure along the phreatic line is atmospheric. Hence the only change in the head
along it is due to drop in the elevation of various points on it. Due to this, the successive
equipotential lines will meet it at equal vertical intervals.
3. The focus of the base parabola lies at the break out point of the bottom flow line, where
the flow emerges out from relatively impervious medium to a highly pervious medium.
4. When horizontal filter or drainage toe is provided, the phreatic line would tend to
emerge vertically.
5. In the absence of any filter, the seepage line will cut the downstream slope at some
point above the base. The location of this point, and the phreatic line itself, is not
dependent on the permeability or any other property, so long as the dam is homogeneous.
The geometry of the dam alone decides these.
6. The presence of pervious foundation below the dam does not influence the position of
phreatic line.
7. In the case of a zoned dam with central impervious core, the effect of outer shells can be
neglected altogether. The focus of the base parabola will be located at the downstream.
Toe of the core.
3.2.7. Graphical determination of flow net

After having located phreatic line in an earth dam the flow net can be plotted by trial and
error by observing the following properties of flow net (Fig 3.15), and by following the
practical suggestions given by A Casagrande.
Figure 3-15 Flow net by graphical method
Properties of flow net
1. The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
2. The fields are approximately squares, so that a circle can be drawn touching all the
four sides of square.
3. The quantity flowing through each flow channel is the same similarly, the same
potential drop occurs between two successive equipotential lines.
4. Smaller the dimensions of the field, greater will be the hydraulic gradient and
velocity of flow through it.
5. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of curves is smooth, being
either elliptical or parabolic in shape.
Arthur Casagrande gives the following excellent hints for the beginner in flow net
sketching:
1. Use every opportunity to study the appearance of well constructed flow nets. When
the picture is sufficiently absorbed in your mind, try to draw the same flow net
without looking at the available solution: repeat this unit you are able to sketch this
flow net in a satisfactory manner.
2. Four or five flow channels are usually sufficient for the first attempt; the use of too
many flow channels may distract the attention from the essential features.
3. Always watch the appearance of the entire flow net. Do not try to adjust details
before the entire flow net is approximately correct.
4. The beginner usually makes the mistake of drawing too sharp transitions between
straight and curved sections of flow lines or equipotential lines. Keep in mind that
all transitions are smooth; of elliptical or parabolic shape. The size of the squares
in each channel will change gradually.
3.2.7. Stability Analysis
Three considerations govern the design of an earth embankment.
i. Side slopes must be stable;

ii. Dimensions must be sufficient to control seepage;
iii. Base width must be long enough to distribute weight of dam over sufficient area to
prevent overstress in the foundation.
An earthen embankment usually fails because of the sliding of a large soil mass along a
curved surface. Stability analyses under the following four heads are generally needed:
1. Stability analysis of downstream slope during steady seepage.

2. Stability of upstream slope during sudden Draw down.
3. Stability of upstream & downstream slope during and immediately after
construction.
4. Stability of foundation against shear.
Swedish Circle Method of Slope Stability
The method used for examining the stability of slopes of earthen embankments is called
the Swedish Slip Circle Method or the Slices Method. It assumes the condition of plane
strain with failure along a cylindrical arc. The location of the centre of the possible failure
arc is assumed. The earth mass is divided into a number of vertical segments called slices
as shown in Figure 3-16 O is the center and r is the radius of the possible failure.
Figure 3-16 Possible slip surface in Earth fill dam
The side slopes of earth dam will be stable if the soil mass is not dislodged from the
slopes. However, the soil mass in an earthen dam is subjected to forces which tend to
cause movement or sliding of the soil mass. These forces are known as actuating, driving
or disturbing forces which mainly consists of gravity forces. The movement or sliding of
the soil mass in an earthen dam is resisted by the resisting or stability forces which are
provided mainly by the shearing strength of the soil.
The stability of the side slope of an earthen dam is thus analyzed by assuming a surface
slippage within the soil mass and by determining the resisting and the disturbing forces
acting on this surface and the moments of these forces about the center of rotation, and
then factor of safety against sliding is calculated.
The forces acting on the slices are:
1. The self weight W of the slice acting vertically downward through the center of
gravity.
2. The cohesive forces acting tangentially opposite to the direction of probable

slippage
3. The soil reaction across the arc. When the soil mass is about to slide, the soil
reaction will act at an angle ф (the angle of internal friction of the soil) to the
normal i.e. radial direction
4. The soil reaction on the two vertical sides of the slice exercised by the adjacent
slices on the right and left respectively.
5. Pore pressures at the base of the arc, and left and right side of the slice.
Usually it is assumed that the soil reactions on the two vertical sides of the slice cancel
each other and so also the pore pressures on the two sides balance each other. The
disturbing force is the component of weight of slice in tangential direction i.e.,
T  W sin ,
Where: α is the angle which the slope makes with the horizontal.
The total disturbing forces will be summation of disturbing forces for all slices;
T  T 1  T2  T3  ....
The total disturbing moments over the sliding surface will be equal to
M d   Ti ri  r  Ti
The magnitude of shear strength developed in each slice will depend upon the normal
components of that slice. Its magnitude will be:
 cL  N tan 
Where; c is the unit cohesion of the soil
∆L is curved length of the slice
Ф is the angle of internal friction
N is equal to Wcosα
The total resisting force will be summation of resisting forces for all slices;
  cL   N tan 
 c L   N  tan 
The total resisting moment over the entire sliding surface will be equal to
M r  r c L   N  tan  
Hence the factor of safety against sliding
M r c  L  tan   N
FS  
Md T
For determining the stability of the proposed side slope of an earth dam it is necessary to
find the least factor of safety which may occur on any of the possible surfaces of slippage
or slip circles. Slip circle which yields the least factor of safety is the most critical and
hence it is known as critical surface slippage or critical slip circle. For locating the critical
surface of slippage, it is necessary to try several different surfaces of slippage as one trial
gives the value of factor of safety for that arc only.
For preliminary analysis 4 to 5 slices may be sufficient; however, 10 to 15 slices are

considered in general. It is not necessary for the analysis to make all the slices of equal
width, but for the sake of convenience it is customary to have slices of equal width.
Method of locating center of critical slip circle
Fellenius gave the method of locating the locus on which probable centers of critical slip
circle may lie. He gives direction angles  to be plotted at heel measured from the outer
slope and  to be plotted from horizontal line above the top surface of the dam. These two
lines plotted with given direction angle intersect at point P. Point P is one of the centers.
To obtain the locus we obtain point Q by taking a line H m below the base of the dam and
4.5 H m away from toe. When the line PQ is obtained, trial centers are selected around P
on the line PQ and factor of safety corresponding to each centre calculated from Equation
given above as ordinates on the corresponding centers, and a smooth curve is obtained.
The centre corresponding to the lowest factor of safety is then the critical centre.
Figure 3-17 Location of center of critical slip circle
An earthen embankment usually fails because of the sliding of a large soil mass along a
curved surface. Stability analyses under the following four heads are generally needed:
1. Stability analysis of downstream slope during steady seepage.
2. Stability of upstream slope during sudden Draw down.
3. Stability of u/s slope portion of the dam, during sudden drawdown against
horizontal shear developed at the base of the dam.
1. Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage (reservoir full)
The most critical condition for the d/s slope occurs when the reservoir is full and the
seepage is taking place at full rate.
The seepage water below the phreatic line exerts a pore pressure on the soil mass which
lies below the phreatic line, see Figure 3-18.
cL  tan  ( N  U )
F .S . 
T
When U is the total pore pressure on the slope surface
Figure 3-18 stability of downstream slope during steady seepage
Consider slice number 4 in Error! Reference source not found., the weight of the slice is
efined as;
W4   dry *V41   sat *V42

