Tighway Copaciiy Manual A Guide fer Muliimodal Mobily Arava CHAPTER 4 ‘TRAFFIC OPERATIONS AND CAPACITY CONCEPTS LINTRODUCTION.. verve ann (Chepter Organization enn svn Related HM Content —— “4 2. MOTORIZED VEHICLE MODE... Basic Motorized Vehicle Flow Parameters. 42 Travel Time Relibilty, = 49 Additional Uninterrupted Flow” PREM rcs Additional Interrupted-Flow Parameters. vl Capactty Concept nnn 421 Estimation of Traffic Flow Parameters. 426 3. PEDESTRIAN MODE. nh dessin Chartteriatic, 28 Pedestrian Flow Parameters. 49 Capacity Concepts. ne 436 4. BICYCLE MODE. Bleyele Flow Parameter AT CCapactty Concepts nen ~ 438 Delay. a 438 S.TRANSIT MODE... Bus Speed Parameters. os Capacity Concepts nen - en 6. REFERENCES. as age To Opa aay cae aoe faveFighway Capacity Manual A Guide for Malimadal Mobily Anais LIST OF EXHIBITS Exhubit 41 Diferences Between Short-Term Flow Rates and Hovrly Demand Volames sn 43 Ebi 42 Generalized Relationships Among Speed, Dey and How ten Uninterrupted Flow Facilities... : ry Exhibit 3 Example Freeway Speed-Flo Data ncn 48 Exhibit 44 Derivation of Time-Based Reliability Peformance Measures ‘rom the eave Tis Distribution an Sui 3 Deaton fined ait Peromanc Mess {rom the Travel Time Distibution an Exhibit 6 Time Heavy Disrbuton for Long and Expressway 13 Exhibit 47 Acceleration Headway at a Sgnalized Intersection nnn AS Exhibit 4-8 Concept of Sturstion Flow Rate and Lost Time 416 Exhibit 9 Generalized Cyele Length and Delay Relationship. “7 Exhibit 410 idealized Queuing Diagram fora Two-Phase Signaized Inorecton. nnn BD [Exhibit 4.11 Typical amples of Vebicle Tesjectory Poss 407 [Exhbit 4-12 Pedestian Body Ellipse fr Standing Areas and Pedestrian ‘Walking Spece Requirement vo 28 Exhibi 4-13 Observed Older and Younger Pedestrian Walking Spe Distibuton at Unsigalize intrections on 29 Exhibit 414 Relationships Between Pedestrian Speed and Delt anu 430 Exhibit 4.15 Relationships Between Pedestrian Flow and Space. 430 Exhibit 4-16 Relationships Between Pedestrian Speed and Flow. 431 Ebi 4-17 Relationships Between Pedestrian Speed and Spee vcnnene 32 Echibit 418 Probability of Conflict Within Pedestrian Ceots Flow ne 44 Exhibit 419 Minute by: Minute Variations in Pedesteian Flow. 435, Exhibit 20 Platoon Flow on @ Side enn [Exhibit 21 Relationship Between Platoon Flo and Average Flow. 436 [Exhibit 422 Age Efets on Bicytist Speed nT [Exhibit 428 lserative Bus Speed Relationship to Bus Lase wl Ration 40 Exhibit 424 Bus Loading Areas, Stops and Faces 3 ‘Capac pass an Cn COREFighway Capaciy Manual A Guide for Molimadal Mobily Anais 1. INTRODUCTION oveRvIEW ‘Therelatonships between volume (Row rate} speed, and density are among the most fundamental in transportation engincering and canbe used to desribe trafic operations onary roadway. Similar principles apply tothe pedestrian and luansit mades, while bicyle sposds are primarily affectod by fality grade and conditions, interactions with other modes, and bicyclist age and ness level Capacity represents the maximum sustainable hourly Row sate at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be expected to traverse a point ora uniform Segment ofa lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadvay, environmental, trafic and control conditions Reasceable expectancy isthe bess for defising capacity. A given system element's capacity is ow rae that ean be achieved repeatedly under the same prevalling conditions 2s ‘opposed to eng the maximum flow rate that might ever be observed. Since the prevailing conditions (eg, weather, ix of heavy vehicles) will vary within the {lay or foun a day tothe next sytem element's capacity at a given time will sso vary, (CHAPTER ORGANIZATION Chapter 4 describes how basi tlic operations relationships apply tothe ous travel iades covered by the Highaay Capacity Manual (HCN). Section 2 provider base walle operations relationships forthe motorized ‘vehicle mode, introduces the concept of travel time reliability, and describes ‘additional parameters that can be use to describe aspect oF trafic oy on Interrupted: a uninterrupted-low system elements. This section also provides ‘opacity concepts forthe motorized vehicle mode and describes three approaches for estimating traffic low parameters Section’ presents speed flow, and density eelatonships for the pedestrian ‘mode and capacity concepts for pedestrian circulation and queuing areas. Section & provides bicycle lowe parameters and capacity concapts and describes the importance of stops and delay ss measures of bicycle walic operations Finally, Section 5 describes the bus operations, bs vehi roadway infeasructure, trafic control, and passenger characterises that influnce bus ‘speeds The sation also presents transit vehicle and petson capacity concep RELATED HCM CONTENT ‘Several of the operational performence measures presented in Chapter 4 (epeedy delay, and density, in particular) are wd in Chaptor 5 to desribe the ‘quality of service proved by a roadway or—in the case ofthe volume't= capacity (demandeto-capaciy) rtio—are used 1 define the threshold between Levels of Service (LOS) Band . Datel of traffic operations an capacity relationships specifi oa particular system element fr example, speed-Nove curves for freeways) are provide in the “capacity concepts” subsections ofthe chapters in Volumes 2 ana 3. Sage Ta a I co Ss are Sine Teac apesTighway Capacity Manual A Guide Tor Mulmnadal Mobily Anais Tarot hae Pate Papet 2, MOTORIZED VEHICLE MODE A few basic porameters—volume, flow rate speed, and density—can be used to describe trafic operations on any roadway. Inthe HCM, volume, ow rate, and spood are parameters common to both uninterrupted and interrupted flow facies but density applies primarily to winterrupted flow. Some parameters related t lw rate, Such as spacing and headway, are also used for both types of facies. Other parameters, such a saturation How and gap, are specific to interrupted flow, BASIC MOTORIZED VEHICLE FLOW PARAMETERS. Volume and Flow Rate Volume and fow rate are two measures that quantilythe number of vehices| passing a point on «lane or roedway during a given time interval. These terms are defined as follows: + Volume—the total numberof vehicle passing aver a given point or scion ofa lane or roadway during given time interval any tine interval can be used, but volumes are typesly expressed in txms of anal, daily, hourly, o subhourly periods. ‘+ Fw rate—the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pas overa given Point or section of lane or roadway dusing a given time interval of less ‘anh, wsuelly 15min. This chapter focuses on flow rate and the Hons in fw that can gecur ver the course of an hour ‘Thote isa distinction between volume an flo rate, Volume isthe umber of vehicles observed or predicted 0 passa point during aime interval Flow este represents the number of vehicles passing a point during atime interval le than “hy but expresced as an equivalent hourly rte flow rate ete number of| vehicles observed ina subhously perio, divided by the time (in hots) ofthe ‘observation. For example volume of 100 veh observed in 3 15min period Lmplies ow rate of 100 veh divided by 0.25 hr 400 veh, Volume and flowrate sve varabies that help quantify demand, that the numberof users often expressed as the number of vehicles) who desire to use a given system element during a spectic time period, typically hor 15 min, Volume and low rate also help quentify capacity, that the numberof users ‘who cm use a given system element during a specific time period. As discussed in Chapter3, Modal Characteristics, observed volumes may reflec upeeexn ‘capacity constraints rather than the rue demand that would exist without the presence ofa bottleneck Inmany eases, demand volumes ave the desired input to HICM analyses, (The analysis of traffic conditions downstream ofa hotleneck that not planned to be removed i an example of an exception) When conditions are understate (ie, demand is less than expaciy) and no upstream botienecks exis demand volume ata location equivalent to dhe measured volume that location canbe assumed, Otherwise, ascertaining demand requires acount of lundersaturated trafic upstream ofa bottleneck (Le, acount of arial volume CR CESFighway Capaclly Manuais A Guide Tor Molimmadal Mobitiy Anais ater than departure volume) (1), When the queue fom abotleneck extends ‘ast the previous intersection or interchange, how much ofthe trafic Approaching the end ofthe queue is actually destined forthe bottleneck location ‘may not be esy o determine. Furthermore as illustrated in Chapter 3, demand pattems may change aftr abotlenec is removed, Nevertheles, where bottlenecks exis neglecting to use demand volumes as nputs to HOM ‘methodologies will produce results that underestimate the presence aid extent ‘of congestion In aher words using observed volumes instead of demand! ‘volumes will ikely laa to naecurate HCM results. ‘Subhourly Variations in Flow Flow rates typically vary over the couse of en hour: Exhibit #1 shows an ‘example of the substantial short-term Hatuation in low rate that can occur ‘within an hour, Data from the approaches to an allway stor-contelled Intersection ae used, In this data set the Snin flow zate ranges from a low of 11248 vel toa high of 1,764 velvh, compared with a total peak hour entering volume of 1516 veh Designing ts intersection to aceommodate the peak hour volume would result in oversatucated coalition for 2 substantial poston ofthe hows, asi) t | | PEERELaag e CAE (Carrere tag no) OM analysestypialy consider the pak 18 in of owe drng the analy hour, Asilststed in Exit 1 the na ofa peak 15min flow rate _ccommedateneaty all the varition in low during the hour and therfore provdesa good middle ground between designing or holy volumes and, ‘esigning forthe st extreme in oe re Since inputs toHCM procedures are typical expressed in terms of hourly demands, the HEM uses tho yak how factor PHP) convert thous volume intoa peak 15min dow ae, Although teditonall called a “peal now” fc, 2 PH applicable to any aalysishour, peak or ofp. The PHF athe ratio of uly volume tothe peak ow ate within the Bou hour volume PHF = -Sieflowrrate (within the hour) Patou cor) uation Sie ones oi Coa Voor one Hae rape}Highway Copacily Manual: A Gude for Molimadol Mobilly Anais auston 42 uation as Soo panes. decape tants 2958 (Face cent Poe 115-min periods ace used the PHF may be computed by Equation 42 v PHP where PHE = peal hour factor, W = hourly volume (vv, and Vis * volume curing the peak 15 min of the analysis hour (velV15 min). ‘When the PHF is known, it can convert a peak hour volume toa peak low te ain Equation 3: here vis the flow rate fora peak 15-min period, expressed in vehicles per hour, and the other variables are as defined previously Equation 43 doesnot need to be used to estimate peak flow rates rate counts are available; however, the chosen coun interval must dently the ‘maximum 15-min flow period. Then the rate can be computed directly a= times ‘the maximum 15-min count and the PHF would tke the value 00 Lowor PHF values signly greater variability of flow, while higher values signify les low variation within the hour. When hourly counts are wsed, the PHP can range from 1.0, indicating thatthe same demand occurs ding each 15: pesiod ofthe hour, to a theoretical minimum of 025, indicating thatthe lente Hourly demand outurs daring te peak 35 min. PHB in urban areas generally ange betwoon 0.80 and 088. PHEs over 098 ae often indicative of high trafic volumes, sometimes with capacity constraints on flow during the peak hour. PFs under 080 occur in locations with highly peaked demand, such ts schools factories with shift changes, nd venes with scheduled event, ‘Speed Although traffic volumes provide a method of quantifying capacity values, speed (ris reciprocal, trae ine rat isan important ensure of the quality of the waffic sorvie provided tthe motorist Itheips define LOS for two-lane highways and urban sets. Speed is dafined as arate of motion expressed as distance per unit of time, _generall as miles per hou (mih)-To characterize the speed ofa trafic steamy a representative value must be used, because abroad distribution of individual speeds is observable in the affic steam, Several sped parameters can be applied toa trafic stream. Among them are the followin: 1+ Average tcl speed Te length ofa roadway segment divided by the average travel time of vohicls traversing the segment, incuding ll ‘stopped delay times. Its typeof space men pee because the average travel time weights the average by the ime each vehicle spends in a defined roadway segment or sp9°8 Ce Tea a RYFighwoy Capacily Manual: A Guide for Mulimodal Mobily Anas ‘+ Tome many sped. The arithmetic average of speeds of vehicles observed. passing point on a highway; also referred to asthe aerage po pd. The {dividual speeds of vehicles pasing a point are recorded and averaged trithmetically, The ime mean speed is always equal oot higher than the pace mean speed The two are equal only when the speods oll vehicles fn the traffic stream are equal 1+ Frnflo spol. The average speed of vehicles on given sogment measured under low-volume condition, when drivers ae fre to drive at their desired speed and are not constrained by the presence of other vehicles or dovinsteam affic contol davies (Le, tafe signals, roxsndabouts,o STOP signs). + Avenige uning spe, A traffic stream measure based on the observation ‘of travel tines of vehicles traversing a section of highway of known, length Its the length ofthe segment divided by the average ronning time of vehicles that traverse the segment. Running ime ineldes only time during wiich vehicles are in mation. For met ofthe HEM procedures using spe a service measure, average ‘uavelepoed isthe defining parameter. On urinteerupted-ow faclltes operating ‘with undersatirsted flow, the average travel speed is equal to the average sunning speed, Both ime mean speed end space mean speed canbe ealeulated fom a sample of individual vehicle speeds. For example, three vehicles are recorded by Acpot sensor (eq, loop detectors, radae with Speeds of 30,40, nd 50 mifh in the riddle ofa Toma rosdway segment. The tavel mes for the same vehicles ver the Tomi segment are measured as 20min, 15 min, and 12min, respecsvey (ie, by recording the times the vehicles enter and ext th segment). The ime mean speed is 40 if, calculated as (30+ 40-50 mia. The space mean specd is 38.3 si, calculated a (60 mish)» [3(2.0¢ 15 +12 minim}. ‘Space mean speed is recommended for HCM analyses. Speeds are best measure by observing tavel ies over a known length of highoray. For {Uninterrupted facilities operating n the range fstab love, the length may be as short as several hundred fect for ease of observation. Density Density isthe numberof vehicles occupying a given length ofalane or roadway ata particular instant For the compatations inthis manual, density is ‘averaged overtime and is usually expresso as vehicles per mile (vehi) or passenger ers per mile (pei. Measuring density directly in the ie is ificult it requires a vantage point {or photographing, videotaping or observing significant lengths of highvsay However, density can be computed from the average travel speed an ow rate, "which are messuted mone easly, Equation 4-1 s used for understursted traffic conditions ee Density (voh/mi) = Seemed Be ee Coa a Ce Aeldmasunttne nos poiavenyesenaner ore srce en ses secatmcare e ‘emt neh ase ore ‘an od te Be Postanctok equation 4Highway Capacity Manual A Guide fer Mulimadal Mobily Anais abies ag cnt, evewtowen oo Reahor a quaton 2-5 Equation 5-6 nustion 4-7 Tard veice rae Pets ‘A highoway segment with flow rate of1,00 velvh and an average travel ‘speed of 50 mith would have a deity of (1000 veh) (50 mith) =20 vehi, Density ia citical parameter for unintrrupted-iow facies beeaseit characterizes the quality of alic operations le describes the proximity oF ‘vehicles to one another and reflects the freedom to maneuver within the trafic Roadvray occupancy is frequently used asa surrogate for density in conte systems because tis easier to measure most often through equipment such 35. Toop detectors). Occupancy in spae isthe proportion of roadway lngth covered by vehicles, an occupancy in ime identifies the proportion of time a roadway ros section is oocuped by vehicles, Hovsever, unless he length of vehicles is $nowa precisely, he eonversion from occupancy ta density involves some ext. ‘A textbook (2) discusses derivation of occupancy and its telatonship to density Headway and Spacing Hleuéwey isthe tine between successive vehicles as they passa point on Jane orrozdway, measured frm the same point on each vehicle. Spucing the distance betwcen successive vehicles ina traffic steam, measured from the same point on each vehicle (eg. front bumper, font ale). ‘These characteristics are microscopic because they relate to individual pats of wehicls within the trafic stream. Within any traffic stream, both the spacing nd the headway of indvidval veicies are distributed over a range of values, _generally related to the speed ofthe traffic stream and prevailing conditions. In the aggregate, dese microscopic parameters relate othe macroscopic low parameters of density and flow rte. Spacing can be determinad directly by measuring the distance besween ) oreeeiatd trp that oi ox sueced in accordance witha predetermined ¢ ee oman ane speed hough nts suche otine Sewotncat sh pesoomane stands evexprn ough mais such performance or percent faire bagel ona target minimuin speed or ‘maximum travel time Atay gat fom For convenience, the HM uses the single term reliability fr both the one lability and the reiablliy-hased approaches to characterizing a ailiy's teavel me distribution. Similar approaches an be used to describe the variability in other CM {aclity performance measures including percentiles (eg, 5th percentile speed) ‘and the probability of achioving a particular LOS. For freeway faite, istributions an be produced for sich measure as facility speed rave time, and average density. For urban strats, dstbutions ean be prodice for rave time, travel speed, and spatial stop rate, among others. Performance Measures Derived from the Travel Time Distribution Tine: Based Reliability Measures ‘The travel ime distribution canbe used 1 derive a variety of performance measures that desribe different aspects of reliability. Exhibit 4-4 ilatates 2 selection of time-based reliability performance meatures that can be derived from the tavel time dietbation meg ne woewal ome! | «Planning tine, the travel time a traveler would need to budget to ensure sreergeme carer tng an ontime acival 95% ofthe te; OQ Soeur stew tom, | «Buf tin, theexeatavel tine a traveler would need to budge, fier rape ‘compared with the everage travel ime to ensure an ontine aval 95% rom ace ree + Misery tin th average of the highest 5% of travel tes (approxinating, 4975 percentile travel time) representing neanworstcase condi + Oretine percentage, a measure of sucess based onthe percentage of tips thatare made within 3 target travel time + Percentogeof trips exceeding wage! maximum rac tine, a measure of fare; + Standard deviation, the statistical measure of how much travel imes vary from the average and ‘+ Seni-standard deviation a statistical measure of travel time variance fom the fee flow spend ‘Pepa In Exhibit 44, measures incorporating unis of ine appear a horizontal ‘int rcncr car | tines inthe graphy wile messes that te percentages of tps appear a areas Régproaipatot®” | underneath the travel time cistibation. The forme are wsel for describing the telisblty of individual feclitios and trips, bus they are dificult to compare acts facilites or tps because falty and trip length vary Percentage ‘measures, onthe other hand, can be compared across facilities an tip, as can index-based measures that are derived from time-based measures. Thee types of reliability measures are described next C Pett ioFighway Capacity Manual A Guide for Mulimodal Mabily ANGI j- “TA | few ees Travel Tne (in) Seu at on tg (3 Index Based Relabilty Measures To facilitate comparisons of diferent faites or trip, travel time-based rellablty measires canbe converted into length-independent indices by living the base travel ine measure by the fre-low travel ie, Similarly, “sucess and fale measures can be developed by comparing an index value Uvith a target value. Thefllowing are examples: ‘+ Trot time index CFT, the average travel me om a fact divided bythe travel ime at free-flow speed it can also be sated asa percentile travel time, as discussed below ‘Plagne index (PTD, the 85th percentile travel time divided bythe free flow travel time; ‘+801 percent TTT, the Sot percentile travel time divided by the free-flow leave ime; research indicates that this measure is more sensitive to ‘operational changes then the PTT (2, which makes it useful for ‘comparison and prioritization purposes; ‘+ 500k pereene TY, the Soe percentile travel time divided by the free-flow trove ine; is value will generally be slightly lower than the mean TTT duet the in luence of rae, very long travel timesin the travel time tlistibution: + Misery inde, the misery time divided by the feeflow travel time, a useful descriptor of near- worst-case conditions on ral facies: and + Rett rating, the percentage of vehicle miles traveled experiencing a ‘TT ess than 1.3 for freeways and 250 for urban strcts these thresholds ‘approximate the points beyond which tavel times become much more variable (unreliable) “Grape aac Opratns and Cay nets var 6 asia eins Setar Pesares Fo hav! Tisorod verse Hose PopeFighway Capacily Manuat A Guide for Mulimodal MObiy Anas Exhibit 45 ilustrats a selection of indew-base reliability measures, The same travel time distributions used as in Exhibit 4, bt rave! times are converted to TMs and the travel me distribution i plotted asa cimulaive function. The mean travel time in this dsteibution happened tobe exactly tice the fre-flow travel ime (a, a mean TTT of 200), but this rests coincidental Tin this graph, index measure values are horizontal ins, eile percentage measure values (eg, or-time percentage, reliability rating) are vertical lines anes 100 aay Pefomne oo esses ame at rove Tne aden) (Other types of indices can be created by using» denominator her than fre flow travel time. Fo example, pli der canbe defined thats similar to the ‘TTT but replaces free-flow speed with a target or “policy” speed, such asa sired minimum operating speed forthe facility (typiealy chosen as a speed Just above breakdovry thus providing maximum throughput), ‘The buferinder is the 85th percentile travel ee divided bythe average travel time, However, iis not recommended for tacking reliability trends over time because ts inked t two factors that can change: average and 95th percentile wavel ies. Ifone factor changes more in relation othe othe, ‘counterintuitive results can appear (3,4). ADDITIONAL UNINTERRUPTED-FLOW PARAMETERS. Headway ‘The average headway ina lane i the reciprocal ofthe flow rae. Ths ta flow of 2400 vehivin, the average headsay is (3,600 sh) / 2400 vehi, or 15 sive. However, vehicles do not travel at constant headways. Vehicles tend to travel in groups (platoons), with varying headway between successive vehicles An example ofthe distribution of headways observed on the Long Island Expressway s shown in Exhibit 46. The headway distribution of Lane: is the ‘most nearly uniform, as evidenced by the range of values and the high frequency ofthe modal value, which isthe peak ofthe distribution curve, The dstebution PetiaTighway Capacity Manual: A Guide Tor Mulfinoda! Mobily Anas ff Lane 2 ssimilar to that of Lane, with lightly greater scatter (ange from 05 t09105)-Lane 1 shows a much different pattern: itis more disperse, with bheadways ranging from 05 to 12115 and the frequency ofthe modal value ‘only about one-third of that forthe other lanes. This iecates thatthe flow rate Inthe shoulder Ine is usually lover than the flow rates inthe adjacent lanes shen the ftal lows on this segment are moderate to high Exhibit 6 shows relatively fow beadways smaller than 10's. A vehicle traveling et 60 mi (88 fs) would havea spacing of 88 f with a 1L.0-s headway nd only 4 ft with e053 headway. This effectively redueas the space between ‘ehices (ear bumper to font bumpet to only 25 4:30, This pacing (also called gap) would be extremely dtficlt o maintain. o 5 0 rs ‘ime Headway (6) Sorc Borerd na, Devers reat to this intervehile spacing, which they perceive direc, rather than to headway. Headvray includes the length of the vehi, whieh became smaller for passenger cars inthe vehicle mix ofthe 1980s nthe 19608 and 2000, ‘because ofthe popularity ofsport-utilry vehicles, typical vehicle lengths increased If divers mantnin the eame intervehicle spacing and car lengths continue to increase, conceivably, decreases in capacity could result traffic How were trly random, small headway (les than 1.03) could ‘theoretically ocrur-Several mathematical medels have been developed that recognize th absence of small headwaysin most traffic streams (6). Delay eta i the sional ual ine experienced hy adver beyond that required to tel ata desized sped, The starting point for measuring delay for HEM purposes isthe trovel ine al reeow sped However, isaio posible for reporting purposes to eablsh a axiom desired wave Sime, mini travel pee or minim LOS from a wanspotationageney's pot of view" (ex a tave time fora segment ofc based onthe speed 3 cpaci) and reports esd dy any adtonal tee ine beyond te establshed fbeeshold vale. “Cia pe on Cay CS so nts he ce ibe nego bese “re Hea Csr fr gla reso assed a ade PoetHighway Capacity Manual A Guide for Molimmadal Mobily ANOWS Arent oi tt poets ‘There are several potential sources of delay on sninteruptec-fow faites: + Tf demand, increasing levels of which cause divers to reduce thei speed from the free flow speed because of inceased vehicle Interactions, 2s was illustrated in ExNbI 42 and Exhibit £3, + Incidents, which can reduce the roadway capacity available to serve demand or simply cause drivers to slow down to observe whats happening (eg, “rubbernecking”) ‘+ Browoumental conditions, uch as snow, heaey ain oF san glare, that cause livers to reduce her speed from thefee-fow speed: and ‘+ slated contro features, such 28 manual ol collection, inspection tations, nilroad grade crossings, of drawbridges on otherwise uninterrpted flow facies, ADDITIONAL INTERRUPTED-FLOW PARAMETERS. Interrupted flow can be mare complex to analyze than uninterrupted low because ofthe ie dimension involved in allocating space to conflicting trafic ‘steams, Onan interrupted flow fait, flow usually is dominated by points of fixed operation, such a5 traffic signals and stOP signs. These controls have diferent impacts on overall ow, The operational state of trafic on an interrupred-flow facility i defined by the folowing measures: + Volume and flow rate (discussed easier inthe chapter); and ( + Control variables (signal, TOP, or VLD contol), which in tur influence © Saturation flow and departure hesdways, © Gaps availabe in the conflicting traffic streams, and (© Control delay Signalized Intersection Flow ‘Saturation Flow ‘The most significant source of fixed interruptions on an intesrapted-loe facility is walle signals. Ataf signal periodically halts lowe foreach ‘movement o at af movements. Movement on a given sot of lane is possible only for @ portion ofthe total ime, because the signal prohibits moverent during some periods. Oly the time during which the signals effectively green 'savalable for movement. For example, if one set of lanes ata signaled Intersection receives a 30 effecive green time out of 80-8 total ele only 30/0 or one-third of total ime is avalablefor movement on the subjec lanes “Thus flow on the lanes can occur only for 20 min ofeach hour. the lanes can sccommodat a maximum flo rate af 1.500 velvh with the signal green for 3 fll hour, they ean acral accommodates total at of flow of enly 800 vey since only one-third ofeach hour isavalable as green. ‘When the signal tures green, the dynamics of stating a stopped que of ohlcles must be considered. Exhibit 4:7 shows a quote of vehicles stopped at a ( slgpal. When the signal tums green the queue begins to move. The headway Gae TaRCO Sa eeTighwoy Capacity Manual A Guide for Muliinodal MobMly Anais between vehicles can be observe asthe vehicles cross the stop line ofthe intersection. The fst headvay wail be the elapsed time, n seconds, between the initiation ofthe green and the Front wheels of the Bist vehicle cressing over the ‘stop line. The second headvay wil be the lapsed time Between the front ‘bumpers (or wheels) ofthe rst and sacand vehicles cresing over the stop line. Sabsequent headways are measured simltly. ein 7 anos Means at 2 Sand wae “The river ofthe firs vehicle in the queue must observe the signal change to green and react to the change by releasing the Brake and accelerating Uwough the Intersection. As real the Brst headway willbe comparatively long. The second vehicle in the queue follows similar process except thatthe reaction| And acceleration period can occu while the fst vahcl is bepinning to move ‘The second vehicle will e moving fester than the fist as it crosses the kop Line, ‘because it has greater distance over which to accelerate. isheadway will generally be les than thatof the fist vehicle. The tied and fourth vehicles {oll aslae procedure, each achieving a lightly lower headway than the preceding vehi. After four vehicles, the effect ofthe start-up reaction and ‘cceeration has typealydisipated, Sucessve vehicles then move past the stop Jineat amore constant headway until the lat vehicle in the original ewe has essed the stop line In Exhibit 4.7, this constant average headway, denoted ah sachieved after four vohicles. The acceleration headway’ forthe Set four vehicles are, onthe average, greater than hand are expressed a3 + were fis the inczerental beavay forthe th vehicle deo the startup reaction and aeeeratlon. As Increases fom 104 decreases Exhibit 48 chows conceptual plat of headways. The HM recommencis ‘sing the ith vehicle folowing the beginning of green asthe staring point for stration flow measurements ‘The value represents the sluration headway, estimated asthe constant average headway between vehicles after the fourth vehicle in the queue and ‘continuing antl the last vehicle that wasn the quove a the beginning ofthe green has cleared the intersection, ‘The reference point on the vehicle used to measure headwayss typically the front bumper. Front axles ae sometimes the reference point in studies utilizing ‘be counters to obtain the dats ‘prairie Opts a ly Cars Tatra vec Wade enor Pane 5Tighway Capacity Manual A Guide lor Mulimadal Mobily Anaivs Eset Strato ow 4 = stato ear ) mw 1 tn tw) 1 stint ioe : 12 oaenep cones Be FT] |, i} k ep OTT TTT T1111 Trisitiesmununee ‘eta tion ee, sae Sauron fo rt a sid on Rw ae per lanai ecm pos rug asad neato scp Eguon 3.600 tina Ea) wheres the saturation flow rate (vei Win) snd ri the saturation headway (3). ‘The saturation low rates the numberof vehicles per hour pe lane that | could pase trough a sigalized intersection Ifa green signal wae deplayed foe the full hour, the flow of vehicles never stepped, and there were no large headway ost Time ach time a low is stopped, it must start again, with the frst four vehicles “experiencing the startup reaction and acceleration headways shoven in Exhibit + 7 In this exhibit, the frst four vehclesin the queue encounter eadways longer than the saturation headway, hi. The increments, are elle start-up lost times. scr tn “The totalstart-p lo tae forthe vehicles i he sum ofthe increment, a8 computed by using Equation 4-9, sans wedi where 1 = total startup loot ane 1 = loa time forth weil in queue (and n= lac vohiclein queue, Each stop of stream of vehicles is another source of lst ime. When one stream of vehicles stops, safety requires some clearance time before a conficting stream of tai allowed t enter the intersection. The interval when no cova ne ‘vehicles use the intersection i calle lols Hn, In practice, signal «yees provide for this clearance through change intervals, which can inlude C ‘iaomeavencenede SS Ow SY CC Poe \emnaeTighway Capacity Manual:A Guide for Mamodal Mobily Analyse yellow or red-clearance indications or both, rivers use the intersection during Some portion ofthese interval. ‘The relationship between saturation flow rate an! os timesis ea. For any given lane oF movement, vehicles use the intersection atthe saturation flow fate for period equal to the avalable gren ime plus the change interval miss the sarap and clearance lost times, Because los ime is experienced with each start and stop ofa movement the total amount of time lst over an hours related tothe signal timing. For example ifa signal has 60-s eye length it will, ‘art and stop each movement 60 times per hove, and the total lost ne per ‘ovement will be 60, +), (oyoe Lengths Lost time affects capacity and delay. As indicated by the relationship of ele length to lot time, the capacity ofan intersection increases as cycle lent increases, lovsever, the capacity inerease canbe offet somewhat by the observation thatthe saturation headway, an be longer when gree times ace long (eg greater than 50s) (7). Capacity inereases due to longer cycles are also ‘often offset bythe increase in delay that typically results from longer cele, as ‘iscused below. Other intersection features such as turning anes an also lfc the reduced capacity tha elt from short cycles. Langer cyles increase {be numberof vehicles in the queues nd can cause the let-tura lane to overlow, reducing capacity by blocking the through lanes, ‘As indicated in Exhibit 49, dere fa strong relationship between delay and ‘ye engi or every inessetion there fs mal ange of cycle length thet ‘ill esult in the lowes average delay foe motorists. Delay, however, isa ‘complex variable affected by many Variables besides cycle length Delay ‘Cyce Lena ‘Stop- and Yre.o-Controlled Intersection Flow Two-Way SroeContraled Intersections The driver on the minor street ar the driver turing lef from the major street ata two-way sto#-contoled intersection faces a specific task: selecting a gap in trafic through which to execute the desired movement The term sap refers the time interval (ie gap) and corresponding distance fora given speed space _p) boticen the major street vehiclos entering an unsignaized intersection, ‘measured from back bumper to front bumper. The term gop acrptance describes ‘he completion of vehicle's movement intoa gap. ‘Das ate Opens ed Cosa Cee somes ipaaag en Taorsoi anaes aeHighway Capacity Manuat A Guide for Malimadal Mobily Anal eat nec, Pose i8 ‘The capacity ofa minor-stret approach depends on two factors: + Tho dstabution of availabe gaps in the msjorstrettrffc stream, and 1+ The gap sacs required by drivers in other effi tres to execute thet ‘desired movernents. ‘The distribution of avallable gaps nthe majr-teot tele stream depends ‘on the total volume onthe street its dizetional distribution, the aumber of lanes ‘onthe majorstret and the degree and typeof platoning in the trafic steam, ‘The gap sizes required by minor movement drivers depend onthe type of maneuver (eft through, righ), the numberof lanes on the major street, the speed of majorstreet trafic sight stances, the length of time the minor ‘movement vehicle hasbeen siting and driver characteristics eyesight, action time, age te), For ease of data collection, Neadways (4 ront bumper to front bumper) axe usually measured instead of gaps, since only haf 8 much data are required (G2, ony font bumper postions ned tobe recorded, rather than both rent and back bumper postions). The evita! ety isthe minimum time interval between the font bumpers of two successive vehicles inthe major traffic team that willalow the enty f one minos-stoet vice. When more thn one minor- street vehicle uses ane majr-street gap, the me headway between the two minor street vehicles is called flio-upkeauay- In gneral the follow-up headway i shorter than the critical headway. Roundabouts ‘The operation of roundabouts issnular to that of two-way TOr-eontolled Intersections In roundabouts, however, entering drivers sca only one stream of trafie~ the circulating stream—for an acceptable ga. Altay Stoe-Controled Intersections ‘Avan al-way st0#-conrolled intersection al rivers must come toa complet stop. Te decision to proced s base in part onthe rules ofthe road, which suggest that the diver onthe right has the rightotway, butt is also 3 fonction ofthe traffic concltion on the other approaches. The departare headway forthe subject approach s defined as the time between the departare of one ‘vehicle and that ofthe next behind it A departure headway is considered a saturation headway ifthe second vehicle stops behind the irs athe tp line If there is traficon ane approach only, vehicles can depart as rapidly asthe dovers «a safely accelerate into and clear the intrsection. If ealfic is prevent on other approaches the saturation headway onthe subject approach wil increase, ‘depending on the degre of conflict betseen vehicles. Delay ‘As previously discussed inthe sation on unateerupted-Alow paracnters {delay is the ational tave ime experienced bya driver beyond that reqused to travel ata desired spood, and the starting point for measuring delay for HCM urposesis the travel ime at foe flow spec. Ca TAR OaTighway Capacity Manual/A Guide Tor Mulimodel Mobily ARVs Several types of delay ate defined for interrupted-low system elements, but control delay—the delay brought about by the presence ofa affic contol ‘device the principal HCM service measure for evalsting LOS at signazed ‘nd unslgnalizad intersections, Contel delay includes delay when vehicles slow tn advance ofan intersection time spent stopped onan intersection appreach, time spent as vehicles move up inthe queue, an time needed forveicies to sccelerte to their sited speed. “Thefollowing ae other types of delay experienced on interrupted-ow roadways: ‘+ Tridel, extra travel ime resulting fom the interaction of vehicles, causing drivers to reduce thee speed below the froeflow speed; + Geomelve delay, extra travel time created by geometric festures that use divers to reduce ther spead (eg. delay experienced whore an arterial street makes 2 sharp turn ausing vehicles to slow, or the delay caused by ‘the indret route that through vehicles must ake through roundabout); *+ cient ely, he ational travel ie experenoed a a result of incident compared with the no-incident condition; and + Dole due to erironmertal conditions, the additonal tave time experienced due to severe weather conditions ‘Transportation agonces may also choose to report a Mestld delay, defined asthe exces avel time that occurs beyond a defined speed or LOS established bby norm (eg, control delay exceeding LOS 8, wafic operating at speeds ess tan 39 ‘Number of Stops ‘Traffic control devices separate vehicles on conflicting paths by requiring fone vehicle to stop or yield tothe other. The stop causes delay and hasan associated cost in terms of fuel consumption and wear on te wekicl. For this eas, information about stops incurred is usoul in evaluating performance and Calculating road user costs. This measures typically expressed in term of sp tate, which represents the count of stops divided by the numberof vehicles served Sop rate has units of stops per wei ‘Stops are generally expected by motorist aeriving at an intersection asa ‘minor movement (eg a tem movement or a through movement onthe minor street) However, though drivers do not expect to stop when they travel along. major stret Their expectation it thatthe sigals willbe coordinated o some degre such that they ean arrive at each signal in succession while is displaying green inccation forthe through movement. For this eason, stop rat is 2 ‘eefel performance measure for evaluating coordinated signal systems. Queuing When demand exceeds capscity for e period of ime or when an arvval headvay sess than the service time (a the microscopic level) at a specifc location, a queue forms (2). Queaing is both an important operational measure and a design consideration for an intersection and its vicinity. Queves that are ‘Toga Gets oe psay Gags SSS vosen ae Pape iSTighway Capacity Manual A Guide for Muimadal Mobily Anaya exh 10 fora to Pon Sorted oareaa vance Fase Poe #20 longer than the avallable storage length can create several types of operational problems. through-lane queue that extends pas the entrance oa turn lane ‘locks access to the tun lane and keeps it from being used effectively. Similarly, ‘turn lane queue overflow into a through lane interferes with the movement of through vehicles. Queues that extend upstream from an intersection can block acces into and out of driveways and—in a worst case—can spill back int and block upstream intersections, causing side streets to begin to queue back ‘Several queuing measures canbe calculated, including the average queue length, the maximum back of queue, and the maximum probable queue (a 95th percentile que) ‘To predict the characteristics ofa queving system mathematically, the {olloing system characteristics and parameters must be specified (3) + Arsival pattern characteris, including the average ate of arival and the statistical distribution of time between arrivals ‘+ Service faity characteristic, including seric-time average rates and the distribution and number of castomers that can be served simultaneously or the number of channels available; and ‘+ Queue discipline characteristics, suchas the means of selecting which customer is next ‘Thoarrival ate excoeds the service rate in oversaturated queues, while the rival ates es than the service ate in undersaturated quetes, The length of fn undersaturated queue can vary but will reach steady state as more vehicles txcive Laconia, Uv lengl of at overtetuated queue ever vente steely State it ncretes a more vehicles arrive unt the arrival demand decreases ‘An idealized undersaturated queue a signaized intersection is shown in Exhibit 4-10, The exhibit assumes queuing on ane approach at an intersection with wo signal phases. In each cyte, the arrival demand (assumed tobe ‘constant in this ideal example) sles than the capacity ofthe approach, no ‘chiles wait longer than one yee, and theres no avert fom one cycle to the next Exhibit 4-0(a) specifies the arsval at, , in vehicles per hour tis ‘constant forthe shady period. The service rats, s hast states ero when the signal i effectively red and upto the saturation flow rate when the signal is celecively green. Note that the serve rate i equa the saturation flow rate ‘only when there i a queue z i i : i i logos potest 9 mms rer froma soe m2 ‘Tae acpi on Coo COREFighway Gopacily Manuak A Guile for Mulimodol MOBY Anaya ‘il 300 lagame uml eis vein The boron, ona hts hci Ba £200, wih eco he lineal Tasting de see ate fom Ban) Sant 4100 cen ite ph Bung tee pero se eee Zar ee insane nen abt £100) ‘tenn tte gn ote pe ees lth sve 0 ‘maton fw Teme voor! nga whe carla tuivalnese the tp fon ingle ete earns ‘img os oie ang tna nyo nn ace Tac angl eres he que lp an sition uring one gel legend cm teatlynd oct ecatin fear tse othe bepnig ote ped and conto he om Sie vane «chester sie ond clog and tiscompdy “Sng Onan 0 vig =lta=rDorta sth emton 39 wee fg = time duration of queve (3). 1» = mean arival ate (eel, 4 = moan service sate (vei), and = effective red ime 3). ‘The queue length (Le, the number of vehicles inthe queue, a6 oppose othe location af the back ofthe queues represented by the vertical distance through the rangle. At the begining of red the queue lngth is 210 Itineresse ois maximum valueat the end of te red period. Then the queue length decreases unt the arrival line intersects the service Line and the queue length equal 27. ‘The queuing characteristics can be modeled by varying the asval rate, the ‘service rte, and the timing plan In real-life situations arrival ates and service rates are continuously changing, These variations complicate the mode, but the basi elationships do not change. CAPACITY CONCEPTS, Definition of Capacity ‘The capacity ofa system elements the maximum sustsineble hourly flow rate at which persons or vehices reasonably can be expected to traverse a point ora uniform section ofa lane o roadway during a given time period under prevaling roadway, envlzonmental, waf and contol conditions. Voice pacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pas a given point during a specifi period under prevaling roadway, tafe, nd control ‘conditions. This assumes that there sno influence from downsteam trafic ‘operation, such as queues backing nto the analysis point. Porson cpcity is the maximum number of persons that can pass a given point during a specified period under prevailing conditions. Person capacity i ‘Gane [rate eared Gay Coes SSCS vena Pane iTighway Copaciiy Manual A Guide fer Malimadal Mobily ANOVSs egy nator be Preairg nations ata ‘ga ne se ‘atone mse rsovecnstons. Tiara vehice Waoe poet commonly used to evaluate public tans serves, high-occupancy-vehicle anes, and pedestrian faites. Prevailing roadway, environmental traffic, and control conditions define capacity thete conditions should be reasonably uniform for any segment of a ‘act thats analyzed. Any change in the prevailing conditions changes 2 systom element's capacity. Thus, an element's capacity can vary from one hou to the next or fom one day to the nex asthe prevailing conditions weather, Davy vehicle percentage, presence or absence ofa queue) vary. Reasonable expectancy i the bass for defining caput. Thats the stated ‘capacity fora given system element i flow rate that canbe achieved repeatedly {ae peak periods of sfcient demand, Stated capacity values can be achieved on system elements with similar chaactevstis throughout Now Ameria Capacity isnot the absolute maximum flow rate observed on such a system clement. The absolute maximum flow rate can vary fom day to day and from location to locaton. Persons per hour pasenger cars per hour, and ehicls per hour are measures that ca define capacity, depending on the typeof system element and the type of analysis. The concept of person flaw is important in making strategic ‘decisions about transportation modes in heavily treveed corridors and in ‘defining the role of transit and high-occupancy-vehicle priority treatments. Person capacity and porsan flow welghtesch typeof vehicle in the traffic stream by the numberof occupants carried, ase Conditions ‘Many ofthe proceeures in this manual provide a formula or simple ular oe graphic presentations fora ato epecised standard conditions, which must be fused to secount for prevailing condition that do not match These stendara Conditions are termed bse conditions Base conditions assume good weather, good and dey pavement conditions, users who ae familiar with the system element, and no impediments to traffic flow Other more specific base conditions are identified in each methodological chapter in Volumes 2 and 3. Inmostcapacty analyses, provaling conditions differ from the base conditions (eg, there are trucks inthe tlfic stream, lanes are narrow). AS ‘sulk computations of capacity, service flow rate, and LOS mus nelude ‘djustnents, Prevailing conditions are generally categorized 38 rosdway, taf ‘contol, operations, o envizonment Roadway Conditions ‘Roadray condition include geometric an other elements In soave cass, ‘hoy influence the capacity of system element in other they ean affect perfozmance measure suchas speed, but not the roadway’ captity or traximum love rate, Se TAO A ESHighway Capaclly Manual A Guide Tor Malimadal Mobily Anais Roadway factors include the following ‘+ Number oflanes, ‘+The typeof system element end its land use environment, + Lane widths, ‘Shoulder widths and lateral clearances, + Design speed, + Horizontal and vertical alignment, and 1 Availaility of exclusive tur lanes a intersections ‘The horizontal and vertical alignments ofa highway depend on the design speed and the topography ofthe Ian om wich it sconce In general, asthe severity of the terrain inrsnses, capacity and sevice ow rates are reduced. This significant for tworlane rural highways, where the severity of tarzan can affect th operating capabilities of individual vehicles in the talficstecam and restrict oppoctuites for passing slow-moving vehicles. ‘Traffic Conditions ‘Trafic conditions that influence capacities and service level incide vec \ype, lane or directional station, and the dever population. Vehicte Type ‘The entry of heavy vohicles—thats, vehicles other than passenger cars (2 catogory that incuces smal! tracks and vans)—into the tafe stream afets te umber of veicies that can be served. Heavy vehices are vehicles that have ‘mare than four ies touching the paverent ‘Trucks, buses, and recreational vohiles are the thee groups of heavy vehicles adresse by the methods in this manual. As diseased in Chapter, Modal Characteristics heavy vehicles adversaly affect afi into ways: + They are larger than passenger ens, 0 they occupy more roadway space nd ereate larger ime headways between vehi, + They have poorer operating capabilities than passenger cass, particularly with respect to acceleration, deceleration and the ability to maintala speed on upgrades. “The second impacts more critical. The inability of envy vehicles to keep ece with passenger cars in many situation crests large gaps in the wale stream which ae dificult fl by passing manedwvers, Queues may also Aevelop behind a slow-moving heavy vehice. The resulting inefficiencies inthe use of roadivay space cannot be completly overcome, This effects particularly ‘harmful on sustained steep upgrades, where the difference in operating capabilites s most pronounced, an on two-lane highways, where passing requires use ofthe opposing travel ene Heavy vehicles aio can affect downgrade operations partculasly when ‘downgrades are step enough to require operation in slow gear. In these cass, aes a Ot cy ceeTighway Capacity Manuat A Guide fer Matimodal Mabiiy Anas heavy vehicles must operate at slower speeds than do passonger ars, again forming gaps ahead and queues behind in the tfc stream. Directional and Lane Distribution “Two traffic chats in addition tothe vehicle type distribution affect “capacity, service low rats, and LOS: ivetionalcstibution and lane distribution. Directional disebusion has a dramatic impact on twovlane ral highway operation, where optimal conditions ae achieved vhen the amount of trafic is roughly equal in each direction, Capacity analyses for mulilane highways foeu on single direction of flow. Neverteles each ditetion ofthe highway is usualy designed to accommodate the pea lw rate in the peak direction. Typiealy, am. peak atic occurs in one diretion and p.m. peak atc ‘curs inthe opposite diction, Lane distibution ie another factor on mllsane faites. Traffic volumes are ‘yplclly not dstibuted evenly betwen lanes, because of drivers pre-postioning {Gemselves for downstream movements eft tums xls), vehicle performance characteristics (eg, heavy vehicles tending to kep sgh), an local taffic laws (e.g let lane restricted to passing, trucks probit from te ft ane) among, ‘other factrs, The uneven distribution rel ia less efficent operations than if uate was more evenly distributed, ‘Driver Population tis generally accepted that diver populations whe do not use roadway on 1 regular bors dsplay characters diferent foes Moz af merit who are familie with the rosday. HICM methods alow the usr to make an adjustment {or driver population, for system elements where driver popalation has madea dlflerence in the observed capacity. This adjustment is base on user judgment, and the HCM does noe provide any quantitative means for determining i ‘Control Conditions For interrupted-fow facto, the control of the time that specifi trafic ows ate allowed to move ictal to capacity, service Flow rates, and LOS. The most eitcal ype of control iste etic signal. The type of contol in use, signal Phasing, llocation of geen time, cycle length and the relationship with adjacent contol measuesallffct operations ‘109 and VIEL signs also affect capacity, but a less deterministic way. A ic signal designates imes when each movements permitted; however, 2 S100 sign ata two-way stOP-ontrolle intersection only designates the right-of. ‘vay to the majorstret. Motorists traveling on the minor street must stop to fin {gaps in the major trafic How. Therefore, the capacity of minor approaches ‘depends on traffic conditions onthe major seat. An allway STOP control eguires drivers ta stop and enter the intersection in rotation. Capacity and ‘operational characersis can vary widely, depending on the traffic demands on the various approaches. (Other typet of conto and regulations can significandy affect capacity, service flow rales and LOS. Restricted cut parking can increase the number of lanes available ona ste or highway. Turn restrictions can eliminate confit at Se te Ope we OO OeFighway Copaciiy Manual A Guide for Mulimodal MAbiy Anahvas intersections incressing capacity. Lane use controls can allocate roadway space to component movements an can create reversible anes. One-way set routings can eliminate conflicts between left turns and opposing trafic, ‘Technology and Operations Technological strategies, commonly known as intelligent transportation cig tation systems (15) strategies, aim to increase the safety and performance of roadway facilities. For this discussion, ITS ineides ary technology that allows drivers and leslie contol system operators to gather and use real-time information to Improve vehicle navigation, roadvay system control or both, Research on ITS nas grown slgniantly but cannot be considered comprehensive terms of ‘evaluating IS impacts on rondsvay pacity and quality of sevice Aerial IS strategies that have en shows to improve vehicular throughput or rece vehicular delay ate adaptive signal contol and trafic signal interconnection. A freeway IT tetegy, ramp metering, has improved irinline throughpst and speed, while incident management techniques have reciuced the time required to denlfy and cee incidents and thus minimized the time curing which apecity is reduced as well asthe associated delay. Variable reeay speed iis, combined with automated speed limit enforcement, aso ‘show promise bu require additional study (8) (Other ITS strategies seek to shift demand to alternative routes o¢ tes, thus making better use of ystem capacity and reducing delay on individual facies. ‘Techniques incuce parking availability sign atthe entrances to doventown ree, value pricing, variable nesange signa, highway advisory radio, ntgrated corridor management, realtime travel time and incident information provided to ‘computers and mobile phones, and real-ime in-vehicle navigation systems (8) (Other strategies fr otfctvely operating roadways are not inherently based ‘on technology although they may be supported by technology. amples include managed lanes and highway service patrols. Specific impacts af technology and operations strategies on roadway capacity and performance ae discaseed in Chapter 37, ATOM: Supplemental ‘were research s availabe to document those impact. Environmental Conditions A facliy’s capacity canbe temporarily reduced by environmental conditions, auch as heavy precipitation adverse lighting conditions or slippery oad surface, A nimber of studies addressing the capaciy-reducing effets of spedfic environmental conditions on freewayshave been conducted. The results ofthese studi are presented in Chaptor 10, Froeway Falites Core Methodology. For intrrupted-low facilities, opacity reductions ae reflected by ‘editions inthe saturation flor rate during periods when precipitation is falling and when rosdvrays are wet or covered by snow oie. ‘Tagen oases SSC