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Aral Note O Level Subjects ▼ A Level Subjects ▼

Comprehensive O/A Level notes

Natural Topography and Drainage

Northern Mountains:
Ranges:
Hindu Kush
Karakoram
Himalayas
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Western Mountains:
Ranges:
Safed Koh
Waziristan Hills
Sulaiman Range
Kirthar Range
Advantages and Disadvantages
Northern vs Western Mountains (Topography and Drainage)

Balochistan Plateau:
Features
Advantages and Disadvantages
Potwar Plateau:
Features
Economic Activities
Balochistan vs Potwar Plateau (Topography, Drainage, and
Economic Activities)

Drainage:
Doabs and Rivers
General Features
Upper vs Lower Indus Plain
Economic Activities

Deserts:
Features
Economic Activities
Lifestyle

Northern Mountains
Ranges:
Hindu Kush:
Features:
Average height: 5000m
Highest Mountain: Tirich Mir (7960m)
Location, Topography and Climate:
Location: It stretches from the Pamir Plateau to the South West direction
It has important passes such as the:
Shandur Pass connecting Gilgit and Chitral
The Shangla Pass linking the Swat valley
The Lawarai Pass connecting Chitral to Swat and the Vale of Peshawar
Rugged landscape with snow-capped peaks during the winter
It has high peaks and numerous glaciers, due to which it resembles the
Karakoram Range
These glaciers include Trich and Kotgaz
It has seasonal rivers which flow in the winter in a southwards direction
The include the Mastuj and Swat River, which eventually drains into the
Indus
Though it is mostly devoid of vegetation, there are some rich forests to the
south-East and in some valleys
Economic Activity:
The passes have immense historical importance as many invaders passed
through them
Rice is cultivated on terraced fields 
Valleys:
Swat
Chitral
Dir

Karakoram:
Features:
Average height: 6000m
Highest Mountain: K2 (8611m)
Topography and Climate:
Due to the low temperature of the area, precipitation generally takes place in
the form of snow
Passes:
Khunjerab Pass: connects Pakistan and China
Karakoram Pass:
In the upper regions of the area, there are glaciers instead of rivers
These glacier are one of the largest in Pakistan, including the Siachen, Biafo,
and Hispar glaciers
There are deep, narrow valleys and sharp peaks, due to which it has an
extremely rugged landscape
There are many vital rivers, including the Indus river, which flow in the South
West Direction
Economic Activity:
Due to the extreme climate, the Karakoram is inhospitable and thus has a low
population density
Most inhabitants have a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle
Apple, barley and millet are the main agricultural products. Cattle-breeding is
also common
Trade via the Karakoram Highway
Mountaineers and scientists visit due to the challenging geography and scenic
beauty
Valleys:
Gilgit
Baltistan
Hunza

Himalayas:
Features:
Average height: 4000m
Highest mountain: Nanga Parbat (8126m)
There are three ranges included in this: The Siwaliks, The Lesser or Outer
Himalayas, and the Central Himalayas
The Siwaliks have a low altitude (600-1200m)
The Lesser Himalayas are of medium altitude (1800-4500m)
Moving North, the height  of the Himalayas increases
Topography and Climate:
Snow-capped, steep-sided peaks with huge glaciers causing deep erosion
Rich natural vegetation
There are seasonal rivers such as the Kaghan Ruver which flow during the
summer
Economic Activity:
Tourist attractions such as Murree and Nathia Galli
Valleys:
Murree
Nathia Galli
Kaghan

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Economic Activities:
Transhumance lifestyle:
Most people go to lower areas due to the winter due:
Low temperatures which threaten the lives of livestock and prevents
agriculture
The lack of availability of outdoor activities for jobs
Avalanches which can destroy their homes and pose a safety hazard
The shortage of liquid drinking water
During the summer, they migrate back up north, where:
They have their own homes 
The cost of water is cheaper
Shalimat – grazing grounds – are replenished after being encroached on in
the winter
They have terraced the land for agriculture
There are business opportunities via industries such as tourism 
These people generally perform temporary jobs/are self-employed and use their
livestocks’ products for revenue and subsistence
They have to wear thick clothes and live indoors to preserve heat
The migration of people increases the work force, which is taken advantage of
by lowering labour wages
Crop Farming:
Agriculture occurs on terraced lands
Wheat, rice, barley, and millets are grown
Fruit and Vegetable Farming:
Fruits are grown in orchids in valleys
Apples, apricots, plums, and peaches are the main fruits grown
They are eaten and supplied to larger cities
Processing:
Of food grains
Making of vegetable oil
Refining sugar
Refining fruits such as apricots
Livestock:
In order to obtain meat, milk, and wool etc. small scale livestock farming is
carried out
Goat, sheep, and yaks are mainly kept
Tourism:
The hotel and transport industries cater to the tourists attracted by the area’s
scenic beauty
Small local businesses also take advantage of the influx of demand due to
tourists
Lumbering:
Forests in Pakistan:
To the extreme NW, alpine forests are found
In the middle of KPK, coniferous forests are found
The extraction of wood from forests occurs for fuel and furniture
The leaves are used for basket-making
Herbs are used for medicinal purposes