α4 read from the scaled drawing of the earth fill dam. And tangential component of W 4 is
defined as, which is shear stress developed at failure plane,
T4  W4 sin 4
The pore-water pressure at any point is represented by the piezometric head (h w) at that
point. Thus the variations of pore water pressure along a likely slip surface is obtained by
measuring at each of its intersections with an equipotential line, the vertical height from
that intersection to the level at which the equipotential line cuts the phreatic line. The pore
pressure represented by vertical height so obtained are plotted to scale in a direction
normal to the sliding surface at the respective point of intersection. The distribution of
pore water pressure on the critical slope surface during steady seepage is shown hatched in
Figure 3-18.The area of U- diagram can be measured with help of a planimeter.
In the absence of a flow net, the F.S of the d/s slope can approximately be from the
equation.
cL  tan  N '
F .S . 
T
The following unit weights may be used for the calculation of  N ' and T when pore
pressure are otherwise not included in the stability analysis, however the Phreatic line
needs to be drawn.
Location Driving force Resisting force

Below phreatic surface Saturated weight Submerged weight
Above phreatic surface Moist weight Moist weight
The pore pressure for slice 4 is represented by the piezometric head h4. Hence pore water
pressure is
U w4   w h4
Shear strength developed for the slice is quantified from two soil parameters, apparent
cohesion c and angle of shearing resistance ф. Shear strength at failure plane is defined as
 4  cL4  W4 cos 4   w h4 L4  tan 
b
Where; L4 is
cos 4
The factor of safety of slide 4 is

T4 cL4  W cos 4   w h4 L4  tan 
FS 4  
4 W4 sin  4
The factor of safety for the entire circle is then given by the equation
FS 
 c L   W cos  
i i i i w i h Li  tan 
W sin  i i
2. Stability of Upstream Slope during sudden drawdown
For the u/s slope, the critical condition can occur, when the reservoir is suddenly emptied.
In such case, the water level within the soil will remain as it was when the soil pores were
full of water. The weight of this water within the soil now tends to slide the u/s slope
along a circular arc. The tangential components of the saturated soil lying over the arc will
create a disturbing force; while the normal component minus the pore pressure shall
supply the shear strength of the soil.
Table 3-8: General format for computation of stability
Slice# W T N U L Ul N‟=N-uL tanΦ N‟tan CL N‟tanΦ+cl

Φ
ΣT ∑ Σ (N‟tanΦ+cl)
The factor of safety is finally obtained from the equation
FS 
c L   N
i i
'
tan 
T '
Where: N’ represents normal components on submerged density
T’ represents tangential components on saturated unit weight of the soil
3. Stability of u/s slope portion of the dam, during sudden drawdown against
horizontal shear developed at the base of the dam.
Approximate method for checking the stability of u/s slope under steady seepage from
consideration of horizontal shear at base
i. Stability of u/s slope during sudden drawdown
It is based on the simple principle that a horizontal shear force Pu is exerted by the
saturated soil. The resistance to this force Ru is provided by the shear resistance developed
at the base of the soil mass, contained within the u/s triangular shoulder GMN of Fig. 3-19
Figure 3-19 Stability of u/s slope during sudden drawdown against horizontal shear
developed at the base of the dam.
Considering unit length of the dam, the horizontal force Pu is
 h 2   h 
2
Pu   1 tan 2  45     w 1 
 2  2 2 
 sub h1   dry h  h1 
1 
h
Where;-Shear resistance Ru of u/s slope portion of the dam developed at base GN is given
by
 1 
Ru  cBu  W tan   cBu    sub Bu h  tan 
 2 
Where;-W is the weight of the u/s triangular shoulder of the dam
The factor of safety against can be easily calculated, using

Ru
FS 
Pu
 It should be more than 1.5.
ii. Stability of d/s slope under steady seepage

It is based on the consideration of horizontal shear at base under the d/s slope of the dam.
The horizontal shear force Pd is given by, referring Fig. 3-20
Figure 3-20 Stability of d/s slope during under steady seepage against horizontal shear
developed at the base of the dam.
 h 2   h 
2
Pu   2 tan 2  45     w 2 
 2  2 2 
 sub h2   dry h  h2 
2 
h
Where; Shear resistance Rd of d/s slope portion of the dam is given by;
Rd  cBd  W tan   cBu   dry A1   sub A2 tan 
The downstream profile RTS of the downstream slope portion of the dam has an area A1
and of dry soil above seepage line and the area of submerged soil say A 2 below the
seepage line. The entire weight W may be calculated on the basis of submerged soil as it
will be on a still safer side. In that case,
W   sub Bd h
The factor of safety against shear can be easily determined as;
Rd
FS 
Pd
Foundation stress in earth dams are not usually critical except when the foundation
material consists of unconsolidated clay or silt with low shearing strength.
Consider a dam on homogeneous, unconsolidated earth foundation of thickness t
Figure 3-21 Homogenous embankment dam with pervious foundation of thickness t
The downward force exerted on the foundation at the center of the dam tends to squeeze
the foundation material from under the dam. But shear stress develops in the foundation
resisting this action. Assuming the foundation loading to vary as indicated above, Leo
Jugenson suggested the following maximum stresses:
If t > L, τmax= 0.256γf Hs ; Where γf = specific weight of fill
Usually t < L
If t < L/10, τmax = γf Hs t/L
Shear strength = Ss = c + σ tanΦ
The factor of safety against overstress is
FS = Ss/ τmax
 A minimum value of FS = 1.5 is recommended.
3.2.8. Control of Seepage through Earth Dam and Its Foundation

The effects of seepage are:
� Loss of water
�piping failure
�Reduce slope stability and result in dam failure
�Causes local sloughing
Seepage control measures are divided in to two main categories
A. Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage – lessen loss of water

B. Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No piping
A. Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage
IN DAM:
The only measure is provision of impervious core within the body of the dam called
embankment zonation.
Embankment zonation:-for reducing seepage through the body of the dam, a core of
impervious material such as silt clay or clayey silt is generally provided. For most
effective control of through seepage and seepage during reservoir draw down, the
permeability should progressively increase from the core out towards each slope.
Sometimes flat slopes without drains are provided for some dams constructed with
impervious soils having flat embankment slopes & infrequent, short duration , high
reservoir levels, the phreatic surface may be contained well within the d/s slope & escape
gradients may be sufficiently low to prevent piping failure.
IN FOUNDATION:
If the foundation consists of alluvial deposits of pervious sand and gravel with impervious
stratum at a great depth measures to be adopted are cut-off, u/s impervious blanket and d/s
berm.
Cutoff trenches:-This is the most positive means of controlling the amount of seepage and
insuring that no difficulty will be encountered by piping through the foundation or by
uplift pressure at the downstream toe. Whenever economically possible, seepage through a
pervious foundation should be cut off by a trench extending to bed rock or other
impervious stratum.
Partial cutoff trenches:-The partial cut offs are effective only when they extend down
into an intermediate stratum of lower permeability. This stratum must be continuous
across the valley foundation to ensure that three- dimensional seepage around discontinues
stratum does not negate the effectiveness of the partial cutoff. Such type of measures is
effective when the foundation material is stratified alluvial deposit.
Sheet pilling cut offs: - A steel sheet pile cut off consists of interconnected sheet piles to
form a continuous impervious barrier. It is relatively expensive and leakage through the
interlocks b/n the individual piling is considerable. It is used occasionally in combination
with a partial cutoff trench as a means of increasing the depth of the cutoff. Sheet piling
cutoffs are practically limited to use in foundations of silt, Sand and fine gravel.
Slurry trench cutoff: - is an important method of constructing positive cut offs when wet
conditions or deep cutoffs in alluvial valleys make conventional constriction methods
uneconomical.
Grouting:- The stability and impermeability of pervious overburden foundation can be

improved by injection a substance which will act as a binder & fill the voids. Cement or
cement -clay grouts are usually used to treat foundations over lain by coarse alluvial
material.
Upstream blankets: - The path of percolation in pervious foundations can be increased by

the construction of a blanket of impervious material connecting with the impervious zone
of the dam and extending upstream from the toe. Blankets are usually used when cutoffs to
bed rock or to an impervious layer are not practicable b/c of excessive depth; they are also
used in conjunction with partial cut off trenches. The length of the blanket will be
governed by the desired reduction in the amount of under seepage and its thickness usually
varies from 1.5 to 3.0 m. It may be provided in homogenous dams constructed of
relatively impervious soil. The length of the u/s blanket can be obtained from the
following formula.
l=
Where k = mean horizontal permeability coefficient
h = the gross height
p = percentage (stated as decimal) of flow under dam w/o a blanket to which level
it is desired to reduce the seepage by meanse of a blanket
b =length of impervious dam material
q = k(h/b)xdx1 seepage flow under the dam (approximate)
d = depth of pervious foundation
q‟ = pq
Where q‟ is the seepage quantity after provision of u/s blanket

Figure 3-22 upstream blankets
B) Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No piping
Some water always seeps through the dam and foundation even after adopting several
seepage control measures discussed earlier. The seeping water should be safely drained
through the dam and foundation without causing ill effects.
IN DAM:
i. Horizontal drainage
ii. blanket Rock toe
iii. Strip drain
iv. Chimney drain
i) Horizontal drainage blanket: Vertical (or inclined) and horizontal drains
Because of the often variable characteristics of borrow materials, vertical (or inclined) and
horizontal drains with the downstream portion of the embankment are provided to ensure
satisfactory seepage control. Also the vertical (or inclined) drain provides the primary line
of defense to control concentrated leaks through the core of an earth dam. Horizontal
drainage blankets are commonly used for earth dams of moderate heights. The blanket
extends from the d/s toe for a distance of about three times the height of the dam but not
longer than 2/3 of the base width. In the case of zoned section it extends up to the core.
The blanket should consist of a pervious material which should quickly drain the seeping
water and the layers of the filter should fulfill the filter criteria to avoid migration of
materials/ soil particles. The main disadvantage of such a measure is that it is not
effective if the embankment material has stratifications and the horizontal permeability is
greater than the vertical permeability.
Figure 3-23 Horizontal drainage blanket
ii) Rock toe: The rock toe is provided at the d/s toe of the earth dam and it forms part of
the dam. It consists of stones of size varying from 15 to 20 cm. The u/s face of the rock toe
may be vertical or inclined. A graded filter may be provided between the rock toe and the
soil mass as well as b/n the foundation and the rock toe to avoid migration of materials.
The rock toe is suitable for low to moderate height of dams. The height of the rock toe is
generally b/n H/3 to H/4, where H is the height of the dam. Rock toe can also be used in
conjunction with horizontal drainage blankets.
Figure 3-24: Rock toe
iii) Strip drain: A strip drain is provided instead of a horizontal drainage blanket if there is
scarcity of pervious materials in the area. Transverse drains are provided to carry water
from the strip drain to another parallel drain located at the d/s toe of the dam (refer figure).
As far as possible a horizontal drainage blanket is preferred to a strip drain. If there is

chocking of an individual transverse drain in the strip drain system, a significant length of
the d/s face of the dam would become un-drained and there may be sloughing.
Figure 3-25: Strip drain
iv) Chimney drain: A chimney drain is a vertical/nearly vertical drain located inside the
dam so that it intercepts all layers of the dam in the seepage zone. Thus it is helpful in
stratified embankments. A chimney drain renders the d/s portion of the dam free from
seeping water and it increases the stability of the d/s slope. It also helps in reducing the
p[ore water pressure during construction and sudden draw down condition. Chimney
drains are rarely provided in homogeneous dams and they are provided d/s of the
impervious core in zoned earthfill dams. From the chimney drain water is carried to d/s by
a horizontal drainage blankets. The chimney drain should be accompanied with proper
filters.
Figure 3-26: Chimney drain
IN FOUNDATION:
In general, the drainage systems provided for the dam can also serve for the purpose of
drainage of foundation. Additional measures such as mentioned below can be taken in to
account.
i. Toe drains
ii. Drainage trenches
iii. Relief Wells
iv. Vertical Sand Drains
i) Toe drain and drainage blanket: The purpose of toe drains is to collect the seepage
water from the horizontal drainage blanket (construction in conjunction with it –fig) and
foundation to carry it to an outfall pipe which then discharges the water in to the river or
spillway stilling basin. Toe drain pipes are usually of verified clay or perforated asphalt
dipped corrugated metal pipes placed in trenches excavated to the required depth below
the ground surface to ensure effective interception of seepage flow. Filters are provided as
usual.
Figure 3-27: Toe drain
ii) Drainage trenches: Drainage trenches are used when a thin impervious top stratum
overlies a shallow pervious stratum of the foundation so that the trench can be built to
penetrate the pervious stratum substantially. They are similar in arrangement with that of
toe drains, but in this case there is no pipe provided to drain. The trenches are excavated to
the required depth and backfilled with properly graded layers in accordance with the filter
criteria such that the coarser materials are at the inner side. Drainage trenches, however,
are not effective if the underlying pervious stratum is quite deep and stratified.
Figure 3-28: Drainage trenches
iii) Relief Wells: Are generally used for drainage of the foundation if it consists of a deep
pervious stratum which is stratified and whose permeability increases with depth. Relief
wells are provided at or near the d/s toe of the dam to collect water seeping through the
foundation and to reduce the pore pressure in the foundation. Relief well consists of an
interior perforated pipe or a well screen with a minimum diameter of 15 cm. The well
screen is surrounded by a small thickness of gravel pack which is properly graded so as to
meet the filter criteria for the surrounding soil. Seepage from the relief wells is usually
discharged at the toe of the dam in the river channel through the horizontal overflow pipe
and a lined drainage ditch. The spacing of the relief wells is usually b/n 15 to 30m.
Figure 3-29: Relief Wells
iv) Vertical Sand drains: These drains consist of vertical holes drilled in the foundation all
along the base of the dam. These holes are filled with clean, course sand of high
permeability to form sand columns. These sand drains reduce the path of drainage in the
horizontal direction and help in the drainage of the foundation. They also accelerate
consolidation of the foundation soil by providing drainage. Vertical sand drains are quite
effective for the drainage of soft clay foundation which cannot be easily drained by other
methods. Vertical sand drains can also act as relief wells and thus help in reducing the
pore pressure and controlling under seepage.
Figure 3-30: Vertical Sand drains

3.4. Rock fill Dams
Objective:-After completion of this section students will be able to:
 Identify components of rockfill dam

 Design rockfill dam
A rockfill dam is a type of embankment dam in which rock fragments (or rockfill) is the
main construction material.
A dam that relies on rock, either dumped in lifts or compacted in layers, as a major
structural element.
The mass stability of a rockfill dam is mainly developed by the friction and interaction of
the particles.
A rock fill dam is an embankment which uses variable sizes of rock to provide stability
and an impervious membrane to provide water tightness. The watertight membrane for a
rock fill dam should be constructed on the upstream slope where its condition can be
inspected when the reservoir is drawdown.
Rock fill dams can prove economical when any of the following conditions exist.
1. Large quantities of rocks are available or will be excavated in connection with the
project such as
2. Earth fill materials are difficult to obtain or require much processing to be used
3. Short construction season prevails
4. Excessively wet climatic condition limit the placement of large quantities of earth fill
materials.
Figure 3-31: Rockfill dam

3.4.1. Components of Rockfill Dam
The major components of Rockfill dam may consist of:
 Impermeable membrane
 Rock fill
 U/S cut-off
 Rock cushion/rubble masonry
The membrane is usually placed on the u/s face, and in some instances it is placed in the
center of the rock fill. The material of the membrane could of concrete, asphalt, steel,
timber or impervious soil. The rock fill usually owns the natural slope at the d/s face. The
dry rubble masonry/well compacted rock is provided b/n u/s impervious membrane and
the rockfill to make smooth compact bedding for the impervious membrane.
Figure 3-32: Section of Rock Fill Dam
Depending up on the location of the membrane, rockfill dams may be classified in to

three.
i. Central core
ii. Sloping core
iii. U/s membrane or deck
Impervious membrane is used as a water barrier placed either within the embankment or
on the u/s slope. Internal membrane constructed of earthen materials should preferably be
placed in the central core. For external membranes concrete, asphalt or steel are
recommended.
Advantages of Internal membrane:
 Less total area exposed to water

 Shorter grout curtain length
 Protection from effect of weathering and external damage
Disadvantages of Internal membrane:
 Inability to place rockfill material without simultaneous placement of core

material and filter
 The dependence on a smaller section of the dam for stability against sliding
 Instability of membrane for damage inspection
Advantages of u/s membrane
 Available for inspection and repair



 Membrane can be used as a slope protection
Foundation requirement:-The foundation requirement for a rock fill dam is less sever
than for a concrete gravity dam. But more sever than earth fill dams. Rock fill dams
require foundations which will result in a minimum of settlement. Generally rock
foundations consisting of hard, durable rock which cannot be softened or eroded
appreciably by percolating water is recommended. To prevent seepage, the foundation
must be grouted.
Cutoff wall:-A watertight seal must be provided along the contact of the impervious
membrane with the foundation and abutment at the upstream toe of the dam to prevent
seepage under the dam. In existing dams, this seal has been in the form of a concrete
cutoff wall which extends from the upstream toe of dam to the bed rock. The cutoff wall
must provide adequate support for the weight and thrust of the membrane in addition to its
function of preventing under seepage. The depth of penetration of the cutoff wall in to
bedrock depends up on the character of the foundation rock. If the rock is sound, the cutoff
wall should extend in to the foundation rock not less than 1 meter. A deeper wall or
special treatment such as grouting may be required if the rock is not sound or if open
joints or broken rock structure exists.
3.4.2. Rock Fill Embankment Design

Selection of embankment material:-The rock must be hard & durable to resist excessive
breakdown during the hauling and placing operation and must be located near the dam site
for economy .The rock also should with stand disintegration under the action of freezing
and thawing. Un-weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks are of satisfactory quality for
rock fill. Sedimentary rocks should be avoided. The rock should be abrasion resistant. The
rock produced in the quarry or obtained from natural sources should be well graded from
0.014 - 0.73 cubic meters in size and should contain less fine than sufficient to fill the
voids.
Dam section:- In as much as stability from sliding is not a design consideration in a small
rock fill dam b/c of its mass and weight, the determination of the external slopes depends
up on the relative cost of dumped rock and rubble masonry. For small rock fill dams, the
downstream slope should be equal to the angle of repose of dumped rock fill (about 1.4 to
1) & the u/s slopes should be 2:1 to facilitate construction of the u/s impervious facing.
The u/s and d/s slopes depend up on the type of impervious membrane and its location.
Central core/sloping membrane slope ranges from 2:1 to 4:1 u/s and d/s slope. For u/s
membrane type rockfill dam, u/s slope ranges from 1.3: 1 to 1.4:1 and d/s slope
approximate the natural slope of the rock fill. Asphalt or concrete faced dams have u/s
slopes of range 1.6:1 to 1.7: 1 to facilitate the construction of the membrane whereas steel
and concrete faced dams could have slopes in the range of 1.3: 1 to 1.4:1. D/s slopes
usually range from 1.3: 1 to 1.4:1 for both above cases.
Figure 3-33: Earthfill central core rockfill dam section
Rock fill zone:-The placement of the rock fill is one of the most important operations in
the construction of a rock fill dam as it is essential to minimize total settlement and the
possibility of damage to the impervious membrane. Settlement of rock fill takes place in
two stages. The first major settlement occurs during the construction of the rock fill. This
stage of settlement has a minor bearing on the security of the impervious membrane,
provided the membrane is not placed concurrently with the rock. The second major stage
of settlement occurs as the reservoir fills and the thrust due to water load is transmitted to
the rock fill. For small rock fill dams placement of rock in relatively thin layers is
considered to bead visable. The rock should be dumped on the embankment and spread in
layer with a maximum thickness of 1 meter. The spreading operation will assure a
minimum number of large voids and provide a compact rock fill.
Preparation of upstream facing:-for small dams a zone of graded sand and gravel or
quarry fines when well compacted present smooth bedding for the impervious membrane.
This zone should have a minimum horizontal width of 1 meter to facilitate compaction. It
should be constructed in 30 cm layers thoroughly wetted and compacted. The material
used in this zone should be pervious and well graded from 0.6 cm to 7.5 cm. After placing
the upstream face can be dressed smooth to accept any type of membrane.
Design of upstream facing:-Reinforced concrete pavement is the most common type

although asphaltic concrete. Steel and timber planking may serve the purpose. For low
dams, a reinforced concrete slab with a minimum thickness of 20 cm should be provided.
Horizontal and vertical expansion joints are not required b/c of low reservoir head and
minor amount of settlement expected. However, vertical joints may be required to
compensate for horizontal expansion on low dams of considerable length.
Reinforcement should be provided: areas of steel equal to 0.5% and 0.7% of the concrete
area, vertically and horizontally is considered good practice. Timber planking is not
recommended for general use, although it is often the cheaper type of membrane to
construct. The principal objections to this type of construction are the danger of loss by
fire at low water and the relatively short life of timber construction when alternately
exposed to wetting and drying. Decked rockfill dam consists of three zones called A, B, C
Zone C: The larger d/s zone of the dam consists of best quality, larger sized compacted
rock. This zone provides high stability to the section.
Zone B: Rock of lesser quality than such as excavated from spillway, used to minimize
total dam cost.
Zone A: well graded small sized rock gravel; this is used to provide bedding to the u/s
membrane and to retard excess water losses when the membrane cracks.
In general, materials in zones B and C should grade from fine rock u/s to course rock d/s
with the largest and strongest material placed in the lower d/s portion of zone C. For
central earth core, rockfill dams, the larger and the stronger rock should be placed in the
d/s rock fill zone and grade from fine rock next to the filter to course rock near the d/s
slope. The u/s rock fill zone may be rock of lesser quality than the d/s zone and grade from
fine at the filter to course at the u/s face.
Figure 3-34: Typical section of decked type rockfill dam with zones
4. FOUNDATIONS OF DAMS AND THEIR TREATMENT
General: Foundation is part of the area under and adjacent to a dam, i.e., bottom and
abutments.
A sound foundation:-
 Must have sufficient strength to withstand crushing and to prevent sliding,

 Must be tight enough to prevent excessive leakage and to reduce uplift as much as
possible.
 Must not be damaged by overflow discharge and discharge from outlet works.
Foundations may be classified as: Rock foundations and Earth foundations. The
foundations materials are coarse grained material (sand and gravel) fine grained materials
(silt and clay).
In the strength and stability calculations rock foundations are considered to be

homogeneous, continuous and isotropic but actually the rock as well as earth foundations
are heterogeneous, anisotropic, consisting of rocks of different properties and are divided
by various cracks, i.e. foundations are never continuous. In general, rock foundations
present no problem of bearing capacity and settlement even though the foundation mass
has smaller strength and large deformability than its composing rock.
Defects of rock foundations: Presence of seams, fissures, cracks or faults that have
usually resulted in erosive leakage, excessive loss of water and sliding. Presence of
weathered zone (surface rock) or crushed zone that have usually resulted in separate
foundation.
4.1. Foundation treatment

Treatment of foundation, if it is necessary, consists of grouting cracks and tectonic zones
and infilling of weak portions with concrete, in strengthening broken-up parts using
different connecting arrangements and structures. Weathered portion (surface rock) has to
be excavated and removed. Excavation has to be deep enough to give a firm „toe hold‟ to
the dam.
Consolidation of foundation:
Grouting is carried out to consolidate fissured or cracked foundations (consolidation

grouting) by a grout that is prepared properly as a mixture of water and cement with
admixtures of rock flour, bentonite, etc. Grouting is usually started with a mixture of
cement and water in the proportion 1:5 and gradually thickened to 1:1.
Grouting hole: Depth =15 m
Spacing = 3 to 6 m on centers
Grout pressure = 3.5 kg/cm2 (=350 KPa)
Execution starts with holes drilled and grouted from 12 to 25 m apart; then, intermediate
holes are drilled and grouted.
Allowable stress: Granite: 4.0 – 7.0 KPa
Limestone: 2.5 – 5.5 KPa
Sandstone: 2.5 – 4.0 KPa
4.2. Measures against leakage
Leakage through rock foundations can be prevented by making grout curtain or trench
filled with concrete.
Grout curtain: High pressure holes drilled relatively deep and near the u/s foundation of
dam at close intervals and grouted under pressure (depth to be determined by water
pressure test).
Depth: In hard rock = 30 – 40 % of dam height
In poor rock = as much as 70 % of dam height.
Tentative spacing = 1.5m on centers
Grout Pressure = 0.25 Kg/cm2 per meter depth below the surface
For small dams, one row of grouting holes may be sufficient. No grouting is required for
detention dams. Hot asphalt is used for sealing openings of large size containing running
water.
Trench filled with concrete: Preferable if it can be done economically. Treatment of
faults, shear joints, etc.:
Optimum depth of back filling = 20% of dam height
Estimation of optimum depth as per USBR recommendation,
d = 0.0066 bh – 1.5 for h ≤ 46 m
d = 0.3 bh + 1.5 for h ≥ 46 m
Where: d = depth of excavation of weak zone below ground surface at adjoining sound
rock in m.
h = height of dam above average foundation level general
b = width of wet zone
Preparation of rock and dam interface
The rock and dam interface must be prepared to obtain reliable interlocking and long
contact length in the flow direction.
Figure 4-1 Profile of a typical interface
Drainage
Drainage is provided to relieve uplift pressure at base of dam. It is provided by a line of

drilled holes d/s from the grout curtain. The holes are connected to drainage gallery to
carry the seepage to the tail water.
The reduction in uplift pressure in a properly working drainage gallery can be estimated
as,
2
pU   W (H  H ' )
3
Where :- PU = reduction of pressure at the drainage
w = unit weight of water

H = u/s water head
H’ = tail water head
a. No drainage b. Drainage gallery is provided
Figure 4-2 Uplift pressure distribution with and without drainage gallery
Net pressure available at the gallery becomes
2
pUg   W H   W ( H  H ' )
3
1
  W ( H  2H ' )
3
4.3. Stability of Dams and Strength of Rock Foundation

Loss of stability of dam and displacement thereof may occur due to:
i. sliding, when its contact with the foundation is disturbed or due to cracks in the
foundation when inadmissible tensile and tangential stresses appear;
ii. overturning, when its contact with the foundation is disturbed;
iii. destruction of rock mass of foundation under the action of stresses appearing in it.
4.4. Earth Foundation
Earth foundation may be classified as:
 Foundations of coarse-grained material (gravel and sand)

 Foundations of fine-grained material (silt and clay).
In preparation of earth foundations, the objectives are to prevent: crushing, sliding,

excessive seepage under the dam, piping, and scouring by water flowing over the dam.
Because of the high cost of treatment of earth foundations, gravity dams on earth
foundations are limited in height to 20m.
Gravel and sand foundation

Gravel and sand foundations are alluvial in origin. The following two basic seepage
problems are encountered in using these foundations: excessive loss of water and large
seepage force. Extent of treatment to reduce the effect of the aforementioned problems
depends on:
 The purpose of the dam (seepage quantity is of little concern in a detention dam).
 The necessity of the downstream release.
Regardless of the quantity of seepage, adequate measures have to be provided to reduce

the danger of piping.
4.5.Estimation of seepage amount

A rough estimation of the amount of seepage could be made using the Darcy‟s equation
Q = kiA
Where: Q = rate of seepage (m3/s)
k = Permeability (Hydraulic conductivity) of the foundation material (m/s).
i = hydraulic gradient
= H/L H = upstream and downstream sections head difference (m).
L = length of seepage path (m)

A = gross area of foundation through which flow takes place (m2).
A better estimation of seepage quantity can be made by flow net analysis of the
foundation. Using flow net technique,
q = k H Nf / Np
Where: q = seepage quantity per unit length (m3/s/m)
Nf = number of flow channels

Np = number of potential drops
Example 4.1: For the ogee spillway with sheetpiling cutoff shown above:
a. Compute the seepage in m3/min.; and
b. Calculate the uplift force acting on the base of the dam.
To compute the seepage
Alternative I.
h = 2m, H = 20m
k = 0.00001m/min [Hydraulic conductivity of pervious foundation]
L = 48m [bottom length of the spillway]
I = h/l = 2/6 = 0.33
q = KIA [Darcy‟s Equation]
= 0.00001 m/min * 0.33 * 24 m2/m
= 8.0 x 10-5 m3/min Per meter length of structure
Alternative II
H = 20m [head difference of head and tail water level]
Nf = 4 [number of Flow channels]
Nd = 10 [number of Equipotential lines]

Nf
q  kH
Nd
Nf 4
q  kH  0.00001m / min* 20 *
Nd 10
 8.0 *105 m 3 / min/ m length
Uplift force on the dam
At point A h1  7.5m
At point B h2 = 2m
Uplift Pressure
 h1  h2   7.5  2 
Pu   w    10  47.5KPa
 2   2 
Uplift force Fu = Pu x A = 47.5 * 48 = 2280.0 kN per meter length of the structure.
Piping
Seepage forces
Seepage forces are developed as a result of friction between the seeping water and the
walls of the particles.
Figure 4-3 Seepage below a dam in pervious foundation.
Considering Figure 4-3, at the upstream side F increases Ws and tends to hold the soil
particles in position. At the downstream side F decreases Ws and tends to lift the soil
particles. If F >Ws, the soil particles would be floated out and thus erosion progresses
backwards along the flow lines until a “Pipe” is formed resulting in loss of large quantities
of water and soil particles and ultimate collapse of the foundation.
Piping is the movement of materials from the foundation caused by the velocity of the
seeping water as it comes out from the soil below the dam. The danger of piping exists at
any point when the pressure of seeping water is greater than the weight of the soil above
that point.
hf
dw
de
Figure 4-4 Illustration of seepage.
Consider the illustrative diagram of seepage shown in Figure 4-4.

Upward pressure force at A
A   W (d e  d w  h f )
Downward force at A = Weight of soil + Weight of water above A
WA   ss d e   W (d e  d w )
Where ss = submerged unit weight of the soil,

For equilibrium
 W (d e  d w  h f )   ss d e   W (d e  d w )
hf / de  (   w ) /  w
hf/de = ia (actual friction gradient)

(-w)/ w = ic (critical gradient)
The factor of safety against piping is computed as
Sf = ic/ia
A value of Sf ≥ 4 is usually considered in design.
4.6.Uplift pressure and control of seepage
Seepage quantity can be reduced by the following methods:
i. Using soil of low permeability for the body of the dam

ii. Placing core in earth structure and cut-off in the foundation
iii. Increasing the seepage path by employing upstream blanket
Cut-off: is a core of impermeable material placed in the foundation. It may be of
impervious soil (clay) in a cut-off trench; masonry (usually concrete); sheet piling (limited
to foundations of silt, sand and fine aggregate), and grout curtain. Cut-off penetrating up
to the impervious layer is called complete cut-off. When properly constructed, it reduces
seepage to a negligible amount.
Complete Cutoff Partial Cutoff
Figure 4 -5 Complete and partial Cut-off

Upstream Blanket
Cut-off penetrating only part of the pervious foundation is called partial cut-off. Its action
is similar to an obstruction in a pipe. The flow across it is reduced because of the loss of
head due to the obstruction. Cut-off extending through 50 % of the distance to the
impervious stratum will reduce the seepage by only 25 %. An 80 % cut-off reduces the
seepage to 50 %. Thus, partial cut-off is less effective in reducing seepage. However, it
reduces danger of seepage along a line of contact of foundation and dam particularly when
there is a differential settlement. It is effective in intercepting horizontal cracks and seams
in rock foundation.
An adequate width of cut-off for a small dam may be determined by

W=h–d
Where: W = bottom width of cut-off trench
h = reservoir head above ground surface, and
d = depth of cut-off trench excavation below ground surface.
Upstream blanket
It is a layer of impervious soil placed on the foundation upstream from the structure. For
earth dams it extends to the impervious core. It increases the length of the seepage path
and thus reduces hydraulic gradient and quantity of seepage.
Upstream Blanket
Figure 4-6 Upstream Blanket.
Length of blanket: the length of blanket L1 required to reduce seepage to a required

quantity can be determined from flow net analysis.
L1 = (khd – PQ)b / (PQ)
Where: L1 = length of upstream blanket
k = mean horizontal permeability coefficient of the pervious stratum
h = gross head on impervious upstream blanket
d = depth of pervious stratum
P = fraction to which Q is desired to be reduced by means of the blanket.
Thickness of blanket at a distance x from the upstream toe of blanket, the thickness t can
be computed as:
t = (k2/k1)(L1/d)x
Where t = thickness of blanket at the point under consideration
x = distance from the point under consideration to upstream toe of the blanket
k1 = average permeability of stratum
k2 = permeability of blanket
L1 = length of blanket from upstream toe to impervious section, and
d = depth of pervious stratum
For normal conditions:
t = 1.5 – 3.0 meters
L1 = 10h
In case of fine sand or silty foundation;
L1 = 15h
Upstream apron
It can be of RC or impervious earth blanket. Differential settlement may crack the junction
between apron and dam. A filter layer with clay blanket helps to remedy this danger.
Filter
Drain Holes D/s apron
Blanket
U/s cutoff U/s apron
Trench Drain
D/s cutoff
Figure 4-7 Aprons, Cut-offs, drains and blankets.
Downstream apron: It helps to increase the path of seepage, but its primary purpose is to
balance the uplift pressure.
Downstream cut-off: A short downstream cut-off helps to keep the point of flow
concentration (i.e. high gradient) well within the soil mass where it is protected by the
weight of the soil above.
D/s apron
Flow Concentration Blanket
Flow Concentration
U/s cutoff
Figure 4-8 Regions of flow concentration.
Internal drainage (horizontal drainage layers and filters): It is effective in controlling

excess pressure and exit gradients. It serves to short circuit the seepage. Various
arrangements are possible
Trench drain
Blanket drain
Trench drain
Figure 4-9 Trench and Blanket drains
Toe drain: it is used when the downstream shell is so pervious that it forms a drain.
Lowered line of seepage
Toe drain
Figure 4 -10: Toe drain.
Relief wells: These are holes or wells employed in masonryFilterstructures downstream

Drain Holes
from
D/s apron D/s apron
Flow Concentration Blanket
the cut-off and in the downstream apron where uplift is likely to cause a blow out. They
Flow Concentration
serve to concentrate the seepage and reduce internal pressure.
U/s cutoff U/s apron
Internal drain and relief wells have the disadvantage of increasing seepage
Trench Drain quantity. They
D/s cutoff
all need protective filters, thus, permitting the free drainage of water but preventing the
movement of soil particles.
Relief well
Relief wells
Figure 4 -11: Relief Wells and Relief holes.
4.6.1. Theories of Seepage Flow
Whenever a hydraulic structure is founded on a pervious foundation, it is subjected to

seepage of water beneath the structure, in addition to all other forces to which it will be
subjected when founded on an impervious rock foundation. The concepts of failure of
hydraulic structures due to subsurface flow were introduced by Bligh, on the basis of
experiments and the research work conducted after the failure of Khanki weir, which was
designed on experience and intution without rational theory.
Figure 4 -12: Bligh‟s and Lane‟s creep
Bligh’s creep theory
The seeping water followes the outline of the contact surface of the structure and
foundation soil. The length of the path traversed is the creep length [L]. The loss of head is
assumed to be proportional to the creep length. Refering to Figure
4 -12:
The total head loss between upstream and downstream [HL] = h1- h2
Creep Length [L] = 2d1 + L1 + 2d2 + L2 + 2d3
Head loss per unit length of hydraulic gradient = HL /L
Safety against piping is ensured by providing sufficient creeplength,
L = CHL Where: C – Bligh‟s coefficient for the soil
C = L/HL C is reciprocal of the hydraulic gradient.
The HGL represents the residual uplift water head at each

point.
h‟ = h + t
Uplift pressure = wh‟

4.6.2. Uplift pressure and seepage under masonry structures on pervious
foundations
For designing low concrete dams on pervious foundations, the weighted creep theory, as
developed by Lane is suggested for safety against uplift pressure and piping. According to
this theory, the flow will concentrate along the line of creep, i.e., along the line of contact
of the dam and cut-offs with the foundation. After testing the theory on more than 200
dams on pervious foundations, the following conditions were drawn The weighted creep
length of a cross-section of a dam is the sum of the vertical creep distances (steeper than
450) plus 1/3 of the horizontal creep distance (less than 450).The weighted - creep ratio is
the weighted-creep length divided by the effective head. When filter drains and relief
wells are not used, the full Lane‟s weighted - creep ratio is to be used (case a). Where
drains are properly provided (but no flow net analysis is made), use 80% of Lane‟s
weighted creep ratio (case b). Where both drains and flow net analysis are used, use 70%
of weighed-creep ratio (case c). Take minimum weighted-creep ratio (WCR) = 1.5 The
pressure to be used in design may be estimated by assuming that the drop in pressure from
headwater to tail water along the contact line of the dam and foundation is proportional to
weighted-creep length.
Table 4-1 Lane‟s recommended WCR for different materials
Material Case a Case b Case c

Lane 80 % Lane 70%
Very fine sand and silt Lane
8.5 100% 6.8 6
Fine sand 7.0 5.6 4.9
Medium sand 6.0 4.8 4.2
Coarse sand 5.0 4.0 3.5
Fine gravel 4.0 3.2 2.8
Medium gravel 3.5 2.8 2.5
Coarse gravel (including Cobbles) 3.0 2.4 2.1
Boulders with stone, cobbles, and gravel 2.5 2.0 1.8
Soft clay 3.0 2.4 2.1
Medium Clay 2.0 1.6 1.5
Hard clay 1.8 1.5 1.5
Very hard clay and hard pan 1.6 1.5 1.5
Example 4.2: For the dam section shown below determine:
i. the type of the foundation on which the dam section shown below may be judged
safe;
ii. the magnitude of the uplift force for the section A to B
Solution:
Weighted creep length = 5 + 5 + 4*1 + (10 + 10 + 10)/3 = 24 m
Net head on structure = Head water – Tail water = 8-1.6 = 6.4 m
Weighted creep ratio = 24 / 6.4 = 3.75
According to Lane‟s ratios, the dam(spillway) would be safe on clay or on medium gravel
and coarse gravel. With properly provided drains and filters, it may be considered safe on
fine gravel foundations [case b]
(5  5  10/3)
Uplift at point A  6.4 - * 6.4  1.6  4.44m
24
(5  5  1  1  10 / 3  10/3)
Uplift at point B  6.4 - * 6.4  1.6  3.02
24
(4.44  3.02)
Total Uplift on section AB   w  36.591kN/m crest length
2
Silt and clay foundation
Such foundation materials are sufficiently impervious. Thus seepage is not a problem. The
main challenge is bearing capacity. Methods of foundation treatment are based on:
 Soil type
 Location of water table
 State of compactness of the soil
Methods of treatment:-
a. For saturated fine-grained soils
 Soil of low shearing strength is removed. This is practical for thin layers of soft
soil overlying firm material if the cost of excavation and refill is less than the
cost of special investigation and provision of flatter slopes of embankment.
 Drainage is provided to the foundation to permit increase of strength during
construction.
 Flatter slopes for the embankment are used to reduce the magnitude of the
average shearing stress along the potential surface of sliding. This is the most
practical solution. For recommended slopes, refer to “Design of small dams,
USBR” sec 129.
b. For relatively dry foundations
For a given void ratio, an impervious soil has greater bearing capacity in the unsaturated
condition than in the saturated condition. Hence dry silt and clay foundations are generally
satisfactory for small dams. Soils like loess (very loose wind deposited soils) exhibit
sufficient strength at low water content. Such low density soils are subject to large
settlements when saturated by reservoir and may result in failure of the dam by differential
settlements that may cause rupture of the impervious portion or by considerable reduction
in free board resulting in overtopping. Treatment here depends on the compression
characteristics of the soil.
If appreciable post construction settlements are not expected upon saturation, little
foundation treatment is necessary.
Remove organic top soil

Provide a key trench
Provide a toe drain so that the foundation at the downstream toe will not saturate
When appreciable post construction settlements upon saturation are expected, measures to
minimize the settlements should be adopted.
5. RIVER DIVERSION
River diversion: is a technique of diverting river water away from downstream part into
the canal or tunnel or to particular confined side.
River diversion takes place for two purposes:
 For construction purpose

 For water use purpose
5.1. River Diversion for construction purpose
During construction of gravity or embankment dam, concreting of dam or placing of
earthen material cannot be done in water. Therefore, before starting construction of major
dam, the river water has to be diverted away from the dam site so that the construction can
be done in dry condition. As it may contribute in 5-10% of total cost, it should be carefully
studied and optimized.
Coffer Dam: usually earthen embankment (for economic purpose) is constructed on the
U/S and D/S of the dam site to isolate the construction area which is to be kept dry.
 The diversion tunnel or canal takes off U/S of the coffer dam on the U/S
and then joins on the D/S of the coffer dam in the D/S side.
 Some water usually seeps into the construction area, which has to be
pumped out to keep the area dry.
5.1.1. Components of A diversion Scheme
 Cofferdam-temporary (may also be part of permanent structures) dams
o Embankments earth, earth-rockfill. Sand
o Concrete: conventional, roller-compacted
o Metallic: sheet piles-cells
 Conveyance system-conduction of flow
o Channels (free surface): natural, artificial lined. Unlined controlled
uncontrolled flow
o Conduits (free surface flow, pressure flow)
o Metallic pipes
o Concrete conduits
o Tunnels-lined, unlined, controlled
o Uncontrolled flow
 Dewatering and derange of construction site pumping
5.1.2. Ways of River Diversion
The diversion of river water can be accomplished in either of the following ways:
I. Provision of diversion tunnel or Channel
Diversion tunnel or
diversion channel
U/S Costruction zone
D/S
U/S coffer dam
D/S coffer dam

Figure 5-1 diversion tunnel or Channel
Used during construction of both concrete & embankment dams
II. Two stage construction

Instead of diverting the river into a tunnel or channel, it is some times more economical to
have two stage construction of gravity dam. In such a case, the flow is, first of all, diverted
and confined to one side of the channel by constructing semi circular coffer dam. Then
construction progresses in free water zone. On the next stage the diverted water is allowed
to overtop or to pass through outlet on the side of already constructed portion of the dam.
This method is suitable only during construction of concrete dam.
U/S U/S
Coffer
dam
Construction
Construction
zone on the
area
Completed
portion of 2nd stage
the dam
diverted overtopped
flow flow
D/S
D/S
ii.2nd stage diversion
i. 1st stage diversion
Figure 5-2 two stage diversion way
III. River diversion through the construction site (through culverts in the body of the
dam) Example: Gilgel Gibe Hydroelectric project
Culverts
U/S coffer dam
Construction zone
Culverts
D/S Coffer dam
of main dam
Culverts
Figure 5-3 river diversion through culverts

Construction zone
of main dam
5.2. Optimization of River Diversion Components

Diversion by culvert/tunnel and coffer dam
Tunnels are usually confined to steep side rock valleys. They have the advantage of not
interfering with foundation excavation and dam construction work. Culvert under
embankment dams may be preferred in flat valleys or where the rock is too poor for
efficient tunneling, but tunneling appears to be the most frequent choice.
River diversion through tunnels is the commonest practice in the construction of high head
dams. An economic and engineering study of coffer dam height versus tunnel size may be
done to establish the most economic combination for the maximum diversion discharge. It
is also possible to plot a chart to see the tunnel –to-coffer dam cost alternative and to
select the most economical combination.
cost of tunnels
cost of coffer dam
total cost
Total cost
Tunnel diameter
Figure: 5-4 Tunnel Diameters – Coffer Dam Height - Cost

Discharge capacity is to be decided on base of a risk analysis.
Let:
Tr- return period of a flood for which no damage or destruction should occur
C-total cost of diversion scheme having required capacity (corresponding Tr)
D- Estimation of damages resulting from a failure of the diversion scheme (for instance
overtopping and destruction of a cofferdam). Includes damages downstream and at site.
R-risk of occurrence of a flood larger than diversion capacity during diversion period (N
years)
R=1-(1-1/Tr)N
E- Mathematical expectation of damage.
E,C (106 Birr) C

E
C+E
Tr (years)
Excessive Range of Excessively
Risk Decision costly safety
Figure: 5-5 Range of Decision
5.2.1. Basic Planning Considerations
 Phases of river diversion

In many cases the construction of dam will require more than I phase of handling the river
flows. The complete sequence of phases is important.Planning of river diversion-
integrated to planning of permanent structures.
 Relationship river diversion scheme-layout permanent structures

Considerations of:
o Available space
o Hydraulic conditions, geological conditions
o Possibility to incorporate temporary structures in permanent structures-
economy.
o Feasibility of construction of diversion structures
 Relationship river diversion –hydrological cycle of the river
Components of river division schemes often have to be constructed in the river bed, with
flowing water.
To obtain more favorable (or feasible) conditions-dry period (low discharges)
Example:
- Cofferdams built in flowing water

- River closure
 Capacity of diversion works: - hydrological safety
The selection of discharge capacity of the diversion structures is fundamental for:
- Definition of cofferdam height (stage-discharge relationship)

- Definition of size of conveyance system such as diversion tunnel diameter and channel
width depth.
General Methodology for the planning Of diversion Schemes and Design of their
component works.
a. On the base of the specific requirements of the dam project identify the diversion
schemes with their respective phases and sequences.
b. Determine required discharge capacities (for each phase) by a cost risk analysis or
other equivalent criterion.
c. Conceive type and main characteristics of component works of each alternative
scheme. Preliminary design cost evaluations. Optimize each alternative.
d. Compare alternatives and select the most interesting (cost constructive feasibility
schedule, reliability) detail the selected alternative and its components.
e. Carry out hydraulic model studies for specific (flow conditions construction
conditions, etc).
Reference:
1. Davis & Sorrensen, Hand Book of Hydraulics, 3rd Ed. 1984 Reissue
2. K.R.Arora, Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resource Engineering, SPD.
1996
3. Novak, Moffat, Nalluri & Narayanan ( 1996) Hydraulic Structures, 2nd Ed.
Chapman & Hall
4. Robin Fell, Patrick MacGregor, Geotechnical Engineering of Embankment
Dams, 1992
5. Thomas (1979) The Engineering of Large Dams, Parts 1 & 2, John Willey and
Sons, London
6. USBR, Design of Gravity Dams, US Government Printing Office Denver 1977
7. USBR, Design of Small Dams, A Water Resource Technical Publication, 1974

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WOLLO UNIVERSITY

2.3.4. Design Procedure of Flat-Slab Type Buttress Dams ..................................... 73

1. Introduction to element of dam engineering

“All structures in contact with water”.

 Dike: - is a stone or earthen wall constructed as a defense or as a boundary. The

 Levee: - is a natural or artificial structure, usually earthen, which parallels the

 Weir: - is a small overflow type (designed to be overtopped) dam commonly used

 Coffer dam: - is a temporary structure constructed of any material like timber,

1.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Dams and Reservoirs.

 Spread of water born disease/home to disease-bearing insects)

1.2.1. Dam structures Components

Figure 1: Components dam structures

1. Reservoir 5. Spill structure

Service road: access for transportation way.

1.2.2. Types of Reservoirs

 A single-purpose reservoir: a reservoir serves only one purpose.

 A multipurpose reservoir: if it serves more than one purpose.

The various purposes served by a multipurpose reservoir include;

1. Storage (conservation) Reservoirs 4. Distribution Reservoir

2. Flood control Reservoirs 5. Balancing reservoir

3. Multipurpose Reservoirs: A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to

4. Distribution Reservoir: A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over

5. Balancing reservoir: A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s of the

1.2.3. Available Storage Capacity of a Reservoir

Figure 2: Area- Elevation Curve

1. Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula, the storage volume

Where h is the contour interval.

Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by;

Where n is the total number of areas.

The total volume V is given by:

The total volume is given by:

V = [(A1 + An) +4(A2 + A4 + A6 +....) + 2 (A3 + A5 + ...)] (1.6)

V = [(A1 + An) +4(A2 + A4 +.......) + 2 (A3 + A5 + .....)] (1.7)

Figure 1-3 Elevation-Capacity Curve

Figure 1-4 Area – Elevation-Capacity Curve

Figure 1-5 Reservoir-Capacity Contour View

1.2.4. Components of dam and reservoir

Figure 1-6 components of dam and reservoir

 Secondary yield: Secondary yield is the quantity of water which is available

1.3. Classification of Dams

1.3.2. Classification by Hydraulic Design

1.3.3. Classification based on rigidity

1.3.4. Classification by Materials

1.4. Embankment dam types and characteristics

An embankment dam can be constructed of excavated materials (clay, sand and

– the material is usually obtained at or near dam site

– placed without addition of binding materials

– compacted using high capacity mechanical plant

1.4.1. Earth fill embankments:

Figure 1-7 Principal variants of earthfill and earthfill–rockfill embankment dams

(values of m are indicative only)

1.4.2. Rockfill embankments:

Figure 1-8 Principal variants of rockfill embankment dams

(values of m are indicative only)

1.5. Concrete dam types and characteristics

Concrete dams are a dam made of stone or concrete materials.

Figure 1-9 Example of concrete Gravity dam

as a lightened version of the gravity dam.

 Concrete dams are relatively demanding with respect to foundation conditions,

1.6. Dam Site Assessment and Investigation

1.6.1. Parties Involved In Dam Engineering

 Owner: public or private organization.

 Detailed (construction execution design);-