Geographical Importance:
It forms a natural barrier/border 
Wind:
It protects the plains of Punjab from the cold, winter winds of Central Asia
It intercepts the summer monsoon winds from the Arabian Sea, causing rainfall
Drainage:
The snow-capped peaks melt and feed into the rivers
Several important rivers originate here
Due to the slope and fast-flowing water, dams can be constructed

Issues:
Literacy:
There are low literacy rates, meaning that skilled labour is not available
This hampers the economic growth of the area
Infrastructural Deficiencies:
Due to the limited transport facilities, trade is difficult
Since tourist numbers often exceed the available facilities, tourism can actually
be harmful to the area for this reason.
Untapped Resources:
Though there are some modern industries, mineral resources have not been
tapped into yet
It is also difficult to tap into the hydroelectric potential of the area due to the
immense capital investment it requires
High Population Growth:
This, coupled with the low economic growth rate (for the reasons stated above),
results in a low per capita income
There is malnutrition as food production has not kept up with the population
Environmental:
The need for firewood and extensive tree trimming for food for cattle has
resulted in deforestation
This has resulted in the loss of natural deforestation and extinction of
wildlife
Due to deforestation on the foothills of mountains and overgrazing on the
high pastures, soil erosion occurs
The absence of trees makes floods more devastating
The construction of roads has increased deforestation and landslides
Rapid population growth has accelerated pollution; streams that were once
clean are now filled with sewage and garbage
This also causes diseases such as dysentery, cholera, and typhoid
The unhygienic conditions are not helped by the fact that tourists litter
without care for nature
Due to urbanization, more CO2 is being produced, which results in rising
temperatures and a disrupted water cycle

Solutions:
Develop infrastructure
This includes roads, hospitals, electricity, and water
These will make carrying out other objectives easier
It will improve the quality of life
A worker’s program could be implemented while doing so, decreasing the
unemployment rates
Exploitation of natural resources
Mining
Hydro-electric power
Advertise the tourist potential of the area
This will kick-start development
More tourists will be attracted here
Sports Opportunities
The people here are generally quite fit due to the difficult terrain
Attract companies here via tax incentives
This will reduce unemployment

Western Mountains:
Ranges:
Safed Koh:
Highest Peak: Mount Sikaram (4712m)
Topography and Climate:
Rugged landscape with high peaks often covered with snow
It is dotted with limestone ridges
Drainage:
River Kurram has created the Kurram pass
Springs
The two important passes include the Khyber and Kurram Passes
Economic Activities:
The Kurram Pass provides a route to Afghanistan
Khyber Pass
Wide enough to facilitate the passage of troops
Leads to the fertile Vale of Peshawar
With the help of irrigation, wheat, rice, and sugarcane are cultivated in the
Kohat Valley
The Warsak Dam on River Kabul and Kurram Garhi Dam on River Kurram provide
irrigation to the Vale of Peshawar, which has fertile alluvial plains
Valleys:
Kohat
Vale of Peshawar

Waziristan Hills:
The highest peak, Illazai, is 3513m high
Topography and Climate:
It is extremely rich in minerals
Rugged terrain with low hills
Devoid of vegetation
There are seasonal rivers which flow East in the rivers with high pressure due to
the Western Depression Rainfall
Passes:
The Tochi pass connects Gazni to Bannu
The Gomal Pass connects Afghanistan to Derajats
Economic Activities:
It forms a natural border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. However, it is
mostly used for smuggling, not legitimate trade
There are important towns and military centres such as Bannu
Valleys:
Bannu Valley
Has deposits of clay and boulders
Kurram Dam is the main source of irrigation water
Home to important military centres
Dera Ismail Khan

Sulaiman Range:
Highest Peak: Takht-e-Sulaiman (~3400m (There are many conflicting values)
It forms a natural barrier between the Indus plain and Balochistan plateau
Thus, it blocks the Western Depressions from reaching central Pakistan 
Topography and Climate:
Rugged, dry landscape with irregular slopes
There are bare rocks and minerals such as limestone, sandstone and shaly rocks
The Bolan connects Kachi Sibi Plain to Quetta
The Eastern Part of the range is drained by the Indus River
There are two small, seasonal rivers which drain into the INdus – the
Kolachi and Kadha River 
Economic Activities:
The Bolan Pass provides communication facilities 
Quetta is an important town and military base 

Kirthar Range:
Highest Peak: Kutto Ji Kabar (2714m)
Located West of the River Indus in Sindh
Thus, it forms a boundary between the Sindh Plain and Balochistan Plateau
Topography and Climate:
This range includes low-altitude hills with irregular slopes
 The bare rock conduct to the fact that it is devoid of vegetation
They are drained by the Hab and Lyari rivers which flow southwards into the
Arabian Sea near Karachi
They flow mainly during the summer due to the summer monsoons

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Economic Activities:
Lumbering:
It is conducted here for the same reasons it is conducted in the North – for
firewood and furniture
Livestock Farming:
Its produce includes meat, milk, and wool
Goat, sheep, and cattle are the main animals exploited due to their mobility
This is done mainly by transhumance nomads
Crop Farming:
There are small scale farms on terraced fields due to the difficulty of large-scale
farms
Valley floors such as the Vale of Peshawar can be irrigated via the Warsak and
Kurram dams
The main crops are Wheat, Barley, Millets, and Gur
Trade:
The various passes provide international (to Afghanistan) and domestic routes

Issues:
Infrastructure:
The area is severely underdeveloped due to the challenges the rugged
landscape presents
The transport facilities are limited – most areas are accessible only by
unmetalled roads
Social:
The citizens do not have basic facilities of life
The population density is lower than 100 people/square kilometres, reducing
the availability of labour
Other than peshawar and Kohat, there are few urban centres
Enterprisal:
The minerals of the area have not been exploited, explored, or extracted due to
the lack of infrastructure and rugged terrain
Farming is difficult as:
The climate and relief does not support it
Canal irrigation is not possible

Northern vs Western Mountains:

Topography:
Northern Western

Slopes Steep  Slightly less steep

Altitude High  Mid 

Fertility Fertile Barren

Blunt peaks without

Peaks Sharp, snow-capped peaks snow (except for
Sufed Koh)

There is natural vegetationThere are alpine There is little natural

forests in the Himalayas and Coniferous forests vegetation. Instead, it
Vegetation
in the Karakoram and HimalayasBarren areas is littered with bare
with bare rocks are found too rocks more

Relief, Rainfall, and Climate:

Northern Western

There are important glaciers such as the Siachen There are no

Glaciers
glacier glaciers

Slightly less
deep valleys
Gorges Deep gorges formed when the river erodes the land
due to the
slower rivers

Lower
waterfalls
Higher waterfalls such as the Manthoka and Jarogo such as the
Waterfalls Waterfalls are foundRapids – series of very short and Hannah-Urak
fast waterfalls and Chotok
waterfalls are
found

Both are
foundStreams
Streams and Both are foundStreams are the product of melted
are the
Springs snow
product of
rainfall

Mainly
Mainly takes place in the form of snowfall during the receives
Precipitation winterBoth Western Depression and Summer Monsoon rainfall from
Rainfall is received Western
Depressions

Seasonal
Permanent Rivers such as the Indus River and some of rivers mainly
its tributaries are foundSeasonal rivers flow mostly in flow during
Rivers the summer due to the melting of glaciers and the Winter
summer monsoons thoughIn the Hindu Kush, seasonal due to
rivers flow in the winter due to Western Depression Western
Depressions

Balochistan Plateau:
Features:
Basins:
Northern Balochistan:
There are a number of irregular depressions such as the Zhob and Loralai Basins
between the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges
Piedmont Plains:
Here it rains infrequently. Due to this, when it does rain, the water forms
narrow channel
When they flow to the foothills of the mountains, they deposit gravel,
boulders,
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deposition forms alluvial fans and piedmont plains
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Western Balochistan:
: