Preface

3D Digital Workshop provides a foundation for entering fields

incorporating 3D design. It integrates digital modeling and hand
construction in the production of unique 3D objects.

It does so through a series of creative, annotated tutorials. Creative

means that the student does not replicate a specific object, which is
the subject of the tutorial, but rather creates a unique object by
interpreting a set of visual principles pertinent to the object. Helping
this process along are annotations that prompt the student to apply
those principles at strategic points in the modeling process.

Longer annotations explaining visual concepts and technical principles

are boxed within the body of the tutorials. As a result each student s
outcome is a creative and individualized sculptural object, just as in a
traditional art and design class.

3D Digital Workshop can suffice as a stand-alone text, but was

developed to also accompany more traditional texts as well. At
DePaul University where the author teaches it is used in conjunction
with the author s text Principles of Three-Dimensional Design: Object,
Space and Meaning. Students read from the text and use the ideas
and terms therein to assess the finished objects during group
critiques.

The design problems addressed by the tutorials were gleaned from 25

years of teaching 3D design at Miami University, Purdue University,
The School of the Art Institute of Chicago and DePaul University and
were selected for their balance between their compatibility with
computer-aided manufacture and their manifestation of key design
principles.

All that is needed to fabricate the objects is an inkjet printer, craft

knife, ruler and white glue. All of the work can be executed at a
kitchen table or office desk. Materials are inexpensive: label paper,
heavyweight index board and Fomebord®. Label paper and index
board should be in 8.5 x 11 inch sheets. Index board may vary from a
satisfactory 80lb weight up to an excellent 140lb weight.
The main program for the course is Rhino 3D published by Robert
McNeel and Associates. Rhino is a modeling program targeted to
product designers more than to the entertainment industry. Because
of this it is equipped with tools that are ideal for enabling the
learning of design and modeling procedures. It has become the
preferred modeler for many university art programs.

Rhino is also available for free download. This demo version has full
functionality and is limited by the number of saves (25) rather than
timing out after a few weeks. Students are thus able to use the
program for the full run of the class.

The second program is Adobe Illustrator. Illustrator is linked to Rhino

because Rhino will save screen images as .ai files. Once in Adobe
Illustrator the weight and color of the lines may be modified and
texture such as marbling and wood grain applied in the form of
photographic files.

Although a primary reason for developing these tutorials was to

search out a method for incorporating computer literacy in a
foundation art and design course, another reason was to also pre-
figure learning in computer graphics courses. The course for which
they were initially created is an art course situated in a computer
science environment, the School of Computer Science, Tele-
communications and Information Systems (CTI) at DePaul University.

The curriculum development team for the Computer Graphics and

Animation (CGA) program operated on the principle that students who
could compose and fabricate objects in real space, could better do
the same in virtual space. Elements of the tutorials pre-figure
important principles of 3D graphics that the student will encounter
later in virtual environments. For example, printing textures on the
paper constructions parallels the mapping of textures onto surfaces in
computer graphics. Similarly the breaking of objects into planar
surface components provides a hands-on understanding of polygonal
surfaces.

Thanks to the other members of this team -- Roymieco Carter, Jacob

Furst, John McDonald, Eric Sedgwick and Rosalee Wolfe for their aid
in tweaking this material to fit the unique blending of art and
computer science that is the CGA program. Special thanks to Stuart
Grais who also taught from this material, and whose input led to
significant improvement. An even more special thanks to the over 200
students users of this book whose hard work and creativity
ascertained that the tutorials would be effective.
 3-D Digital Workshop

Table of Contents
Introduction to Design Modeling 6

Section I Planes and Space 19

 Introduction 21
 A Construction in Planes 26

Section II Curves and Surface 47

 Introduction 49
 Relief Surface 58
 Cross-Sectional Construction 77
 Stacked Relief 94
 Full Round Surface 101
 Full Round Stacking 111

Section III Geometric Solids and

Pattern Construction 119

Introduction
 121
 Polyhedrons 128
 Modular form 150
 Cylinders and Cones 170
 Geometric Sculpture 193
 Spheroids and Revolved Solids 220
 Object Sculpture I 247
 Object Sculpture II 258
Introduction to Design Modeling
Unlike character modeling for games and animation or scenographic modeling for
cinema, design modeling has as its outcome the eventual production of a physical
object intended to function within defined goals of utility, meaning or beauty. By
contrast the outcome of the other types of modeling are purely graphic, that is, they
never leave the 2D screen. All types of modeling, nevertheless, share the same origin:
the virtual geometry of the digitally defined 3D space.

3D Visualization

A great revolution in how we shape the 3D world of cultural objects art, furniture,
tools, vehicles, shelter, dress, etc. is underway. Now fifty years young it is showing
no signs of abating.

This revolution is the increasing ability of builders, designers and artists to digitally
model, pre-view and test objects before they ever take physical form.

The last such revolution occurred in the 15th and 16th centuries with the invention of
perspective geometry. Renaissance artists of the likes of Leonardo Da Vinci, Piero
Della Francesca and Albrecht Durer experimented with and established the practical
application of perspective to provide an accurate and convincing image of the three-
dimensional world on a 2D surface. The architect Brunelleschi had demonstrated that,
with the systematic distortion of angles and shapes, he could present un-built
buildings as they would appear to the eye. Subsequently Della Francesca painted an
entire imaginary, ideal city of his own devising.

Piranesi, etching.

Perspective started in
portraying architecture.
Architecture is still the
field in which perspective
is most dramatically
effective, drawing the
viewer into the virtual
space it creates.
Perspective is limited by a single point of view, allowing only one vantage point from
which to view a 3D object. The computer screen, however, can offer multiple points
of view in smooth succession and in real time. Simple movements of the mouse will
dynamically zoom the viewer in an out, over and under, around and through an object
at will. The computer maintains this optically accurate on-screen image by modifying
perspective geometry to conform, in real time, to the continuous change in the
viewer s vantage point. In fact, the computer can allow vantage points difficult or
impossible in physical space.

Modeling thus adds visual interactivity to the optical accuracy of perspective to make
it seem as if we are moving in the same virtual space as the object and not just
looking at a picture.

Modeling programs do this with the same geometry as those artists of 500 years ago.
The calculations the computer makes when rendering in perspective are, in principle,
based exactly on experiments performed by Durer in the early 16th century. With these
experiments Durer was trying to solve problems in foreshortening, that is, to see how
an object distorts geometrically when viewed from extreme angles. Foreshortening
yields such exaggerated distortion that the mind fights against accepting it. Durer
wanted an objective method and not just his observational skills to confirm these
effects.

In one such experiment Durer placed a lute on a table behind a screen, which he had
previously built from fibers stretched taught across a frame to form a simple grid. On
the wall opposite the screen from the lute he drove a nail and stretched strings from
that nail to points on the contours of the lute. On a sheet of paper, also marked off
into a grid, he plotted each point where a string passed through the screen. The sum
of these points described a dotted line image of the lute as it would be seen through
the screen had the viewer s eye occupied the position of the nail.

From previous experiments Durer already knew what the result would be. In this
particular experiment he was confirming not just how to draw in perspective, but how
optical geometry actually produced the effects of perspective. This experiment was
intended to mechanically confirm how the geometry of a 3D object projects into a 2D
space as it converges to a point. Being of practical mind, Durer was also developing a
drawing machine for other draftsmen to use in drawing. He devised at least four such
machines. A variant of one was marketed as an inexpensive cardboard kit well into the
20th century.

As it turns out Durer was correct. He had physically modeled the same procedure used
to compute the appearance of 3D objects on the 2D interface of the computer screen.
Using these same geometric principles modeling programs compute screen images by
choosing significant points on the model and then calculating where lines projecting
from those points and converging to the viewer s eye should intersect the plane of the
screen.

Like other great artists Durer realized that, while perspective was a groundbreaking
technology for visualization, it still remained a tool to be used at the artist s
discretion, as means rather than the goal of the artists.

7
Durer made his living as a printer and publisher whose main product was his own
artwork. In this etching he portrays the mechanics of turning an actual lute into its
perspective representation. As his assistant moves the end of the string from point to
point along the contours of the lute, he measures the horizontal and vertical position
of the string as it passes through the frame. Durer then measured that same point on a
sheet of paper, eventually creating a dotted line describing the same contours as
projected to a 2D space.

The computer works in the same fashion, as did Durer. It begins by calculating the points that
define the 3D object and then connects these by rays to a single point, the center of projection
(COP), comparable to Durer s nail or the position of a camera. Finally it situates the plane of
projection at a specified distance between the object and the COP. The intersection of the rays
with this plane determines the screen image.

8
Durer s drawing machine
began as a sophisticated
experiment, but became a
standard aid for drawing in
perspective. It is still used
today if one considers that
3-D graphic programs use a
virtual version of the same
machine.

There are and were many methods for projecting 3D reality onto the 2D space of the
picture, though perspective remains the most optically accurate version in common
use. The most optically accurate version of projection uses a spherical, rather than a
flat screen to replicate the curvature of the human eye and results in straight lines
appearing as curves. For this reason viewers tend to reject spherical perspective.

Optical accuracy isn t always the major virtue of a projection system. One other
version of projection used universally by modeling programs even more extensively
than perspective -- is orthogonal projection. It differs from perspective in that the
projecting rays of the object do not angle in toward a point, but intersect the
projection plane orthogonally, that is, at 90° angles. Rather than converging, then,
the projecting rays continue on paths parallel to one another. Artists refer to this
projection, therefore, as parallel projection.

Orthogonal projection is useful in many situations for portraying single objects, since
it creates less distortion than does perspective. Consequently most view ports in a
modeling program are orthogonal, usually top, front and right views. This projection,
however, is awkward and unsatisfying for viewing scenes where the space is deeper
and enhanced by perspectival effects.

Orthographic projection casts 3D objects onto the 2D screen with no diminishing of the size of
objects as they move into the distance. Without the convergence to a point, such as a viewer s eye
or a camera s lens, the dimensions of distant objects remain the same as those of near objects

9
Computing Geometry

The program must compute the effects of projection using only numbers. Numbers
define the position of each point on the model, which corresponds to Durer s lute;
numbers define the position of the camera, which is geometrically equivalent to
Durer s nail (or the human eye); and numbers define the plane of the monitor screen,
which compares to Durer s grid. These numbers are then translated by the program,
sent to the graphics card and subsequently appear on the monitor as a visual image.

The invention of numerical geometry made this all possible. Like perspective
geometry, it is also centuries old. In the 17th century the great French philosopher and
mathematician Rene Descartes devised a method for plotting numerical functions onto
an x, y grid. Numerical functions are the province of algebra, a computational method
borrowed from the Arabs two hundred years earlier and spread widely throughout
Europe by bookkeepers. The grid, then called the draughtsman s net, was also in
common use by artists and engineers.

Descartes showed how, with the aid of an ordered grid, he could represent the visual
elements of geometry by using algebraic function. Functions generate a series of
values, such that for each value of x entered there is a corresponding value of y as
stipulated by an algebraic equation. Descartes borrowing from techniques similar to
Durer s then plotted these x, y values onto a grid to form lines, curves or shapes.
Geometric entities could in this manner be described numerically, and therefore
computed.

Design Computing

The first uses of computer-aided design (CAD) in the 1950 s followed in this tradition,
but initially involved no direct visual output by the computer. Lines and curves were
calculated as points and draftsmen used a numerical printout to plot these by hand. By
the 1960 s pen plotters replace human hands. These machines comprised a pen
traveling back and forth along a bridge over a table, while the bridge in turn moved
along the length of the table. Between the computer and the plotter was a post-
processor, a machine whose task it was to split the computer code into x and y
electrical impulses. Values for x propelled a motor that guided the pen s movement
along the bridge, while values for y drove the bridge along the table. Replacing the
pen with a cutting bit allowed shapes to be cut out from sheets of material.

By the early 1970 s CNC (computer-numerical control) machines became commercially

available that could add movement along an additional z-axis. This allowed the
computer to carve 3D surfaces from solid material. On these machines the bridge rides
up and down on a vertical riser while the riser moves along the bridge, thereby cutting
curves in this third dimension. About this time, too, the computer could calculate and
plot 3D images in perspective.

All this was realized in code on a mainframe computer. Within another ten years
images could appear on screen and manipulated with a mouse on a PC. By today s
standards modeling was still slow, crude and very expensive. The value of CAD
programs lay primarily in the numerical accuracy and mathematical sophistication they
contributed to the design process.

10
The CNC machine above is known as a 3D router. A router with a rapidly spinning cutting bit moves
up and down on a vertical riser, which in turn travels across a gantry that shuttles back and forth
along the table. These three axis of movement permit the bit to cut x and y paths while rising and
falling in the z axis. The surface on the top right gives examples of these tool paths.

The widely accessible, user-friendly use of modeling is much newer. Any designer can
own a PC carried in a briefcase with many, many times the capacity of a room-sized
mainframe of the early 1970 s. CAD programs with more power than their 1995
counterparts once selling for thousands of dollars are given away free on-line as
teasers for more sophisticated programs. Programs with 3D modeling capabilities plus
a printer to output the 3D images can be gotten for less than the cost of many
textbooks.

Today it is presumed that all students in professional design fields become proficient
in an industry standard modeling program, but before the early 1990 s none did.

The image to the above right was generated from a model for which its designer Carlo Sequin wrote
the mathematical formula. This complex surface could not be cut, but it could be printed by
depositing thin layers of material. This method uses the computer to slice the model into a series

11
of paper-thin sheets. Each sheet is then deposited onto the 3D printer s bed, which lowers minutely
as each layer is printed.

Adding to the capacity of digital design output are 3D printers, which can printout a
3D model in physical form. There are about a dozen methods for accomplishing this,
but all operate on the same basic principle: to lay down layer after layer of material
whose shape changes with the contours of the model. The great advantage of this
method is that it can print hollow and interlocking forms and accomplish detail not
permitted by a cutting bit.

Some machines deposit the material as melted plastic that solidifies as it is printed.
Various methods use photo-catalytic resins that harden when exposed to intense light,
such as a laser. Others print liquid resin or wax onto progressive layers of powder,
forming a tough concrete-like material. Still others cut shapes out of adhesive paper
and stack these into 3D objects. All print at about 100-750 layers per inch and so are
somewhat slow to build an object of any size. However if the designer starts printing
before leaving work, the 3D print will typically be there the next day.

Modeling Environments

Each modeling program can be regarded as a shop comprising a host of tools for
creating objects in digital space. This shop and its tools will differ significantly
depending on the method of computing geometry each employs in defining 3D objects.
In effect each type of geometry governs the nature of its virtual space, and therefore
its objects, differently. Each forms its own distinct perceptual and working
environment. Of these the three most common are NURBS, CAD and CSG
environments. Also coming to the fore today are two types of particle modelers: voxel
modelers that pack the particles into a solid mass, and physical modelers that imitate
clouds, fire, liquid motion and other natural phenomena.

• NURBS

Rhino 3D, the program chosen for the course of instruction followed by this book, uses
a NURBS modeling environment. NURBS is an acronym for non-uniform rational basis
spline, which describes the form of computational geometry applied by the program.
NURBS is widely used for modeling characters and forms from nature, because spline
geometry can, with relatively little information, imitate the curves formed by
materials under force. This makes it suitable for a wide range of representations, such
as skin stretched over muscle or the sagging of a draped cloth. It is the preferred
environment for entertainment industries.

Such high-end programs as Maya and 3D Studio Max employ NURBS and a variation
known as polygon modeling. With polygon modeling the user manipulates a visible
surface of polygons in order to edit an underlying NURBS surface. A cube, for example,
actually controls a spherical surface. In order to create a bulge or a depression in the
surface the user multiplies the polygons on one side of the sphere and then pulls or
pushes these new polygons. As a design application this type of modeling is
exceptionally limited, but in the hands of an artist with strong drawing and sculpting
skills it is very quick and effective means of building characters for games and cinema.

12
Both Maya and 3D Studio Max, standards in the entertainment industry, also include
particle modeling to create special effects. (See physical modeling below.)

NURBS

VECTOR

• CAD

Rhino blends NURBS with CAD characteristics, making it a good general modeling
program for designers. CAD programs are distinguished by tools that aid in the actual
building of physical objects as opposed to 3D graphics intended to remain on screen.
Rhino is well suited for object design, especially those with strong sculptural
characteristics. Rhino exports to Adobe Illustrator, a popular spline-based drawing
program, which allows users with both programs to produce sophisticated drawings
and pattern templates for translating digital models into physical objects. This,
coupled with a friendly user interface, makes it especially good for the beginning
designer.

Most pure CAD programs, like those used in architecture, employ vector rather than
NURBS geometry. Easier to program, vector geometries build their forms from
directional, straight-line segments known as vectors. The primary computational
geometry needed for vectors is trigonometry, while spline curves must use calculus.

Vectors are very good for representing the traditional geometry used in architecture
and many mechanical items. In this geometry a curve breaks down into many short,
straight lines. A circle, for example is actually drawn using straight lines, but at 200

13
vectors per circle the circle appears perfectly smooth. Similarly vector geometry
describes a sphere by using many small flat surfaces.

• vectors, splines and rasters

NURBS programs also use vector geometry to represent curves on screen. When
zooming into a curve the program multiplies the number of vectors to keep the curve
appearing smooth even at close inspection. While the program builds the object with
NURBS, it represents the object on screen with vectors. For this reason spline
programs are categorized under the larger category of vector graphics.

In general graphics programs as a whole divide into raster and vector graphics. Raster
graphics, named after the German word for grid, create 2D images from tiny squares
of color and 3D objects from tiny cubes arrayed within a space demarcated into a grid.
These squares and cubes are too small to be apparent. Vector graphics, by contrast,
create images from geometric lines and shapes filled with color.

• CSG

CAD and NURBS environments are by far the most popular modeling environments.
Both build 3D objects from surfaces. In CAD these are defined solely with flat planes,
while in NURBS the surfaces can and usually do curve. In general the term surface
modeler applies to programs that define solids as closed surfaces. By contrast solid
modelers represent forms as filled and emptied spaces, as solids and negative solids.
Termed CSG for constructive solid geometry, this modeling environment will not
recognize lines or surfaces, since they have no thickness. Lines are used only as a
temporary interface tool to outline shapes, which are then extruded to define a solid
space. Extruding solids from a previous solid or extruding negative solids to drill
through or remove material from an existing solid will create further complexities of
form.

CSG modelers are preferred for industrial applications such as machining and mold
making because the process of modeling closely parallels such industrial techniques for
shaping objects. Usually solid modelers require expertise in these techniques or the
field for which the modeling is done. As a result these are more specialized and
difficult to learn than are surface modelers.

• voxel

All of the above three environments, NURBS, CAD and CSG, are defined by the
geometry they use to compute and store their definition of 3D form. All can be
classified as geometric modelers: as long as the geometry of a form is recorded the
model is preserved. By contrast there are modeling programs that compute and store
the model as voxels. This is a 3D version of raster-based graphic programs, such as
those used for digital photography.

Just as pixel is short for picture element, so voxel is a contraction of volume element.
Paint and photo programs compute with a field of tiny colored squares the pixels
and create images based on the distribution of light and color of each pixel. Voxel
programs extend this idea to tiny cubes, which cluster like atoms to describe a 3D

14
solid. Like CSG modelers they, too, cannot geometrically describe points, lines or
surfaces, since any entity must be at least one voxel thick and therefore a solid.

There is currently limited availability to this environment. At this writing industry

standard voxel modelers are hugely expensive and require very powerful computers. A
relatively small model of 1000 x 1000 x 1000 voxels would yield an accurate 3D print of
5 x 5 x 5 inches, but would need to compute the position of 1,000,000,000 voxels,
each with its own x,y,z values. There are inexpensive voxel modelers that illustrate
the principles, but which are far too crude to be useful as modelers.

The most interesting application of voxel technology is its use with force-feedback, or
haptic, interfaces. The modeling program can assign material qualities, ranging from
soft clay to hard stone, to the voxel cluster. Instead of a mouse the sculptor uses a
haptic arm, i.e., a sequence of levers that permit the artist to move a tool fully about
in real space. This movement is reflected in turn by the movements of a tool on the
computer screen. When the on-screen tool hits the voxel cluster the artist feels
resistance through the haptic arm. Clay offers less resistance than stone, which will
bring the arm to a dead stop. As the sculptor pushes on the physical tool the voxels
will give way as if they were made of clay or chip as if made of stone.

• physical

This procedure is a sculptural variant on physical modeling programs. In voxel space

the element are packed into a three-dimensional grid, or raster. Physical modelers, by
contrast, represent liquids and gases in motion and so must depart from the raster.

Physical modelers, also called particle modelers, generate motion according to

physical laws governing such natural phenomena as the flow of water, the billowing of
clouds or the flickering of a candle flame. In nature all of these motions involve the
physical effects of energy and force on vast groups of molecules. Particle modelers
generalize molecules into particles and represent all of these physical effects through
the mathematically generated behavior of those particles.

Physical modeling is therefore dynamic and chiefly used in animation. However forms
generated by these methods can be frozen and translated into objects that retain this
dynamic character.

The Role of Modeling in Design

It would be a mistake to presume that quality design incorporating digital tools is

somehow easier to produce or fundamentally different in principle from design of the
past. In many ways digital environments enable design as has no other tool in the past;
in other ways it distracts from the process of design.

Modeling programs are themselves modeled on design procedures developed over the
ages. Spline geometry, for example, draws its name from the supple wooden strips
used in drafting for laying out non-circular curves such as those of a ship s hull. CAD
programs were created to mimic the traditional geometry and drawing methods of
drafting with the compass and straight edge. Initially CAD stood for computer-aided

15
drafting. It then came to be called CADD for computer-aided drafting and design, and
then simplified to CAD once again for computer-aided design.

These programs were then and still are meant to boost and enable rather than
supplant traditional design processes. In order to understand how these programs
boost these processes it is important to know where and when they come into play for
the creation of a design. In fact, it is arguably a defining ability of the professional, as
opposed to beginning designer, to not overuse the computer in the design process.

• problem solving for design

Among other things, design is an approach to problem solving. A problem is defined by

its parameters, i.e., those necessary requirements that must be met to solve the
problem. Design problems belong to a category of problems known as complex
problems. Complex problems are characterized by linked parameters. This means that
the solution to one aspect of a problem directly or indirectly affects the solutions to
the other aspects.

The linkage can be positive or negative, that is, a change in fulfilling one parameter
leads to a positive or negative result in fulfilling another parameter. Two parameters
are positively linked if a positive result in the meeting of one leads to a reciprocally
positive result in the other. The reverse is true for a negative linkage. An upswing in
fulfilling one parameter leads to a downturn in the other. Clearly, the best design
solutions seek positive, win-win, links between parameters. Sometimes this is not
possible and a decision must be made on the lesser of two evils.

Though there is much research in so-called expert systems that include the computer
in decision-making processes, the computer is a long way from generating the sort of
solutions required of design. The computer, however, is very good as a tool for
processes of testing and refinement. In this light modeling programs are very poor for
generating ideas and very good for visualizing and assessing these ideas. Modeling
programs are distracting to beginning designers in that there exists a strong
temptation to skip the tougher, more hard-nosed traditional processes of idea
generation and to use the modeling environment for idea generation.

• pre-screen design

There is a long list of reasons why this is so. Generating ideas is much easier and
effective pre-screen , i.e., before entering the computer. Note-taking, research,
thumbnail sketches (rapid postage-stamp to business card sized drawings), sketch
models (quick paper or clay constructions) and larger more refined sketches are all
means for visualizing solutions that far outpace anything one can do in a modeling
environment. All professional designers realize the value of pre-screen idea
development, while few beginning students do.

Another danger of a beginner shortcutting pre-screen work in favor of jumping into the
modeling process is that one is thus limited to only those ideas that one s inexperience
in modeling skills permit. This is an extremely small part of the potential solutions
that are out there. The fledgling designer is, as a result, less likely to develop ideas
that are challenging to model. Coming up with creative solutions beyond one s
modeling skills is one of the best incentives for advancing those skills.

16
Every idea should be compiled and saved in a sketchbook. Often at a later stage in the
development of an idea, the designer must reject it and return to an earlier stage in
order to rethink some previous, undeveloped approach.

The designer s sketchbook should be treated as the visual analog to a scientist s lab
book. With dates entries and organized presentations to the degree that another
designer could pick up where one left off. This record should continue on through the
on-screen and post-screen stages of the design. Artist s and sculptors whose work is
more personal have the privilege of keeping far more idiosyncratic visual records. The
tutorials in this book include pre-screen practices.

• on-screen design

Digital modeling has, however, supplanted much of those middle stages of the design
process where ideas need to be more completely visualized for assessment and
refinement as well as for presenting to a client. Where once finished drawings and
preliminary models served to present more advanced stages of the design, computer
models and their rendering have taken over this service. In addition the computer can
supply precise data on measurements and, in the case of engineering programs,
calculate the structural properties of a design.

Most of this book is dedicated to the onscreen stage of the design process. In addition
to modeling, testing and presentation the computer aids in preparing the model for its
eventual construction as a physical object. The 3D digital environment represents the
end of the visual development and the beginning of the production stage.

• post-screen design

Digital methods also produce working drawings for building a physical prototype of the
design. A prototype is the version of a design that is nearly complete. A working
prototype is a version that can actually be used to test and see if the design performs
as required. It is called a prototype because it is to serve as the original form, or type,
that is to be reproduced in the factory. Frequently industrial engineers may reject a
prototype, because it is too expensive to produce. For sculptors and craftspeople
producing unique objects, the prototype is the finished object.

As described previously, the computer can take a direct part in the actual building of
the finished object. CAM (computer-aided manufacture) programs can take the model
and translate it into the tool paths for CNC cutting, 3D printing or pattern
construction. The tutorials in this workbook provide methods creating these tool paths
for hand building 3D objects from a given model. They are traditional design methods
carried out with the aid of the modeling program to create the parts that go into the
building. Though traditional processes they nevertheless are alike in principle to CAM
procedures, which themselves are based on these processes.

17
18
 Section I

Planes and Space

19
20
Introduction: Planes in Space

Place a line on a two dimensional surface and it will divide the 2-D space. That space
will have two regions, one on each side of that line. The line, too, will plot a path
through the space. The beginning of structure, of shaping and activating 2-D space
accompanies the insertion of a line onto a flat surface.

A plane does the same for a 3-D space. Like a wall, a plane will slice the empty
monolith of space into two regions. The angle of the plane will define the direction
and imply the movement of that slice. The beginnings of structure, of shaping and
activating 3-D space accompany the introduction of a plane into open space.

We will look at how planes can define and structure space and do so with strong visual
effectiveness.

What is a Plane?

By its strictest geometric definition a plane extends indefinitely through two

dimensions in space. It has no edges, no bumps or dips into a third dimension, just a
flat endless extension. A shaped piece of that plane is called a planar segment. By
common usage, when designers say the term plane they are usually referring to a
planar segment, most often fabricated from material in sheet form. This tutorial will
adopt that usage of the term and will specify when it refers to the mathematical
notion of plane.

Planes of Space and 3-D Coordinates

There are special cases of planes that are especially important to 3-D design. Most
important, especially for modeling programs, are the three planes of space. These
planes provide the basic reference structure by which we position elements in 3-D
space:

 the horizontal plane

This is the plane of space that divides the 3-D realm into upper and lower
regions. In the 3-D coordinate system it is the x,y plane. The x-axis divides it
from front to back and the y-axis divides it from left to right.

21
 The horizontal plane is the default construction plane of modeling programs.
This means that it is the surface on which the model begins to be built, just as
in physical space where we begin building from the ground up.

 the medial plane

This is the plane of space that, running from front to back divides the 3-D
realm into left and right regions. It is a vertical plane that in the 3-D
coordinate system intersects the horizontal plane along the y-axis. This is the
y,z plane, where z denotes the vertical dimension of the 3-D coordinates.

 the transverse plane

This is the plane of space that, running from right to left, divides the 3-D realm
into front and back regions. It is a vertical plane that in the 3-D coordinate
system intersects the horizontal plane along the x-axis and the medial plane
through the z-axis.

These three planes and their axes of intersection comprise the orthogonal coordinate
system. Orthogonal means "at 90° angles" and refers to the fact that all three planes
meet at 90° angles and that their surfaces are demarcated into a square grid. All three
axes and all three planes of space meet at a common central point called the origin.

22
With this system three coordinates may specify any point in 3-D space. Each
coordinate specifies the unit distance from the origin along a corresponding axis. The
coordinates follow the x,y,z format. Thus the coordinates 3,4,5 denote a point that is
3 units from the origin along the x-axis; then 4 units on a line parallel to the y-axis;
then 5 units up on a vertical line paralleling the z-axis. Units may correspond to any
unit of measure you choose -- inches, centimeters, feet, millimeters, etc.

Rhino, like most modeling programs, offers a number of view windows in which you
can choose to work. The Top view looks down on the horizontal plane; the Front view
looks straight at the transverse plane; and the Right view frames the medial plane.
Each of these views is set so that the positive dimensions are up and to the right. To
aid in keeping track of which plane you are viewing Rhino indicates the coordinate
axes of the plane in lower left hand corner of its view windows.

Interaction

Planes can interact in three ways:

First, two planes can pass through one another. This is called interpenetration, and is
the most dynamic interaction.

Second, two planes can meet at a common edge. This is called folding, because the
effect is of a single plane turning a corner as if being folded.

Third, the edge of one plane can meet the face of another. This is called abuttal.

These interactions also indicate the ways in which the parts of a planar structure can
meet and attach. Three planes joined so that they mutually interact will yield a
stable structure. The illustration above shows the three planes of space mutually
interacting through interpenetration. Joining three physical planes, as in the
illustrations below, will ensure that each supports the other to create stability.

23
Planar Structure

A structure is stable when it will not collapse under the forces that are apt to affect
it. A structure is stable if it meets three requisites: 1) it possesses a stable
configuration, such as is specified by the "three plane rule" above, 2) it is crafted from
a material whose strengths permit it to resist anticipated forces and 3) its center of
gravity does not fall outside of the area of the base.

Two planes can present a stable structure if they are attached to a third plane in their
environment. This might be the floor, a wall, a tabletop, a shelf, the earth, etc. An
environmental plane that provides this support is called a ground plane. The ground
plane is very much part of the design, although the viewer may not see it in this way.
It contributes to the design in much the same manner that a frame contributes to a
painting.

Open and Closed Space

Planes can wall off regions of space to enclose three-dimensional volumes. One of the
most important visual functions of planes is to shape space into defined regions. If
such a volume is tightly cut off from the surrounding space it constitutes a closed
volume, or closed space. If the defined volume allows easy passage between its
internal space and the surrounding space it constitutes an open volume or an open

24
space. In planar constructions open and closed space determine the visual movement
or flow through the design.

closed open

25
Construction in Planes

Using Adobe Illustrator v.8 and higher.

Materials: compass, ruler, Exacto knife with #11 blades, white glue, 140lb. index
board, 8-1/2 x 11 full sheet label paper, 1/4 inch foam-cored board (black or white).

Architectural Planes

This first foray into 3-D space is a planar construction with strong architectural
features. Such a construction is termed architectonic and it is characterized by the use
of mostly rectilinear shapes, horizontal and vertical alignments and the systematic
application of proportion.

We usually think of architecture in terms of massive volumes, and not planes.

However, it is planes - walls, floors, ceilings, and roofs - that define these volumes.
From the outside architecture has traditionally appeared massive and solid, closed off
by its exterior planes to provide shelter from the weather. On the inside architecture
comprises of a series of volumes that provide spaces for the social uses to which it is
put. Shopping environments will tend to be open, with free access to all the wares on
sale. Prisons, though, will feature a series of tightly closed spaces, cells intended to
block access to the space outside.

Architectonic Design

In our constructions we will attempt to balance and contrast open and closed space, to
create visual interest by means of the implied movement and rhythmic arrangements.
We will also make use of the grid as a system to harmonize shape, the direction of
forms and the proportion of forms. We will also explore symmetry and asymmetry in
their capacity to create order and visual interest. Finally we will seek to create a
visual flow from space to space in the sculpture in order to engage and draw the
viewer into the sculpture.

All of these attributes are characteristic of a good work of architecture. An

architectonic sculpture possesses these qualities on a much smaller scale.

In addition to scale architectonic sculpture and architectonic objects in general differ

from architecture in that sculpture is meant to be viewed either frontally, in the case
of a wall relief or a sculpture resting on a shelf, or full-round, in the case of a
sculpture placed out in open space. These are called the frontal point of view and the
full-round point of view.

26
The primary point of view for architecture, though, is internal. It is ultimately
intended to be occupied by the viewer and to be experienced as one moves through its
spaces.

Topics
This tutorial will use Adobe Illustrator to execute all layout and graphics, although any
good drawing program would suffice. We will construct the physical design with foam
board and label paper. The use of Illustrator in this and upcoming tutorials is limited
and addresses only a very small fraction of this program s capabilities. For a more
thorough tutorial on Illustrator go to:
http://online.caup.washington.edu/courses/larc/illustrator_home.htm

Part I of the tutorial is the setup of the grid format, which will provide the underlying
structure to determine the shape, scale and direction of the planes. In this part we
will set up the Illustrator interface in order to draw an accurate grid and learn to use
object transformation tools to aid the speed and accuracy of the drawing.

Part II outlines the methodology used to generate ideas by creating small paper
models, sketches and notes.

Part III traces the steps in creating the finished prototype for the design and judging
that prototype for acceptance or rejection.

Part I: Setting Up the Grid Template

27
1. Open Illustrator. The only menus you will need in the work area of the screen
are the Standard tools and the Stroke tools. This is illustrated in the screen
shot above. Close any extra menus. To access the Stroke tools choose Windows
from the top of the screen and then choose Show Stroke.

2. Choose File, Document Setup and make sure that the drawing is on letter size
paper and that the measurement units are inches. The page orientation should
be portrait, as should the printer paper. When closing the document setup the
dotted margin will lie within the drawing page to indicate the printable area.

28
3. Next choose File, Preferences, Guides & Grids. Set the grid size for 1 inch and
the grid divisions as 4.

4. One last step is necessary before the drawing can begin. Choose View, Show
Grid and choose View, Snap to Grid. The screen should look like this:

5. The design begins with a grid template that is 7 units by 9 units. The
background grid in Illustrator's workspace acts a drawing aid, but the template
grid determines the actual visual structure of the design. In fact we will later
exploit this grid to create surface graphics to enhance the design.

To start let's draw units of 1 inch each. Since the total grid will then be 7
inches wide, it will fit onto an 8-1/2 inch wide page with 3/4 inch side margins.
Likewise the 9 inch height of the grid will fit on the 11 inch high page with top
and bottom margins of 1 inch.

6. Set the values in the Stroke window to a

width of one1 pt (1 pt = 1/72 inch), and the
Cap and Join to square ends.

7. Activate the Pen tool. Click

on the grid intersection that is 3/4 inch in
from the left and 1 inch down from the top.
Since each unit of the background grid

29
 equals 1/4 inch, just count 3 squares in from the left and 4 squares down from
the top. The Snap to Grid function will ensure that the line begins exactly at
that point. Now click on the corresponding point in the lower left corner. To
exit the Pen tool click the Selection arrow, and then click on an empty area of
the workspace. This is called clicking "outside". Before continuing check the
line to make sure that it is 9 inches long and perfectly vertical.

8. The next step will be to copy this

line 7 times with the copies spaced
exactly 1 inch apart.

Click on the line with the Selection

arrow and it will highlight within a
selection box. Choose the Object
menu, and then choose Transform,
Move, Specify the Horizontal move at
1 in and the Vertical move at 0 in.
Click Copy.

30
 To continue copying: keystroke Ctrl+D for each copy. This key combination will
cause the last Transform function to repeat, in this case the Move, Copy.

9. With the grid columns drawn, it is time to draw the rows. Once again activate
the Pen tool. Draw a line 7 inches long using the background grid points just
above the left and right lines of the structural grid.

Clicking on the ends of the two sidelines automatically connects the new line
to them and creates a single bent line. This is an unwanted effect, so instead it
works better to draw the new line outside and then click and drag it into
position.

10. With the re-positioned line still selected, choose Object, Transform, Move. This
time set the Horizontal to 0 in and the Vertical to -1 in.

Note that the angle has shifted to

either 270 or - 90. Both represent
the same direction - straight down.
By worldwide convention the angle
0 denotes horizontal and to the
right. From there the angle values
increase as the direction moves
counter-clockwise; these decrease
as the direction moves clockwise.

Similarly, positive and negative

values for horizontal distances
represent right- and left-hand
moves respectively. Positive and
negative values for vertical
distances represent up and down
moves respectively.

31
 Click Copy and then keystroke Ctrl+D to copy each row.

11. Save the document.

Part II: Generating Ideas with Preliminary Models

Even in the fields of computer graphics and digital design idea generation is best done
by hand, in the form of annotated sketches and sketch models. Computer graphics
specialists call these paper prototypes, as this is also the name given to the
programming practice of scripting code by hand on paper prior to putting it in the
computer.

Here are just a few reasons - all of them important - for working ideas out on paper:

a) It is much faster and more efficient. By contrast doing this on the computer is
slow and clumsy. By the time they go on the computer the ideas should be
whittled down to a few strong contenders. In the design process the computer
is useful for refining and developing the ideas.

32
b) It develops the enormously useful skill of pre-visualizing ideas, to picture them
in the imagination with greater and greater clarity.
c) It pre-empts the limitations of the computer in favor of the human mind. It
thus focuses idea development on the best solution to a design goal, rather
than to those solutions easily derived from the relatively small set of tools
offered by design programs. One side benefit is that your design executions on
the computer will also improve.
d) It is a valuable communication tool for brainstorming visual ideas in team
situations or in initial discussions with a client.

This part of the tutorial outlines the procedures for creating ruled index cards from
which to construct sketch models: small, quickly crafted paper constructions used to
actualize ideas for early assessment of their viability as a solution to the design
problem.

12. Select the grid template by dragging a box around it with the Selection arrow.
Now choose Object, Group. The group command tells the program to treat this
entire grid as a single graphic entity and not as an ensemble of perpendicular
and parallel lines. From now on clicking on any portion of this grid with the
Selection arrow will serve to select the entire grid.

33
 Choose Object, Transform, Scale. Set the Uniform Scale percentage to 50 and
click OK. The 7 inches by 9 inches grid is now 3-1/2 inches by 4-1/2 inches.

13. With the grid still selected drag it to the upper left corner of the page and copy
it with the keystroke Ctrl+C. Then paste it with the keystroke Ctrl+V. Make
three copies for a total of four templates.

14. Drag the templates and, using the background grid as a guide, arrange the
templates into quadrants (see above).

15. Print out at least five pages on a heavy index board, 140 lbs. weight is best.
Use an inkjet printer with a back feed. The index board may be too stiff to pass
through laser printers and front feed inkjets.

16. Using an Exacto knife or similar craft knife and a metal straight edge, cut out
the templates. Be sure to use a cutting board or a cutting mat.

Determining Formal Parameters

Everything is set to begin exploring solutions to this problem. But what exactly
is the problem? Re-read the first two segments of the introduction to this
tutorial. They contain the general parameters, which define the overall
category of form in which this tutorial works. Try to list the parameters that
define the problem in terms of architectonic form and thus begin the search for
a solution.

So far we know that:

a. The design is to be an architectonic planar composition. By definition

this means that it must fulfill the characteristics of this category of
form. These are contained in the first paragraph. List these
characteristics in your sketchbook or notebook.
b. A grid structure, provided by the template, will determine the shapes,
the directions and the proportions of the planes in the composition.
c. This is not necessarily a functional design as with actual architecture.
Consequently, we need to look at the aesthetic criteria for the design.
Aesthetic refers to the visual qualities that provide the visual unity and
visual interest. It is a function of designed objects just as surely as is
utilitarian purposes of those objects.
Aesthetic criteria are by their nature relative imprecise and subject to
expression in generalities. For example, we know from reading the third
paragraph in the introduction that:
i. open and closed space should be exploited for the
contrasts in spatial experience they convey, but it is not
specified how this is to be done.
ii. open and closed space should be controlled for the
patterns of flow they can enable through the design, but
it is not specified how this is to be done.

34
 iii. symmetry and asymmetry should be explored as methods
for creating order, while maintaining visual interest - but
it is not specified how this is to be done.
iv. harmony and proportion are objectives, but it is not
specified when these are effective.

The aesthetic emerges because people and not machines are the
viewers. It defines the artistic component of design. There are good and
better aesthetic solutions, but there is no correct or best solution. This
may bother a technician, but good designer's revel in it.
d. There is an option to compose from a frontal viewpoint or a full-round
viewpoint.
e. From the previous chapter, "An Introduction to Planes", we also know
that:
i. there are three options for interacting planes
ii. the "three-plane rule" must be followed to achieve a physically
stable construction. Without physical stability a construction is
pointless. Stability is a necessary pre-requisite for a good design.

Problem Specifications

In addition to formal parameters all design problems are parameterized by

problem specifications. Usually the client provides these. They are inviolable
and may even be presented as a legal contract. For a fine art sculptor these
will be self-generated, with the sculptor in effect acting as his or her own
client. In a classroom situation the instructor will establish the specifications in
order to direct the learning.

Let's focus the tutorial problem with more specific parameters. These are:

a. All of the planar shapes used in the construction must be cut from a
single 7 x 9 gridded sheet with no waste.
b. Use no fewer that three and no more than seven planar shapes.
c. With specific exceptions all divisions of the sheet must follow the grid
and terminate on grid points. The exceptions are:
i. Quarter, semicircular, three-quarter arcs of a circle or ellipse
terminating on two grid points.
ii. Diagonal cuts terminating on grid points.
d. All joining of the planar shapes, interpenetration, folding and abuttal,
must follow grid lines and terminate on grid points.

Cutting and Joining

35
17. Each 3-1/2 x 4-1/2 inch gridded card will become a sketch model. Following
the specifications listed in the textbox above divide the card into 3 to 7 shapes
and re-construct these shapes into a stable and attractive 3D structure.

Start simple; try only straight cuts for the first 5 to 10 models and see if an
interesting result is possible with only 3 planes. Gradually increase the
complexity with more shapes and eventually the addition of curved and angled
cuts. The simplest and the most complex constructions are the most difficult to
resolve. Perhaps because of the extra effort involved these also seem to yield
the most unique results. Note in the illustrations below that the gridlines on
interacting planes always meet.

18. Join interpenetrating planes by slotting.

Depending on the situation the joining
requires either one or two slots. The joint
on the right requires only one slot in the
larger plane, while the joint below uses two
slots.

Cut the slots as two, very narrowly place

parallel lines. The narrower the better, as
long as some material - even thread thin - is
removed. A good way to judge this is to cut
on each side of the 1 pt line just enough to
cut away the line.

INTERPENETRATION:

36
19. Join abutted planes by spreading a thin line of white glue along the line of
abuttal. It can help to use a small plastic triangle to ensure a perpendicular
meeting. Wood blocks can also provide support as the glue dries.

Apply the glue carefully with the nozzle on the bottle or squeeze a small dab of
glue on a scrap sheet and carefully apply with the tip of the cutting knife.

Another option is to make small hinge tabs by cutting out two adjacent squares
from a spare template card and scoring along the middle line to fold.

ABUTTAL:

glue line

hinge tab

FOLDING AND EDGE-T0-EDGE:

37
 edge to edge 0
fold

0 score line

fold

20. The fold interaction gets its name because, frequently in planar construction,
the effect of edge interaction can be achieved by folding a single sheet into
two planes. In the previous illustration two planes have been added to the
abutted construction. Both planes were created by partially cutting two
squares from each abutted planes, and then folded so that their edges could
meet to form the sides of a cube. This operation uses both the technique of
scoring and folding and the technique of edge gluing.

____________________________________________________________

(Optional) Drawing Circles, Ellipse and Arcs

Illustrator draws circles and ellipses with the same tool and only
draws them in full. To draw arc portions these must be cut with the Scissors
tool.

38
Make sure the template grid is aligned with the background grid. With Snap to
Grid active choose the Ellipse tool and click on one grid intersection and drag
to another. Keep an eye on the center point of the ellipse to make sure that it,
too, lands on a grid point.

To trim to an arc select the circle or ellipse and then choose the Scissors tool.
The selection box will disappear, but the circle or ellipse will remain
highlighted with its center and quadrant points marked. In this case the
quadrants will also be points on the template grid. Click with the Scissors tool
where the arc is to begin and where it is to end. For this design the arcs will
begin and end on quadrant points.

Deselect by choosing the selection arrow and clicking outside. Select the
unwanted part of the circle or ellipse and delete.

39
 Keeping Track

Get in the habit of recording your visual experiments in a sketch

journal. Think of it as a visual lab book. As you subdivide each of the
printed templates, draw a diagram of the subdivisions. Standard sheets
of grid paper help this task to go quickly. As you complete each sketch
model, neatly sketch it. Jot down notes assessing the strength and
weakness of the idea.

Part III: Developing the Finished Prototype

From the large group of sketch models select only those few that best meet the
problem's parameters, its specifications and criteria. Give preference to those that
seem most visually engaging, those that have the greatest sense of animating space.
These hold the greatest promise of developing into the finished design.

Before going on to the finished design it is a good idea to test an idea by re-
constructing them at full scale as a preliminary model called a mock-up. Mock-ups are
built from cheap, easily manipulated material. Their purpose is to assess the visual
and spatial effectiveness of a design concept when viewed at full scale. In functional
design fields like industrial design a mock-up may also be referred to as a non-
functioning prototype.

Mock-ups

21. Open the file with the 7" x 9" template and keystroke Ctrl+A to select the
entire template. Choose Object, Lock. This will prevent any changes to be
made to the template while drawing the cutting lines over it.

22. Refer back to your sketch journal and locate the cutting diagram for one of the
surviving sketch models. Re-draw the cutting lines at full scale on the locked
template. Use a heavier line, about 3 pts, so that it will show over the lines of

40
 the template grid. (See the box below for drawing circles, ellipses and their
arcs.)

Print a few copies on the index board. Repeat for the remaining successful
models.

23. Cut out the prints and construct the mock-ups. Though the final construction
will be in foam board, the mock-ups will give a good idea of how the idea holds
up at a larger scale.

Now is the time to ask: "How can this be improved? What changes in scale,
position, direction or shape of one or another plane might work better?" Use
the other printed copies to construct alternatives and test them against the
original.

If the mock-up has less than seven planes, there is a good alternative for
improvement: cut a shape from one of the planes in the composition and add it
to the composition. This "borrow and add" strategy can add interest to the
plane from which it was borrowed and add complexity and interest to another
region of the construction.

Building the Prototype

24. Once the mock-ups have undergone assessment and revision, the next step is to
execute a finished construction of the most promising of the revisions.

Print out two copies of the template on a full, letter-size sheet of self-sticking
label paper. One of the templates may have the cutting lines drawn or you can
lay these out in very light pencil lines. (Note: never draw a layout line that you
cannot thoroughly erase without marring the paper on which it is drawn.) If you
have some experience in Illustrator you may elect to add graphics to the design
at this point. See the Add-Ons section at the end of this tutorial.

The final construction is in foam-cored board, but this cannot be run through a
printer. By printing on the label paper it is possible to easily glue the template
grid onto the board.

25. Carefully cut out the two template labels on their outside borders only and
glue just one to the board. Now cut the board along the edges of the template
and you will have segment of board with a grid on one face. (Before cutting
read the next section.) Stick the other template on the reverse side.

The Art of Cutting

There is an art to cutting foam-cored board and it is easy to be disappointed

with your first attempts. Therefore it is wise to practice in order to hone your
skills on scraps before damaging a good sheet.

41
Before cutting replace the blade. Always start with a fresh, sharp blade and
change the blade often. Watch out for the four most common difficulties faced
by beginning foam crafters:

Difficulty #1: The cut veers away from the straight edge.

To prevent the veering begin with a light cut along the ruler or straight edge.
This cut, called a pilot cut, only scores the top layer of paper and does not cut
through it. What it does is to provide a track to guide the knife in the next
slightly firmer pass of the blade. Expect three or four passes of the blade to
achieve a clean cut.

under 45 degrees

Difficulty #2: The foam at the edges knurls into small lumps, creating a ragged
look.

To prevent the knurling of the foam edges hold the knife at a low angle --45° or
less toward the direction of the cut in order to increase the slicing effect of
the blade. A more vertical position will effect a plowing action, which leads to
knurling. Think of sliding the knife rather than pushing or dragging as with a
plow.

Difficulty #3: The cut is not square with the face of the board, but slants to
bevel inward or outward.

The second, firmer pass of the knife should cut through the paper membrane
and partway into the foam. To ensure that this is the start of a square-edged
cut, pull the knife toward the center of your body, so that you can eye the
knife to determine that it does not lean to the right or to the left. The
tendency is for right hand cutters to stand to the left and vice-versa for
lefthanders.

Difficulty #4: The corners are left with bits of paper or foam attached.

Whenever possible continue cuts past a corner in order to keep tags of excess
material from hanging on. Otherwise start the cut at the corner and work

42
 outward. Inside corners are the toughest to keep looking good. Even when
staring in the corner a slight, unobtrusive over-cut will improve the neatness of
an inside corner.

Tight curves are the most difficult cuts to execute in thick material. To cut
curves of smaller radii the knife must be raised to a steeper cutting angle, so
that the knife can turn as it cuts. This increases the likelihood of knurling and
after a certain point a clean cut becomes impossible. Consider this limitation
of the material in selecting the final design concept.

25. Ordinary white glue will join foam-cored board. The glue will dry slower than
with paper and wood materials, because the foam does not absorb the water in
the glue. It must dry totally through evaporation. Consequently there is a
longer wait before handling and attaching the next plane.

This is not so much the case for interpenetrating planes, because the slots
interlock the parts and are not as reliant on the glue to hold them together.
Plan to assemble the interpenetrating parts first.

Joining Allowance

It is essential to make allowances for the thickness of the foam in order to

accurately fit the planar segments together. This thickness, ¼ inch, equals a
full 25% of the unit dimension. Therefore ¼ inch allowances will be necessary
for clean and accurate fitting of the planar segments.

To simplify allowances join all of the planar segments by aligning one of the
sides of an edge to a grid line. This will offset the joining plane to one or the
other side of the grid line, and will ensure that all allowances, if needed, are
exactly minus (-)1/4 inch. This means that in those fittings where an allowance
adjustment is necessary, you will always trim ¼ inch from one dimension of the

43
joining plane. Note how in the illustration above only one allowance was
necessary to keep all of the grid lines in accurate alignment.

The most common type of

allowance applies to kerfs --
the gap created in a piece
of material by a cutting tool
as it removes material from
the cutting path. A
woodworker wishing to cut
two 10" lengths from a 20"
board is out of luck, since
the saw will remove 1/8
inch when cutting. The
woodworker must accept
two 9-15/16 lengths, or
begin with a 20-1/8" board.
In this tutorial there is no
need for a kerf allowance,
since the knife does not
kerf
create a kerf.

Allowance is a practical necessity in 3D design, including 3D modeling for

design. Correct allowance assures an accurate fit. In this construction accuracy
is easy to determine: the gridlines on the interacting planes will meet
precisely.

When to apply the joining allowance

In fitting interpenetrating planes:

No allowance is necessary. Just make sure that the slots are cut to one side of
a grid line (see drawing).

In abutting an edge to a face:

This depends upon which face of a plane is being abutted. When joining on the
side of the offset, trim ¼ inch from the abutting edge; but when joining to the
aligned side, no allowance is necessary.

44
 1/4"
3/4"

3/4"

3/4" 3/4"

In abutting an edge to an edge (to simulate folding):

This is the same as abutting edge to face except it occurs at a border of the
face being abutted. It replicates the effect of folding in thinner materials, such
as used previously for the sketch models and mock-ups.

Add-Ons

To add more opportunities for creative explorations and increased visual interest to
this tutorial exercise try including one or more of these extra options:

1. Design a Functional Object

Add the requirement that the planar construction serve a prescribed function.
Some examples:

 Create a construction that can serve as a desktop supply holder.

 Create a construction that can serve as a scale model for a unique item
of furniture -- a chair, table, bookcase, etc.
 Create a construction that can serve as a miniature monument to an
idea, event or person. This will entail adding visual and textual
elements to the design. (see 3 below)

It is a natural, but undesirable tendency to shirk visual effect when designing a

functional object. In good design functional efficiency and visual expression are
coordinated.

2. Create a Site for the Architectonic Form

A crucial factor in the design of an architectural work is its relationship to the

site it occupies. The notion of site can vary greatly depending on the purpose
and context of the design. In a rural environment, for example, this may

45
 include a home's interaction with the topography of the land, landscape
plantings, fences, walkways and the like. In the case of an urban environment
this could be the building's interface with the street and its visual interaction
with the surrounding buildings. For a stage designer "site" might comprise the
shape of the stage, the position of risers and platforms, or the sight lines of the
audience.

For a sculptural design, like that in this tutorial, a base can be designed to
serve as a site for the architectonic design. To properly integrate a base into
the final design, begin the base design at the initial stages of idea
development, the sketch models. The steps below present a good method for
integrating base and construction.

 Glue one of the sketch models onto a second 3-1/2" x 4-1/2" grid-ruled
index sheet. This sheet becomes the base or ground plane of the model.
Be sure to follow the grid lines in positioning the model on the ground
plane.
 Use the "borrow and add" strategy given in step #23 earlier in the
tutorial. Cut a shape or two from the ground plane and insert it into the
original construction. This strategy can serve to add interest to the
shape of the base and complexity to the original construction. Again,
use the grid to determine the cut shape.

3. Integrate Surface Graphics

Planar forms offer ample surface area to decorate with graphic patterns and
images. Architectonic constructions are especially suited for the addition of
graphic elements. Display structures such as informational kiosks, display
booths or signage structures are examples of architectonic design intended for
graphic display.

Graphics can greatly enhance the appeal of your final design. Enhance is the
key idea here, since the 2D surface graphics can distract from the 3D form, or
worse, contradict and disrupt the 3D composition. In general graphics will
enhance a 3D form if they follow these rules of thumb:

 The graphic shapes and lines conform stylistically and thematically to

the planar forms.
 The graphic shapes and lines flow continuously from surface to surface.
 The graphic shapes and lines add appropriate details impossible or
difficult to achieve with the construction board.

The grid is invaluable for integrating the added graphics. It can be used to
proportion and synchronize continuity in the graphic elements just as it does
for the planar elements of the composition.

To add surface graphics:

a. Continue from step #24 above. Instead of printing out the grid
template, select it and the cutting lines, and then open the View menu
and click Make Guides, or keystroke Ctrl+5. This will keep the template

46
 in view to help you plan your graphics. You will be able to draw over the
template without the pre-drawn lines interfering with the new drawing.
Also, the guides will not print.

a) Draw the cutting lines on the template before inserting graphics and
make guides from these, too.

b) Using the cutting lines and the grid lines as guides will significantly aid
the accurate insertion of graphics. However, do not neglect pencil and
paper. Work out ideas on grid paper and make a number of sketch
models of the final design for the purpose of testing the graphic
compositions.

47
 Section II

Curves and Surface

48
49
Introduction to Curves and Surfaces

Line is to Curve
A straight line is a 1D object, defined by the dimension of extension or length. Place
that line into a 2D space (like this page) and it takes on other characteristics such as a
position and a direction in that space. In 2D computer programs like Illustrator x,y
coordinates are used to determine the extension, position and direction of the line.
But in 2D a line can also kink and bend, made to zigzag or snake across the space. It
then becomes a curve with a second dimension to account for its side-to-side
movement.

0
-15

Assigning movement to a curve is a -30

natural tendency of human
perception. A viewer tends to read -4
the curved line as changing
5
direction as one s eye follows its
path and this change suggests
motion and action. A further
-60

tendency is to also read a possible

cause for this change. Is the line
changing of its own accord or is
-75

there another outside force

deflecting the line into a curve?

50
Vector Curves
One mathematical notion of a curve assumes the latter, that a curve is a deflected
line. A line deflected by the same angle at regular intervals along its length, for
example, will follow a circular arc.

This is the method by which traditional graphic programs calculate curves. Such
programs represent curves as a series of tiny deflected line segments called vectors.
(A vector is a line segment defined by a specific extension, direction and position
within a coordinate system.) To create a circle the vector graphics program will
assemble a sufficient number of these segments to provide the visual illusion of a
smooth curve.

Splines

The two programs used in these tutorials use spline curves, rather than vectors.
Vectors work well for emulating the traditional drawing tools of the draftsman
triangle, straight edge, t-square and compass, which are especially suited for
architectural and mechanical drawing. However, such tools poorly represented the
smoothly flowing curves found in nature and human designs inspired from nature.

In the shipbuilding industry draftsmen were frequently called upon to draw smooth
curves other than the circular or elliptical curves that could be scribed with
mechanical tools. Their solution was to represent these curves by tracing along thin
lengths of wood or metal, supple enough to bend into streamlined arcs. These drawing
aids, called splines, were held in place by lead weights, called ducks due to their
resemblance to this aquatic fowl.

Around 1940 mathematicians adopted the idea of the draftsman's spline in a quest to
develop a single geometry of curves that could approximate all curves plotted onto a
coordinate grid. Mathematicians started with the equation that the great 18th century
geometer Euler created for describing the physical deformation of a weighted beam.
The strip of wood comprising a spline was, in effect, an extremely thin beam.
Although completely useless as a beam, it did behave physically like a beam.

By 1960 research was underway to develop methods for computing splines and by the
1970's splines began to appear in commercial design programs. Between the late
1950 s and the early 1970 s the designer-engineer Pierre Bezier worked on
incorporating splines into design programs for Renault, the noted French automaker.
The Bezier curve is still a standard tool in CAD and graphics programs.

Splines could represent anything that vectors could and more. Programs based on
spline geometry opened up a new world of elegant, natural appearing form. Designers
were now limited less by geometry, than by their ability to draw.

Anatomy of a Spline

Spline-based programs do this because their fundamental building block is a curve

whose underlying geometry can adapt to represent lines, mechanical curves and the

51
organic lines of natural form. A brief introduction to this surprisingly simple geometry
will aid in the execution of the upcoming tutorials.

The most basic spline has three control points one on each endpoint of the curve and
a third off-line point toward which the curve deflects. This latter point is then
assigned a weight used to determine how much the curve deflects toward that
point. This weighting is an analog to the weight placed on a beam; the greater the
weight the more the beam will deflect into an arc. If only two control points are
assigned then the spline will be a straight. Adding the third point to this line will
permit it to be edited into a curve by moving the middle control point off of the line.
Moving the endpoints will change the start and stop of the curve s path.

move
move

The construction lines connecting the endpoints to the off-line control point are
tangent to the spline at its endpoints. (Construction lines are lines that guide the
shaping of a graphic form, but which do not appear in the actual graphic.) This
tangency rule also holds for the endpoints of splines with multiple off-line controls.
Note however that this rule does not hold for the lines connecting the off-line points:

Piece-wise splines -- those with multiple off-line control points -- forego tangency in
order to create the greatest continuity, or flow, through the connections between the
pieces of the spline. Connections that permit this high degree of continuity are called
knots.

Connections that allow no continuity are called kinks. Kinked spline pieces meet at a
point where they do not curve, but abruptly change direction, as would angular lines.

52
Kinks are necessary for spline-based programs to create such conventional geometric
shapes as circles and squares (see box below). Unlike a kink, tangency continuity
appears continuous, but will not edit with the
suppleness of full continuity spline

Tangent continuity

Squaring the Circle

In spline geometry circles and squares are closely related. Both comprise four
kinked spline pieces. The difference is that each spline piece in the circle has an
off-line control point, which in the square s pieces is omitted. Here is how to
square a circle with splines in Rhino 3D:

1. Insert a circle: Click twice on the word Top in the Top view to
maximize the window. Click on the Circle: Center, Radius icon, or go to
the menu option Curve, Circle, Center, Radius, or type Circle in the
command line and hit enter.

2. Activate the Snap button at the bottom right

center of Rhino s window. Click at the origin to set the center of the circle
then click five units over on the x or y-axis.

53
 3. Select the circle and click on the Control Points On icon.

4. Activate the Osnap button and select

Mid from the fly-out menu. Drag the outside control point and snap them
to the middle of each quarter of the circle. The circle will begin to
collapse into a square as depicted in the left hand image above. Continue
to drag and snap to each quarter until the control point appears to lie on
the spline. When all three of the control points of the splines are in a line,
the circle has become a square. The kinks, geometrically present in the
circle from the start, become the corners of the square.

as Plane is to Surface
Just as a curve is a 1D object deflected through a 2D space, so is a surface is a 2D
object modulated into a 3D space. A plane is the 2D analog to the straight line. It is
un-modulated and so does not twist or arc out of the two dimensions that define it. In
the same sense that a line is a straight curve, a plane is a flat surface.

Vector Surfaces

54
Vector programs represent surfaces by methods analogous to their representation of
curves. Small lines join to define polygons, plane figures whose sides are all line
segments. These planar segments then assemble to define a surface. Such an assembly
is called a polygon mesh, or just mesh.
On screen the mesh is visible in wire frame, but is usually hidden during rendering.
This is because a smoothing function is in operation during the rendering of a mesh
and this blends over the edges of the polygons. The images below show the meshes
above rendered with no smoothing.

The amount of surface detail captured by a mesh is directly related to its polygon
count. Fewer polygons means less detail, while more polygons yield greater detail.
The two illustrations above depict the same surface, but with different polygon
resolution. The version of the surface on the left uses half the polygons as the version
on the right. If you look very, very carefully at the overlaying smooth renderings of the
surfaces, you can notice a few subtle differences between the two versions, but
overall they are virtually identical. The low-poly version, however, will demand less
computing power. A modeling artist may choose the lower resolution version for
applications like gaming where less memory use and more rapid rendering are desired.

NURBS Surfaces

NURBS surfaces are built from splines. NURBS is an acronym for non-uniform rational
basis spline and refers to an extremely adaptable and useful type of spline. As a
matter of fact it is more than just adaptable: it is the spline from which all other
types of spline curves can derive.

The development of NURBS surfaces was one of the most important advances in
computer graphics. Computers could represent surfaces like that of a balloon or
human skin or the streamlining of birds and fish without the subtle stoppages of tiny
angular elements. And they could do so efficiently.

55
Anatomy of a NURBS Surface

Control points shape NURBS surfaces as they do NURBS curves. Instead of two tangent
lines connecting the external point to the on-surface points, there are four, positioned
like the declining edges of a pyramid. In the images above the off-surface point
connects to four surface points. In addition there are four more points that pin down
the corners of the surface. As with NURBS curves the control points are weighted.

Like NURBS curves NURBS surfaces build piece-wise, in such four-way segments called
patches. The four-way geometry of the patch permits the NURBS surface to develop
piece-wise along a grid-like network. The surface follows the curves of this linear net,
whose lines will deflect and tilt toward the control points.

56
Direct Modeling

Shaping a surface into the desired form by clicking and dragging control points is
called direct modeling. Some modeling programs are based exclusively on direct
modeling. The modeling artist begins with a basic shape like a sphere or cube and then
pushes and pulls the surface with virtual tools that leave an impression on the surface
as if it were a malleable material like clay. In programs such as Amorphium the spline
net that defines the surface is intricate and extremely fine with numerous control
points that are always active, though hidden.

Lofting

This coordinate method of piecing is elegant in conception, but editing it with control
points tends toward lumpy and unnatural appearing surfaces. Despite its mathematical
necessary many designers find this topology to be frustrating. Consequently the vast
majority of modeled surfaces result, in practice, by lofting between curves.

Most surface generating tools in NURBS programs are computed as lofting. Sweeps,
revolves and extrusions are lofts in which the lofted curves are moving versions of the
original, or on which constraints are placed on the path of the loft. A revolve, for
example can be regarded as a loft through rotated versions of the generating curve.

57
Stitching, Polysurfaces and NURBS Solids

A surface can close in on itself or join up with other surfaces to enclose volumes and
define 3D solids. Although such an object is hollow, it can convincingly represent a
solid. A basketball filled with air is as good a sphere as is a bowling ball of solid
polyurethane. Section III will look at this function of a surface.

In surface modeling it is fairly standard to model a complex surface from separately

modeled parts. Such a surface is often referred to as a polysurface. If the polysurfaces
is fully closed, it then defines a solid form. The model above is a polysurface. It began
as a sphere that was split and its parts dispersed outward. Lofting between the split
edges reconnected the parts.

The process of assembling complex surfaces from smaller, simpler surfaces is

commonly called stitching. Once a surface has been stitched to another surface, it can
no longer be edited with points.

58
Relief Surface

Using Rhino 3D,v.2

Introduction
In this tutorial you will not create a specific model. Instead you will be asked to apply
a set of important visual concepts and digital graphics tools to the design and creation
of an organic relief sculpture. Unlike standard tutorials this tutorial also contains
explanations of visual and technical principles.

Sculpture is used here as a general term to refer to objects that focus on the visually
strong shaping of material. By this notion such practical objects as furniture,
appliances, cars, boats, etc. could be regarded sculpturally as long as they exhibit this
visual strength.

A relief is a sculptural surface meant for viewing frontally, much like a painting or
drawing and other 2D visual formats. In some ways a relief's visual character,
therefore, relies on its 2D composition. Its strongest characteristics though comes
from the surface movement in 3D space, how it seems to move out and back and
across space. This is especially true for environmental reliefs, which are viewed
horizontally as with a landscape design.

With organic surfaces this illusion of movement follows curved paths that in nature
emerge from the stresses imposed by forces of growth, internal pressures and the
environmental medium in which an organism lives. Modeling programs like Rhino use
geometry based on curves, called splines, which are very similar to the stress curves
of living form. Whereas circles, ellipses, parabolas and other conic curves might be
drawn with mechanical aids like compasses and similar devices, splines might be
drawn with flexible materials bent and twisted into supple paths.

Topics
This tutorial will examine three methods -- direct modeling, lofting and stitching --
used in building a spline surface. Spline surfaces can be regarded as surfaces defined
by a flexible net of spline curves. Flexible surface materials like skin or balloon rubber
or clay tend to follow spline-like curves.

 Direct modeling is a method of shaping spline surfaces by pushing and pulling

them into different shapes much the way clay slabs can be shaped. Programs
specializing in this method let the user insert a basic solid that is then shaped
by tools very similar to clay shaping tools. Rhino permits similar methodology,

59
 but with greater access to the underlying geometry exploited by the program.
The first stage of this tutorial will introduce this geometry and its special
strengths for design.
 As a general term lofting refers to any of a host of tools that generate surfaces
between pre-existing curves. In most applications lofting refers specifically to
the process of building a surface between two or more successive curves.
However, extrusions, tools that generate surfaces by moving a curve along a
path, are also variations of lofting.
 Stitching is the process of building a surface by joining other surfaces into one.
Such a surface is called a polysurface, since it comprises the parts of many
surfaces. In surface modelers like Rhino a closed polysurface is a solid. This
means that complex solids can be built by stitching.

Setup and Planning

(Note: You should have some familiarity with the Rhino environment and practice in
navigating its tools. At a minimum you should have completed the first tutorial that
accompanies Rhino. Completing the second tutorial is highly recommended. Finishing
the third tutorial will make this tutorial go very quickly.)

1. Turn on the Snap button at the bottom of

the screen. This will snap the beginning and end of your layout lines to the
nearest grid intersection. Insert two intersecting sets of 25 unit long parallel
lines. Set these perpendicular to one another and space these 15 units apart.
Use the intersection of the major grid lines as your measure.

60
 These lines are called guides or construction lines and will be used for
reference purposes as the tutorial proceeds.

2. From the Surface menu select Rectangle, Corner to Corner. Activate the
Snap button at the bottom of the screen. Insert a 17 x 17 surface.

The final model will be 15 units by 15 units but you will be building you surface
larger and trimming it to size. When you insert your rectangle start one unit
above and left of an intersection of the guides. This way you will leave a one-
unit trimming margin on all sides. Select the rectangle and left-click on the
points-on button so that the above image appears.

These points on each corner are called control points. Selecting these
points and pulling them will cause the surface to stretch toward the point.
Experiment with manipulating these points up and down and side to side in the
Right and Front view windows. Shade the perspective view to see the results.
Undo these experiments to begin modeling.

61
Part I: Direct Modeling a Spline Surface
3. Turn off the points and select the rectangle. Go to Surface, Edit Tools, Rebuild
and the following prompt will appear:

Rebuilding changes the point

count of the surface. Each
added point creates a new
position from which you are
able to stretch and curve the
surface. At the prompt above
type in 3 or 4 under the U
dimension and under the V
dimension. (U and V are used to
label grid directions on a
spatially distorted surface. They
are similar to X and Y directions
on a plane. The wire frame
views use U, V splines to define
the surface.)

Type in "2" under degree. At this low of a point count this is the highest
possible degree. (Degree measures the flexibility of a spline surface between
control points. Usually you will not need a degree higher than 3.) Keep boxes
checked and click OK.

4. Select the rectangle and turn on the points. At this stage you can begin to
modulate the major areas of your surface by point editing. The above prompt
values will produce the point arrangement below:

62
Select a control point. It is best to do this in the perspective view, because it is
easier to pick the point you need. Raise and lower this point by dragging it with
the mouse. (With very few exceptions this editing should be done in the side
views, where you will have the most control. Pick and drag editing is difficult
in the perspective view.) It is often easier to control the position of the point if
the Snap button is off and the Ortho button is on. Ortho stands for orthographic
and this button will constrain your movements to 90° shifts of direction.

Note how the surface bulges toward the point as you drag it. Now try moving
the point side to side. As you edit check the Top view to make sure the
surface still appears perfectly square in plan. Also shade the perspective
view frequently to assess the visual effects of the edits. Some results are
shown below:

63
The surface depicted above bulges up like a hill and not like the hemisphere of
an architectural dome. Eons of erosion tend to smooth out the transitions
between a hill and a valley floor into a curve replicated by splines.

In the screen shots below the control point has shifted far to the side and
caused the hill to become a bluff thrusting out over a valley. Note how much
more striking the "bluff" appears compared to the lumpish "hill". Move other
points as you continue to design your surface. While doing so consider the
features making the bluff more interesting. Try thinking of your surface as a
landscape whose major features you are creating.

64
One strong element of the "bluff" is the variety of curvature it manifests. At is
crest the gradual arc of its rising back rapidly curves under and then swoops
into the flat curve of the "valley" floor. Such changes instill dynamism. Another
strong element is the negative curvature, the hollow cut back under the bluff.

Your surface should display 1) a variety of curvature and illusory motion

and 2) a balanced contrast between convex and concave areas. Avoid
areas exhibiting no curvature or slope. Such flat areas are considered
neutral, because they have no activity in 3D space.

Below is a further edit of the demonstration surface to remove the neutral

surface areas.

65
5. Now your surface should have no neutral areas. It is ready to rebuild with more
points in order to create more surface variety and further visual interest. The
total depth of relief should not exceed 5 units. Depth of relief refers to the
vertical distance between the lowest and highest points of the relief surface.
Check this in the Front or Right view.

Select the surface and repeat the rebuild procedure, approximately doubling
the number of points. The demo surface now has 9 points in both the U and V
direction and a degree specification of 3:

In this adaptation the bluff has softened, and a crater and a side valley has
been added. These changes were made to include more negative areas:

66
Part II. Splitting and Lofting
During this part of the tutorial you will add strong edges and surface breaks in order to
create strong linear features and dramatic change in your surface. You will split your
surface into parts, shift the parts and reconnect them with lofted surfaces.

6. Go to a Front or Right view and make sure the Ortho button is activated. Move
the surface straight up so that it hovers above the x,y plane indicated by the
red line. The highest point of your surface should not exceed 6 units above the
plane and the lowest point should rest at least 1 unit above the plane.

7. The first step in splitting the surface is to establish a second surface for
cutting. You will do this by extruding a curve into a surface.

67
 Go to the Top view and make sure all of the snap buttons at the bottom of the
screen are off. Select Control Point Curve and draw a curve that passes entirely
across the surface (above). This curve will lie on the x,y plane about 1 unit
under the surface.

8. Select this curve and then go to Surface, Extrude, Straight. When you
return your mouse to the curve you will see the extrusion following your
mouse. In the Right view click to end the extrusion just above the surface.
Shade to check the path of the extrusion through your surface:

9. Select the extruded surface and turn on the points. You will see two sets of
points at the top and bottom edges of the extrusion:

68
You can use these points to adjust the path of the extruded surface to better
fit your surface. Be sure to pick corresponding pairs of points, so that the top
and bottom move simultaneous. You may also rebuild the extrusion for making
finer adjustments. (The U direction is up and the V direction is along length of
the surface.) Be sure to adjust the path by picking an entire column of points
simultaneously. Adjust the path in the Top view, while frequently shading the
Perspective view.

Below the extruded surface has been edited to better follow the edge of the
valley in the demo surface.

69
 Note: Always turn off points before trying to execute any other
procedures other than point editing.

10. Splitting your surface: Click on the Split icon. At the top of the screen a
Command prompt will ask you to select the object to be split. Select your
surface. The prompt will now ask you to select the cutting objects. Click on
the extrusion and hit enter. Your surface is split. Check by clicking on one part
to see if it is highlighted separately.

11. Optional: You may wish to split your surface again, or to split it using a closed
curve like a circle or ellipse.

In the series of renderings below a circle has been a) lofted into an open
cylinder; b) the cylinder has been rebuilt and edited to conform to the surface
undulation and c) split again:

70
12. In the last rendering the split parts of the demo surface have been repositioned
with respect to one another. In this case both have been tilted upward so that
the high edge faces the valley.

These tilts were accomplished in the Front and Right views by selecting the
desired surface portion and choosing Transform, Rotate. At the Command
prompt, Center of rotation, click on the side of the surface to remain as is; at
the prompt, Angle or first reference point, type in the angle you wish to
rotate and hit enter or simply click on the side you wish to move. If you elected
to click on a point you will receive another prompt, Angle or second reference
point. Here you may click a point to select the tilt you desire.

Other options for repositioning the split segments are to raise or lower the
segments or to rotate them from the Top view.

13. Next you will build surfaces between the separated edges. Since the edges of a
surface are, by definition, curves, you will use a loft tool to bridge a surface
between the edges. You may choose to use a standard loft or a blended loft.
The normal loft creates a connecting surface straight from edge to edge. A

71
blend creates a loft, which curves into each edge so as to form a tangency with
each surface. Lofting is a relatively simple procedure when lofting between
two surfaces, as is the case here. It becomes markedly more difficult when
connecting the edges of polysurfaces.

Creating a normal loft: Choose Surface, Loft and the Command prompt
will read Select curves to loft. Select the edges of the two separated edges
and hit enter. The loft may be automatic and a prompt will appear. In this case
just click OK. In some situations two white arrows may appear on each edge. If
the arrows point in the same direction just hit enter again. If the arrows point
in opposite directions, you will receive a Command prompt, Select seam point
to adjust. Press enter when done. This will be followed by a parenthetical
command line, FlipDirection Automatic Natural. Type in a small letter "a" for
"automatic", hit enter and the arrows will align. Hit enter again and the loft
will complete. This extra step is more often needed for blends.

Creating a blend: Choose Surface, Blend. Choose one edge, then hit
enter; choose the second edge and hit enter. The prompt below should appear:

The top slider determines the size

of the tangent curvature where the
blend fits the first edge. The
bottom slider does the same for
the second edge. Checking the
small box tells the program to keep
the bulge of the protruding the
same distance as the edges grow
closer or further from one another.
Click OK to finish the blend.

72
Part III. Stitching
The demo model now has five surfaces: three segments of the original, a loft and a
blend. In this part of the tutorial you will join these surfaces and set the relief into
box in order to create a single low solid whose topside is your relief.

14. Your surface now appears as one surface, but it is actually a composite of a
number of surface segments.

To join these into one polysurface click on the Join button, then click
each surface segment in sequence, always being sure that the subsequent
segment touches the previous. After all segments have been selected hit enter.

15. Check the Top view to make sure that your surface still extends beyond the
guidelines. Turn off all snaps and reposition the surface using the guidelines as
a cropping frame.

Turn on the Snap button. Insert a box by clicking on the opposite

intersections of the guidelines and clicking above the polysurface:

Shade the perspective view and examine your model to ascertain that the
polysurface protrudes all around. Should the surface edge disappear behind the
box at any point, you may need to move or enlarge the surface.

73
16. Next use the polysurface to trim away the upper half of the box.

Click on the Trim button. Select the polysurface and hit enter. The
polysurface is now your cutting surface. Click on the upper half of the box and
it will disappear from the polysurface on up.

17. Your next step is to trim the edges of the polysurface to fit the box. In Rhino a
polysurface cannot be trimmed by more than one other surface at a time. Since
the box has four side surfaces it cannot be used to trim. You will need to trim
one side of the polysurface at a time.

74
 Choose Surface, Rectangle, Cutting Plane. The Command prompt will
ask you to select the objects to be cut. Select the polysurface and hit enter.
Click on the beginning and end of the cutting plane. The Snap button should
still be activated. Snap the beginning and end points of the plane on the same
grid lines marked by your guides used to set the box. You will need a total of
four planes and these should be coincident with the sides of the box:

75
 Now trim the polysurface one side at a time: Click Trim them select one of the
cutting planes and hit enter. Click on the corresponding edge of the
polysurface to trim it. Repeat for each side.

18. You are now left with two polysurfaces: the relief surface and the remainder of
the box. Join these by clicking the Join button and then clicking on each
polysurface. They will automatically join into a closed polysurface, or solid.

If the joining is unsuccessful it is because the trims do not correspond exactly

with the sides of the box. You will need to redo the trimming, zooming in very,
very close to check that the cutting plane is correctly placed.

Part IV. Boolean Edits (Optional)

At this point you have completed the surface modeling tutorial. Your relief sculpture is
now complete. However you may wish to explore some solid edits in order to continue
modifying your surface. Save your current model before continuing.

There are three Boolean operations: union, difference and intersection. The Booleans
determine how two interpenetrating solids may affect one another to form a new
solid. Union causes the two solids to join into a larger more complex solid. Difference
causes one solid to disappear taking a portion of the other solid with it. Intersection
causes both solids to disappear except for the area they both occupy.

Union and difference can be applied to your sculpture. Union may be used to add a
convex extension of the relief surface, while difference can remove concavities from
the relief. Booleans are temperamental. (Note: There are about 30 reasons why a
Boolean operation may occasionally fail, through no one's fault. If an operation fails
try repositioning the intersecting solids or introducing a new solid and trying again. If
the operation still will not work you may have to redo your sculpture from scratch or
abandon the operation.)

19. Union: Select one of the curved surfaces

from the solids menu and insert into your
modeling space.

Position this solid in your sculpture. Check

the shaded Perspective view to make sure it
intersects the relief surface at the location,
depth and angle you desire.

Click and hold on the Boolean

Union icon to pop out the Solid Tools toolbar
and click on the Boolean Union; or choose
Solid, Union; or keystroke Alt O,U. The
screen shot below illustrates the demo
surface with the addition of two union
operations and a difference operation:

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20. Difference: Also called subtraction, this operation will produce a cleanly
formed negative, an excavation in your relief. In general both difference and
union will give the effect of separate formations embedded or extracted from
the relief. These will tend to be focal points in the composition.

It is trickier to preview the effect of difference. You may need to frequently

undo and move the new solid to get the right shape to the extracted region.

Click and hold on the Boolean Union icon to pop out the Solid
Tools toolbar and click on the Boolean Difference icon; or choose Solid,
Difference; or keystroke Alt O,D. Click on the solid you wish to keep -- in this
case your sculpture! Hit enter and click on the subtracting solid. Hit enter
again to complete the operation. Rhino may default to keeping the subtracting
solid in place. If so, select the solid and delete to see the effect of the
difference operation.

You have just completed the creation of a complex 3D object. It is a good idea
to try modeling a few more reliefs. Your skill and visual judgment will improve
sharply with the first few repetitions and then continue to improve more
gradually in the subsequent repetitions.

In your next tutorial you will develop skills in computer-aided manufacture, or

CAM procedures. You will use Rhino and Adobe Illustrator to re-create your
sculpture physically.

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Cross-Sectional Construction

Using Rhino 3D,v.2 and Adobe Illustrator v.8 and higher

Materials: 8.5 x 11 index board, 8.5 x 8.5 Fomecor, white glue
Tools: Cork-backed stainless steel ruler, Exacto knife

Introduction
In this tutorial you will apply design principles used in computer-aided design and
computer-aided manufacture to the physical reproduction of the relief sculpture you
created in the Relief Surface Tutorial. Among these principles are analyzing your
model into contour sections, scaling the sections, prepping a 2D working drawing, and
raster construction.

At an even more fundamental and abstract level are the dual principles of solid view
and solid object interface. Like screen images -- or even lines of code -- the physical
object you will create is only a manifestation of the electronic data that ultimately
defines a virtual model. In computer science a view is a translation of this data into a
form comprehensible to human senses; an interface is the system of soft- and
hardware that enables a view. Where the more familiar screen view of a model is the
result of translating the electronic data into cathode ray emissions, the solid view is
the result of translating the electronic data into machine (or hand!) movements that
cut or deposit material into the shape of the model. Put succinctly: Interfaces
translate data into perceptible views.

CAD-CAM

In this tutorial you, in conjunction with your computer, printer, scissors, craft
knife, glue and paper, will become the solid object interface and your
construction will be the solid view. You will be carrying out the processes "by
hand". This means that you will be clicking and dragging a lot and employing
several different tools in a highly organized sequence of procedures. This will
result in a working file that can be printed out and used to assemble the object.
In doing so you will be closely replicating the processes pioneered by early
developers of computer graphics, most notably Charles Csuri and Robert Mallory
in the mid 1960's.

These artists did not invent the processes they introduced to computer graphics,
but he had the insight to adapt them from their backgrounds in design and
sculpture and apply them to digital environments. In executing this tutorial you
will not only learn computer-aided design techniques, but you will learn core
ideas by which visual professional manage 3D form.

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 Computer controlled machines have since replaced computer-aided hand
building methods. In the early 1970's industry adopted numerical control (CNC)
machines, which applied computer controls to machines used to mill metal,
wood and plastics. CNC machines cut a block of material from the outside
inward, so they are severely limited in cutting hollow forms.

A more recent set of CAM processes replaces the subtractive approach of CNC
operations with an additive approach based on material deposition. As a group
these operations are known as rapid prototyping (RP) and are all characterized
by their ability to construct a solid model by depositing thin layers of material.
RP uses a host of physical processes to accomplish this, but the current front-
runner in popularity is 3D printing. This process melts plastic and deposits it in
layers about as thick as this page. The plastic cools into solid sheets, whose
gradually shifting shapes stack into a continuous solid. The deposition methods
of RP technology allow engineers, designers and artists to produce nearly any
possible 3D form. In industry RP models are used to make precise images of a
planned product, and not for mass production. CNC operations are better suited
for actual production. Often the task of the industrial engineer is to design a
CNC production line to replicate and RP model.

CAD-CAM programs "automate" hand procedures similar to those you will be

learning into only a few commands specifically intended for the machine
interfaces outlined above. The CAD portion of the programs will apply
measurements and specifications to model files to ensure that the object will be
properly designed for human or machine manufacture. Typically the output is a
variety shop drawings for architects, craftsmen or product engineers. The CAM
portion further edits the modified model files for use by the driver programs
that run the CNC or RP machines. One category of modeling programs, called
solid modelers, or CSG (constructive solid geometry) programs, mathematically
define the model as chunks of solid space. By contrast surface modelers like
Rhino define the model as spaces enclosed by surfaces. Solid modelers are
popular in industries using CNC manufacture and their modeling tools closely
replicate industrial processes.

Neither Rhino nor Illustrator is a CAD-CAM program, but together they contain
sufficient tools to explore the underlying principles of CAD-CAM processes. Both
Rhino and Illustrator are spline-based programs, so they integrate quite well.
Rhino permits the 3-D operations for analyzing the polysurface into sections and
Illustrator permits the 2D operations for printing out the sections.

Topics
The process of translating your model into a physical object falls into three stages:

 The first stage analyzes your relief into a system of contour sections formatted on
a raster, or gridded, layout. As a general term a contour is any curve that defines
a portion of a surface. In drawing, for example, a contour line functions to define

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 a surface feature of an object like the folds of a dress. This is in contrast to an
outline, which defines the general shape or silhouette of an object. A section is a
2D cut through a 3D object. This section can be delineated by a contour where the
cut meets the surface of the object.
 The second stage is to export the contours into Illustrator where they will be
scaled and edited for assembly in stage three. This is the hardcore CAD portion of
the process and requires disciplined attention to organization and layout.
 The third stage is the actual physical construction of the solid view. At this stage
the reason for the organization and detail of the previous two stages becomes
clear.

Preparation and Setup

If you are new to 3D thinking it can be difficult to form a mental image of sectioning.
These exercises can help:

1. Select your relief sculpture and insert a cutting plane. This was covered in the
Relief Surface tutorial, step 17.

2. Trim the polysurface on one side of the cutting plane; then delete the plane.

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 Note how this trim reveals the model to be a hollow surrounded by surfaces.
The edge of the cut opening forms a contour.

3. Select the trimmed model and choose Solid, Cap Planar Holes. Since a plane
trimmed your closed polysurface, the large hole left in its wake will there be
planar. This command will fill that hole and once again close the polysurface.

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4. The inserted face will be a plane, too. You can demonstrate this by
selecting the new polysurface and clicking the Explode button. This command
will separate the polysurface into its component surfaces (Click on various
parts of the exploded object and you will find that the splits, lofts and blends
created earlier are once again separate surfaces). Select the cap plane and pull
it out. This is called a planar section or a cross-section or, more simply, a slice.

5. Setup: Undo all of the steps above to return to your sculpture. Turn on the
Snap and Osnap buttons and then select the model. Choose Transform, Move.
Move the model so that one bottom corner coincides with the 0,0 on the x,y
grid and so that the x and y axes correspond with adjacent bottom edges of
the model.

To perform this move accurately choose End from the Osnap pop-out menu. A
snap is a tool to fix your mouse clicks to a specific mathematical point in
space. This snap will fix to the nearest vertex -- the endpoint of a curve or the
corner of an object. Click on the desired corner (vertex) and snap to the
meeting point of the x,y axes.

Part I: Creating Contour Sections

The final product of this tutorial will use intersecting cross-sections to represent your
model. These must be evenly spaced in both the x and y directions so that the bottom
edge of each section lies on a grid line. The technical term for this construction layout
is raster construction from the German term for grid. The result is very stable since
the sections in the x direction support the sections in the y direction standing, and
vice verse. (The more common name for this method is "egg-crate" construction.
Similar constructions of interlocking cardboard strips prevent eggs from jostling
together and cracking as they are trucked to market. )

6. Generating section contours: Choose Curve, From Object, Contour. At the

prompt select your model and hit enter. Click first on the corner at 0,0 and on

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 the corner lying on y. This action establishes the direction in which Rhino will
build the contours. The command prompt will now ask you to type in the
distance between the contours. Type "1" and hit enter. A series of yellow
curves will appear one at a time moving in the y direction and girdling your
model with section contours. Since the contours begin at 0,0 and are spaced
one unit apart, they will conform exactly to the grid lines.

Check your contours carefully to make sure they do so in both the Front and
Top views. Zoom in if necessary. You have entered a stage of the design
process where things can't just appear accurate, they must be accurate. There
should be 16 contours, one on each end and 14 between. If either of the end
contours is missing there is an error in the size of your model or in its position
or in the start and stop points of the contours.

Troubleshooting: To check the size of your model choose Analyze, Distance and
turn of the Snap button, keeping only Osnap, End activated. Click from corner
to corner of the model's base to make sure the distance is 15. If an error has
occurred it happened when you inserted the box to make the base of the
model. You should redo your model from that point on. If the size is OK, repeat
steps 5 and 6.

Delete the two end contours, since they will not be used in the solid version.

7. Repeat step 6 in the x direction. Now select the polysurface only. Choose File,
Export Selected and save as a new file. Delete the polysurface leaving only the
raster of contours.

8. Preview: For a sneak look at what the end product of this tutorial will look like
select all of your contours and choose Surface, From Planar Curves. By
definition a section is a plane and a contour is a curve. This command will
therefore turn all of the section contours into cross-sectional planes. Shade
these in Perspective view and you will get an idea of what you will be creating
in Part 3. If some of the cross-sections do not shade, don't worry. It means that
some of the contours are not fully closed curves and Rhino could not therefore
convert them to surfaces. These gaps may be imperceptible or very tiny, and
will not affect the outcome of this tutorial.

Part II. Creating the Working Document

During this stage you will need to bring your contours into Illustrator. In doing so it is
absolutely necessary that you keep the contours in proper sequence and in the right
direction during this export. Once in Illustrator you will label each contour to ensure
that you maintain sequence and direction during printing, cutting and assembly.

This stage of the tutorial will involve sophisticated layout skills along with great care
and concentration. All creativity demands discipline and this is where it kicks in.

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Since Rhino is a 3D program and Illustrator is 2D, the 3D information will not export.
Only the screen image can export to Illustrator. This means that you will need to
separate your contours and lay them on one of the construction planes so that they
appear onscreen with no distortion or overlap.

For the contours stacked along y the construction plane will be the x,z plane and you
will layout the contours in the Front view. For the contours stacked along x the
construction plane will be the y,z plane and the working view will be the Right view.

9. Make sure all four viewing windows are onscreen. Go to Top view, click on the
first y contour (it appears as a straight line running left to right) and drag into
the Front view where it will appear as the full contour.

Zoom out in the Front view to leave room for the remaining contours. Drag
each contour in sequence, from y2 through y14 and lay them out in columns,
which keep that order. The screenshot below illustrates where you will be at
this point. Note that contour y9 of the demo surface actually has two curves.
This indicates that the section passed through an overhanging piece of the
surface. Though consisting of two curves these curves lie on a single section
plane and so they are still one section.

Repeat the same drag-and-drop procedure to spread the x contours in the Right
view.

84
85
10. Your layout work in Rhino is complete and you are ready to export to
Illustrator. You may only export one window at a time, so you will export as
two files: one for the y contours (Front window) and one for the x contours
(Right window).

Activate the Front view and

choose File, Save As. When the
Save window pops up scroll down
to the Adobe Illustrator file
designation and save as y
contours.ai.

After clicking Save the following

prompt window will appear.
Select Preserve unit scale and set
1 Rhino unit equal to .5 inches.
Click OK and repeat for the Right
view. Name that file x contour.ai.

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 Rhino does not work with measure, but with units of proportion. Proportion
determines the relative scale of design elements to one another. Measure
determines the actual size of the elements.

From Virtual to Actual

Unlike models in virtual space, models in actual space need measure to

exist. Assigning a unit of measure to a unit of proportion gives size to
your model for its sojourn into physical space. The 15-unit x 6-unit
sections in Rhino become 7-1/2-inch x 3-inch sections in Illustrator. Scale
in Rhino becomes size in Illustrator.

This is a key step: it marks the point of transfer from working virtually to
planning for actuality. For instance, the decision to size the sections at 7-
1/2" long is based on printing these sections on 8-1/2" x 11" paper with
allowance for margins required by the printer. The mechanics of printing,
available forms of materials, the physical properties of materials, and
principles of physical structure are just a few of the parameters affecting
physical designs. In the virtual space none of these apply; gravity does
not exist and material is just information.

Your structural concerns thus far have been primarily visual. Now you
must maintain visual structure while honoring the exigencies of physical
structure. Outside of the computer effective visual structures can only be
built on viable physical structures. This is the most fundamental principle
of three-dimensional design.

However, this is not the same as saying that the solid version will look
exactly like a screen rendering. In its translation from the screen image
to a solid construction the model will lose many of the elegant qualities a
good rendering can impart. This is something like translating a poem from
one language to another. Nuances of meaning, sound character and
rhythms of the original poem are inevitably lost. A good translator will
adapt the language of the translation to best substitute for these losses.
This is why only a poet, ideally of the caliber as the original poet, should
translate a poem.

In the same spirit the translation from screen to physical form replaces
the visual strengths unique to screen renderings with visual strengths
unique to sculptural representation. Managing translations from one
visual media to another is a core skill of design professionals. A
translation is not the same as, but it should be equivalent to, its source.

11. Close Rhino and open Illustrator. Open the file y contours.ai and zoom out to
the screen view below.

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 The screen shot displays Illustrator's drawing board (the large square with
shaded edges), the drawing page (the smaller rectangle) and your printer's
margins (rectangular dotted line). Floating below the page outline are the 14 y
contours. The long vertical line is a side, end-on view of the x contours. Delete
this line.

Setup:

12. Illustrator defaults to one standard 8-1/2 x 11 vertical page. Printing all 14
contours with a standard printer, will require at least four and possibly five
pages. To setup this up choose File, Document Setup and fill in the prompt
window as indicated below:

88
 Elongating the width of the drawing board to 53 inches provides space to fit
five pages. Selecting Tile Full Pages ensures that the five pages appear in
precise alignment.

13. Drag the section contours onto the tile pages taking care to retain their
sequence. You should be able to fit three or four sections per page. If the
contains more than one curve, select all of the curves in the section and
choose Object, Group. From now on you may choose the section by clicking on
any curve in the group.

14. Zoom in on the first tile page. Setup the grid into 1/2" increments: Choose
Edit, Preferences, Guides & Grid (or File, Preferences, Guides & Grid in earlier
versions of Illustrator). Specify a Gridline every 1 in and Subdivisions 2. The
grid now conforms to the units in Rhino.

89
15. Once the contours are on the page and the grid is set up, choose View, Show
Grid; also View, Snap to Grid. Pick on the lower left corner of each contour and
drag to a grid intersection to the right of the left printer margin. This will
precisely align the contours for the next step.

16. Draw a series of parallel lines from the top of the page to the bottom, such
that the lines pass through all of the contours. Snap to Grid will ensure that
these lines fall 1/2" apart on the lines of the grid. These lines mark where the x
contours will intersect during assembly.

17. Select all lines. Choose Window, Show

Stroke to open the Stroke menu. Set the
Stroke weight at .25 points. This will
ensure that the layout lines are clear
enough to see, but light enough so as
not to distract from the assembled
model.

18. Layout each page like the first. Go back

and label each contour y1 through y
14. Use a small font, about 9 points.
Below is a typical page layout. The y
contours.ai working file is now
complete.

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19. Create the working file for the x contours just as you did for the y contours.

Part III: Creating the Solid Object

You will need the following tools and materials for this part of the tutorial: a heavy
white paper stock (an 80lb or higher cover or index board; 120lb index stock is best, if
you can locate it), a #1 Exacto knife with #11 blades, a 12-inch stainless steel ruler
with cork backing, 2 ounce bottle of white glue.

The heavier paper will provide sufficient stiffness and the white color will show
shadow, and thus form better. The pencil-like shape of the knife and the thinness of
its blade will permit very accurate cutting. The knife will not nick the edge of the
steel ruler and the ruler's cork backing will prevent its slipping.

91
20. Print out both working files. Use a back-loading ink jet printer. Laser printers
or front-loading printers will not handle heavier papers.

21. Carefully cut out the contours and divide them into two piles of shapes: the x
cross-sections and the y cross-sections.

22. At this point you will need to cut slots into the cross-sections in order for them
to interpenetrate. The image below shows how slotting is used to create the
illusion of interpenetration by intersecting two slotted cross-sections:

The solid model will contain 14 rows of 14 intersections (see below) for a total
of 196 intersections. Note in the image above how each intersection works by
sliding an upper slot through a lower slot. Consequently be sure to cut all of
the slots in one set of cross-sections from the bottom up and from the top
down in the other.

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Cutting the slots requires care and attention and is a lengthy process. The
vertical lines in step 18 above are your guides. They represent the axes of
intersection of the cross-sections. Place a light penciled dot at the midpoint of
each.

Start cutting the slot just past the midpoint such that it runs a bit more than
halfway into the cross-section. This creates a little wriggle room in case your
measurement of halfway was off.

All measurement is inevitably a little long or a little short. This

particular construction process cannot tolerate a short measurement,
but it can tolerate a long measurement. In design the term tolerance
refers to the range of accuracy that can be allowed for the specific fit
of parts to one another. A precision fit is one with a small tolerance.
Watch makers, for example, work with a precision of about .001 inch
tolerance or less. Carpenters work with less precision, using a tolerance
of about 1/8 inch. Tolerance is specified as + or -, depending on the
requirements of the job. This construction requires a + tolerance. If a fit
falls within the allowable tolerance, it is accurate. In design the terms
fit, precision, tolerance and accuracy have specific and inter-related
meanings.

When cutting the slots it will be necessary to remove some material to allow
for thickness of the interpenetrating cross-section. This allowance is very
small, but important. Too little allowance will result in a forced fit and will
cause the material to buckle; too much allowance will yield a sloppy and
unattractive fit. To achieve a good allowance use the straight edge and Exacto

93
 knife to cut along the immediate left and immediate right sides of the vertical
lines. This removes a thread-like sliver of board about the thickness of the line.

23. Before beginning assembly make sure that the x and y sets of cross-sections are
arrayed in the correct order and proper direction. Assembly goes more quickly
if the sections with the bottom-up slots feed into sections with the top-down
slots.

24. Once all of the cross-sections are assembled, you will finally be able to see the
surface as defined by the top edges of the paper planes. The structure will be
loose and collapsible until it is affixed to a base plane. The base should be flat
and rigid and cut to the square dimensions of the sculpture. A heavy board,
such as illustration board or mat board, works well. GatorBord ®, a rigid foam-
cored board, works especially well. Choose a board of the same color as the
index paper.

7.5

1.5
1.5 7.5

Cut a 7-1/2" x 7-1/2" square board and lightly pencil a ruled grid of 1-1/2"
units. Apply thin beads of white glue over these lines and affix the assembly by
the bottom edges of the cross-sections. Every third cross-section will glue to
the base. This is more than sufficient and saves the glue mess that can result if
you attempt to glue every cross-section. Take care to align the ends of the
cross-sections accurately to the edges of the base.

94
Stacked Relief Sculpture

Program requirements: Rhino 3D,v.2 and Adobe Illustrator v.8 and higher.
Tool requirements: Bench top scroll saw, utility knife, ruler, pencil, serrated glue
applicator, and 12 bar clamps.
Material requirements: Gatorboard®, white glue, 100 grit sandpaper, letter paper.

Introduction
This tutorial will apply the principles of cross-section to another method of
construction known as stacking. Stacking is a process in which sheets of material are
glued together in layers to build up a solid mass. The layers are a gradually changing
series of contours, which together describe a solid sculptural form. This contrasts with
the raster, or egg-crate, method used previously in that the result is a solid mass
rather than a sliced-up volume of space.

Frequency and Resolution

What both methods of building have in common is that they analyze, or break down, a
continuous, curved surface into a series of discrete, or separate elements. Our eyes
and mind fill in between, or interpolate, the elements and see the surface as
continuous. The number of elements per unit of space, i.e., their frequency,
determines the smoothness of this interpolation.

3D graphic programs construct curves from series of directed line segments called
vectors. (A vector is a ray segment defined in terms of position, direction and length).
In the figure above the first spline forms from 40 connected segments, the second
from 20 segments and the third from 10. Each is half the frequency of the previous.

95
Frequency determines the visual resolution of graphic figures. Resolution is the level
of perceptible detail in such figures whether they appear onscreen or as sculptures. In
the set of spline curves above the small, detailed curves degenerate into angular
spikes at lower frequencies, while the larger curves still convey their curvature.

You probably noted the loss of detail from the screen image to the raster construction
in the previous tutorial. Doubling the number of cross-sections would recapture much
of that detail. Likewise a stacked form built from thinner sheets of material will have
greater frequency and thus greater resolution of surface details than one built from
thicker sheets. When they deposit material at a rate of 200 layers per inch, three-
dimensional printers are essentially stacking at a very high resolution. Since we are
building is by hand, this tutorial will limit frequency to 5 layers per inch.

The first three images above illustrate a surface replicated by stacking in which the
stacked cross-sections progressively double in frequency. The last image depicts the
modeled surface.

Image 1 with 15 sections is too coarse to be visually effective or useful for any
subsequent manipulation. Image 2 with 30 sections begins to show the surface forms
more clearly. This construction could serve as an armature over which to build a
plaster or clay surface.

96
The construction in image 3, with its greater detail and smoothness would serve this
purpose even better. It also carries enough resolution that it could possibly serve as a
concept model. A concept model carries enough information to provide a client with a
good idea of what the final object will look like. This is about the level of resolution
sought in this tutorial.

Discrete vs. Continuous

All digital processing is discrete by definition. Computing breaks all information

into bits for processing. Digital effects that appear continuous do so because the
discrete elements are so close and frequent that the breaks between them are
imperceptible.

Digital photography, for example, uses discrete bits of color called pixels to
achieve the continuous tone and sharp detail of analog photography. The more
pixels that make up a digital photograph the smoother are the tonal transition
and the more precise are the details. Another component of digital photography
is resolution, which is measured by the frequency of the occurrence of elements
per unit of space. Where the total number of pixels determines the total amount
of visual information in a digital photograph, the resolution determines the
perceived quality of that information. A photographic print of 600 dots per inch
(dpi) will appear as smooth and detailed as an actual photograph, while 150 dpi
is coarser and more like a magazine reproduction.

Set Up and Preparation

1. Reduce the scale of the Rhino model of your relief sculpture to 10" x 10". First
make sure a bottom corner of the model is set on 0,0,0. Then activate Snap
and Osnap, End. Next select the model and choose Transform, Scale, 3-D.

Working inn the Perspective view, click the corner at 0,0,0 and then click the
end corner of the adjacent side. This should be located on the x-axis at15,0,0.
Drag this point and snap to 10,0,0. Note how the entire model shrinks
proportionally in all three dimensions. (As an experiment check what happens
when you drag this same point when you choose Transform, Scale, 1-D and
Transform, Scale, 2-D.)

Why set the scale at 10"? You will once again be creating contours, exporting
these to Illustrator and printing them out. This time the printout will be on
ordinary paper. From there you will transfer the cross-sections to Gatorboard,
a stiff waterproof foam-cored board. Since this board is 3/16" thick and much
stiffer and stronger than the index board, the cross-sections can be adjusted to
the largest printable size. On an 8-1/2 x 11 sheet this means a 10" long contour
can fit on a landscape-oriented print.

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Part I: Creating the Working File of Stacking Sections
2. The stacking material is a nominal 3/16" thick. (Nominal means that this is the
approximate measure by which it is sold in the US. In European countries the
nominal thickness is .5 centimeter.) In actuality it is slightly thicker so that 5
layers very nearly equals a 1" thickness. Thus the contours created in Rhino
should be spaced .2 or 1/5 unit apart.

Stacking requires contours in only one direction. Choose Curve, From Object,
Contour select your model and click on the corner points lying on either the x
or y-axis. Key in .2 at the Distance between contours prompt. Which axis you
follow depends on the overall direction of features of the relief model. In
general the stacking process best captures a feature if the direction of the
stack corresponds to the direction of the feature.

3. Next create an Illustrator file of these contours. Follow the procedures of steps
9 and 10 in the Cross-Sectional Construction tutorial. Since there will be one
set of cross-sections, only one file need be created. This file, however, will be
quite large, with a total of 50 contours. Save as stack.ai. When the prompt
window appears choose Preserve unit scale and set 1 Rhino unit equal to 1
inch.

4. Open the saved file in Illustrator and zoom out to view the entire file. Two
contours can fit on one horizontal page layout, so you will need to create a
tiling of up to 25 landscape pages in order to fit all 50 contours. Note in the
illustration that some of the contours have been rotated 180º in order to save
space. This is not necessary, but can be useful in saving material later on. Be
sure to number each contour in sequence.

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Layout Option A:

5.a Print out the contours on regular printing paper. Trim the margins and glue the
paper to the Gatorboard.

To glue properly: use white glue applied to the board with a serrated glue
spreader. These are very inexpensive and are available at hardware stores.
Choose the spreader with the finest teeth. Spread the glue to fully cover an
area just slightly larger than that needed to glue down the next one or two
printed sheets. Lay down the paper by starting at one edge and gradually
rolling the paper flat. Drag a straightedge over the surface to flatten out air
bubbles and wrinkles. Tilt the straightedge in the direction it is moving to
prevent gouging the paper sheet.

Layout Option B:

5.b This is the preferred option for more finished models, especially those made
from wood.

Print out contours on heavier paper stock, such as cover, index or tag.
Precisely cut out the contours and lightly trace them onto the Gatorboard (or
wood) with a sharp pencil. Lightly number each tracing.

Layout Option C:

5.c This is option combines the speed and accuracy of Option A with the neatness
and finish of Option B. It is the most expensive due to its use of label paper.

Use removable full sheet label paper, or, before beginning, make sure that the
label paper can be removed from the material your will be cutting. Print the
contours on this paper. Trim the margins and apply to the Gatorboard (or
wood).

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6. Cut out the contour sections with the scroll saw. A utility knife (box cutter) can
be used to make the straight cuts more quickly than can the saw. Be sure to
replace the blade often and count on making several passes to complete the
cut.

Gatorboard gets its toughness and stiffness from the resin-impregnated paper
that sandwiches its inner foam layer. Compared to regular paper this paper is
hard and brittle. It saws easily, but needs a few scoring cuts to get through to
the softer foam inside.

7. Smooth the contour curves with the 100-grit sandpaper. Wrap the sandpaper
around a dowel rod to work concave curves, or around a piece of 1 x 2 nominal
(3/4 x 1-1/2 actual) lumber to smooth convex curves and straight edges.
Emery sticks for shaping fingernails are good, too, especially for details.

Take care that, as you smooth the edges, they remain 90º to the face of the
board. Rounded and/or beveled edges will muddle the appearance of the
assembled model.

8. The sections assemble by stacking and gluing face to face. It is essential to

accurately align the contour sections. Constructing an assembly jig ensures an
accurate alignment. A jig is a device created to hold a part in the proper
position as a shaping or assembly operation is underway.

Construct the floor of the jig below from a 10 x 10 piece of the Gatorboard
and use a 3 x 10 piece for the side wall. The back wall can be smaller, about
3 x 5 . Assemble with white glue as if to make the corner of a room. Take
care that all angles are right angles.

9. To glue: Assemble layer by layer. Apply white glue on both mating surfaces
with the glue spreader. Spread the glue only where the two layers overlap. To

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 determine the area of overlap you will need to very lightly trace the smaller
layer onto the larger layer and spread the glue only in the traced area.

Push the two surfaces together and use back-and-forth sliding motions to even
the glue film. Some excess glue should be forced out. Quickly wipe this up with
a damp rag. Chances are the sections will have a slight warp, in which case it
may be necessary to clamp them together.

10. To clamp: After assembling a portion (1/4 to 1/3) of the sculpture, sandwich
the assembled sections between two 10 lengths of 1 x 4 nominal (3/4 x 3-
1/2 actual) lumber and clamp with two wood clamps. The wooden sandwich
will prevent the clamps from marring the Gatorboard. Apply the clamping
pressure evenly and very slowly to prevent slippage in the wet glue films.

After 1 hour remove the clamps and glue the portions together and clamp
again. Unclamp in 2 hours.

11. To finish: It will be a good idea to sand the edges along the sides of the
sculpture. No matter how much care you take the edges will not align
completely even and the sanding will remedy this. Use one of the clamping
boards wrapped in sandpaper. You may also want to glue the stacked sculpture
to a base board, with or without a margin.

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Full-Round Surface

Program requirements: Rhino 3D

Point of View
Sculpting a relief starts with assuming that the sculptured surface begins as a neutral,
or planar surface, which then deflects outward and inward, convexly and concavely.
The sculptor or designer also assumes that the primary point of view of the object s
observer is frontal, as with paintings or posters.

Design of environmental reliefs, such as terrain models or other horizontal reliefs (like
those created in the previous three tutorials), assumes that the viewer is moving
around the relief object and able to view it from multiple top angles. Environmental
reliefs are then less frontal and more round in their viewing.

A sculpture achieves full-round point of view when the viewer is able to view them
from all sides and follow its forms as they travel up, down and around its surface. If it
were small enough to hold, a full-round object could be turned round-and-round and
examined from all sides. It is then fully three-dimensional.

Although carved in stone, like the sculpture by Jean Arp on the left, or cast in bronze like the sculpture by Henry
Moore on the right, early experiments in abstract form often sought to imbue a volume with life by crafting
undulations of the surface that seemed like skin stressed by inner forces. Because spline geometry replicates the
effect of force on a flexible material, it has been very successful for creating forms with similar life-like qualities.

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The Closed Surface
The most perfect closed surface is a sphere. It is also, by definition, the most full-
round object possible. Like the flat surface with which the relief tutorial began,
however, it is uninflected, i.e., the same at all points on its surface. Also like that flat
surface it will be the starting point for the sculpture created in this tutorial.

In NURBS geometry all surfaces are essentially topological variations on the same rect-
angular surface. Imagine that the NURBS surface starts its life as a flat rectangle
divided by an orthogonal grid, similar to the x,y divisions of the standard grid. The
difference is that those grid lines become spline curves that share common control
points at each intersection of the grid. As the control points move the surface
deflections will follow those of the splines at their intersection.

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By this method it is possible to move the control points in a regular fashion to roll the
rectangle into a cylindrical tube. Where the surface closes in on itself the result is a
seam where the two ends of the rectangle meet. This seam is eliminated when the
program makes the surface periodic, that is, continuous all the way around so that the
ends of the rectangle no longer exist. The surface is called periodic because it has no
beginning or end.

The surface is not yet closed as it has two open ends. NURBS programs close these
holes by drawing all of the points along the edge of the hole into one point at the
poles of the surface. This is not just a point, but a cluster of points, all of which have
been fixed and locked into exactly the same position in space. Such a point is called a
singularity. Like the north and south poles of the earth singularities are the
simultaneous end points of all the longitudinal lines of the surface.

Normally singularities remain intact, but can break apart after extensive editing of a
surface. This can cause problems in many modeling procedures, since the surface will
no longer be closed.

The Two Spheres

Below are two images of spheres. The sphere on the left has a surface that conforms
precisely to a mathematical sphere and is the primitive of a sphere used in modeling.
Like the circle it is built out of segments joined by kinks, which become apparent
during control point editing.

The second sphere is not truly a sphere mathematically, though it is very, very
close. Its perfection is marred by the surface undulations far too slight to be visually
detectable. An engineer my not use it, but an artist certainly could. This sphere is a

104
rebuilt version of the primitive. It is periodic where the primitive is not; it has the
polar singularities where the primitive does not.

Similar to the NURBS circle, which requires a square control polygon and four kinked
joints, so a true NURBS sphere comprises a cube as its control polyhedron. The sphere
has eight surface patches, one for each vertex of its control cube, that join with one
another by means of kinked seams. As with the circle, the seams become visible with
control point edits.

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Part I: Editing the Sphere

1. Choose Solid, Sphere, Center, Radius and insert the sphere by clicking
to set the center and click again to set the radius. The size of the sphere does
not matter at this point.

2. Select the sphere and turn on the control points for editing. Begin to
experiment with editing the sphere into sculpture by selecting and ragging the
control points. As in the relief tutorial, select the control points in the
Perspective view and drag the points in the Top, Front or Right views. Check
the results of each edit by double clicking on the Perspective tab and
examining the results.

3. The editing is somewhat limited and the seams will show up as relatively sharp
edges. This can be an advantage as the seams can be exploited for the linear
ridges and valleys they impart to the surface. Try selecting groups of points to
move in unison.

A lot of experimentation will be required to arrive at an engaging form.

Keep track of each experimental form by saving small renders or screen
shots to print and post into the lab/sketch book.

In addition to dragging selected points, try rotating and scaling various arrays
of points. The sequence of images below depicts the selection, rotation and 3D
scaling of a line of control points in order to create an elegant curving edge on
the volume:

106
4. The next screenshot illustrates a sculpture from a single NURBS surface that
began as a sphere and put through a series of edits:

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 This may be the final version of the sculpture or the surface may be rebuilt to
remove the kinks. Two different rebuilt versions of the surface can be seen
below. To the left is the original surface and in the middle is a rebuilding to U
and V dimensions of 6 and 6. The right hand surface has been rebuilt to a U and
V frequency of 24 and 24. The surface of lesser frequency is more bulbous with
the edges gone. The higher frequency replicates the original more closely and
retains softened interpretations of the edges. Note that the strong dimpling
remains in both rebuilt versions. These are the singularities of the rebuilt
sphere .

Part II: Exploring Boolean Edits

Very strong sculptural effects can emerge from Boolean relationships between two
closed surfaces. The next stages of the tutorial investigate them powerful negative
forms enable by Boolean difference and the strong surface structures imparted by
Boolean intersection.

108
5. Make a copy of the surface and overlap the original with its twin. Explore
different positions and orientations of the two surfaces relative to one another.

6. Select the member of the pair that is to

remain as the main body of the sculpture and
choose Solid, Difference. Click on the other
twin and hit Enter to create the subtraction.

OR

7. Select either twin and choose Solid, Intersection. Click on the

remaining twin and hit enter to complete the intersection.

Using a copy of the original surface to execute the Boolean operations ensures
that the surfaces on the new sculptural object will all be visually consistent. In
the case of negative extractions - left row above resulting from the
difference operation, this also ensures that the negative volumes are as
significant in their form as are the positive volumes of the test sculptures. In
the case of the intersection the negative areas remain as undulations of the
surface, rather than as an extracted volume.

Both operations create polysurfaces comprising two surfaces and for this
tutorial it is the relationship between these two surface parts that is key to
their visual appeal. This relationship is particularly effective in the middle
form of the right hand row above, especially how the edges demarcating the
surface halves twine over the form:

109
Select one of the polysurfaces and try to turn on the control points to discover
that the program will not permit control point editing. Now explode the
polysurface and turn on the control points. A dense flurry of points should
appear:

110
Turn off the points and then drag the exploded segments apart. Now turn on
the points of both surfaces. Both segments contain the entire geometry of their
respective full surfaces:

111
Full-Round Stacking

Using Rhino 3D, Adobe Illustrator, wood boards (plywood, medium density fiberboard
aka MDF), white boards (Gatorbord®, Fomebord®), various shop tools and materials.

Stacking and Registration

Stacking is the simplest method for physically
replicating the full-round surface created in the
previous tutorial. Presented earlier as an alternative
method for reproducing the relief surface, stacking
is possible by using common and relatively
inexpensive shop tools.

The key to successful stacking is to make sure that

the successive layers are properly positioned and
directed. Some method of registration is needed.
The relief stacking used a simple jig to correctly
position the stacking sections. Since the relief
sections possessed three straight rectangular, the
designer could easily seat these into a jig. By
contrast the sections of the closed surface will
feature free flowing edges and cannot use such a jig.
Instead this tutorial will use pin registration.

Pin registration uses two pins at fixed points to hold

a series of sections in correct alignment. This can
work because each section contains points
corresponding to the pins, so that when each is fixed
to the pins it will be positioned accurately to the
sections above and below it. In this tutorial the pins
will be inside the final glued sculpture.

Part I: Creating Cross-Sections

1. Working in the front view move the

surface sculpture to rest on the x-axis.
Keeping the sculpture selected choose
Transform, Scale, Scale 3-D. At the
Origin point prompt, click on the bottom

112
 of the sculpture, and then, at the Scale
factor or first reference point prompt
click on any spot outside of the sculpture.
Drag toward the sculpture to reduce its
scale and away from the sculpture to
increase its size. Size the sculpture to be 9
to 10 units tall.

2. Working in the front and right view use

the Rotate tool to align the sculpture
vertically.

3. Create a series of horizontal contours

one grid unit apart. This will yield
between 456 and 50 contours.

4. Delete the polysurface, but keep the

contour curves. Select the curves and choose
Surface, From Planar Curves. This will turn
all of the contours into planar slices of the
sculpture.

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5. Working from the Top view, select all of the planar slices and choose Surface,
Rectangle, Cutting Plane. With the Snap tool active insert cutting planes along
the major x and y grid lines.

6. Choose Curve, From Objects, Intersection and select all of the planes by
choosing Edit, Select, Surfaces. Then hit Enter to create matching grids on
each planar slice.

114
Repairing Contours

Not all of the contours may fill in to become planar slices. If the contour curve
is not closed, that is, it ends do not meet, it will not become a surface. This is
not due to any operator error, but is common when creating contours on a
polysurface. Where the contour line cross the meeting of two surfaces on the
polysurface especially where this edge is sharp it can sometimes result in an
opening in the curve.

To check for open curves refer to the Front view after selecting all surfaces and
note the black lines indicating empty curves. Mark these with points and choose
Edit, Visibility, Hide to remove all of the surfaces from view. Do the same for
the unmarked contours:

Select the open curves and turn on the

control points. Activate the Point snap
tool. Go to the Top view and zoom in
on each curve to locate the open end
points. Usually these will be at the
sharper break. Now, create surfaces
from these curves. Choose Edit,
Visibility, Show and bring the rest of
the file into view.

115
7. Deselect the intersection lines, and then select and delete all of the surfaces.
Go to the Front or Right view to select and delete all of the vertical
intersection lines. There should now be a set of 45 to 50 contour curves
crisscrossed with a registration grid.

8. Now that the cross-sections are complete and marked with registration lines,
the next step is to array them for export and printing. This procedure is very
similar to those used earlier for the raster and stacked interpretations of the
relief surface.

Click and drag the edges of the Top and Right view windows and stretch these
vertically to maximize their size:

9. Select each cross-section in the Right view and drag in the Top view to array
the contours. Take care to keep the contours in order!

Part II. Printing and Assembly

10. Export to Illustrator as in the previous tutorials. When assigning the export
scale use the thickness of the material from which the sculpture will be
assembled. Thus, if the material is ¼ inch plywood, then each Rhino unit will
equal ¼, or .25 inch.

Using Wood Boards -- Plywood or MDF (shop tools required):

116
11. The printed cross-sections will serve as templates for tracing and marking onto
plywood or fiberboard, so no further editing of the curves will be necessary
except to arrange and number them in Illustrator for tiled printing. Print out on
index board or similar heavy paper stock.

12. Cut out the printed contours with a craft knife or scissors and tape to the wood
board (available at any building supply store), arranging the templates for most
efficient use of the material. Carefully trace around the templates and mark
the points of each grid crossing by puncturing the template and dimpling the
wood with a pointed tool, such as a punch or awl.

13. Carefully cut out the contours using a band saw or jigsaw and sand the edges
with a stationary disk sander set to 90º. For concave curves a spindle or drum
sander will be required.

!!! CAUTION !!!

Wear suitable protective gear including goggles, earplugs and a dust

mask. Learn and follow all safety and shop rules. Work only under
supervision or with a shop partner.

14. Drill registration holes as needed at the crossing points of the registration grid.
Only two registration holes are necessary, although the location of the holes
may need to change depending on the configuration of the contours.

15. For aligning successive layers while stacking, use dowel rods or nails of the
same diameter of the drilled holes. Apply white glue thinly to both surfaces

117
 when joining layers. Clamp after every 8 to 12 layers have been aligned and
remove clamps after one hour. Be sure to use blocks between the clamp head
and the stacked layers in order to prevent marring of the sculpture.
Immediately wipe off any excess glue with a damp cloth.

Using White Boards:

16. The printed cross-sections may be glued to the foam material prior to cutting
for assembly. This means that a thinner paper such as ordinary typing paper
may be used for printing. It also means that the lines should be edited so that
they are visible, but unobtrusive. For this purpose change the line thickness to
.5 point and the color to 25% gray.

17. Depending on the shapes of the contours the best foam board to use is usually
Gatorbord®, due to the fact that it can be easily sawn into complex curves and
sands to smooth edges. Regular Fomebord® does not saw well and contours are
difficult to cut with a knife. Where the contour curves are smooth and shallow,
however, regular Fomebord® works fine and is much easier to obtain.

Glue the printouts to the board with a very thin layer of white glue. Apply the paper
to the glue film from one edge and gradually roll it onto the film, taking care
to press or squeegee out any bubbles. After the glue has dried (about 30
minutes) cut out the contours.

18. White boards are a bit simpler to assemble than

are wood boards, since they can be aligned with
pins or small nails pushed through the
corresponding grid intersections on successive
layers.

As with the wood assembly, apply white glue

thinly to both meeting surfaces and follow the
same clamping procedures. Glue applied to
Gatorbord® dries more slowly as it has a less
absorbent surface than wood boards. It should
remain clamped for two hours.

Mounting The Sculpture For Display

19. After the bottom 8 12 layers of the sculpture

have been assembled and clamped, drill a hole
of between ¼ inch and ½ inch diameter through
them. This will leave a deep vertical hole up
and into the bottom of the sculpture. A similar
hole drilled into a base can support a dowel rod
over which the hole in the sculpture can fit.

The base may be a simple block or disk, or it

may be a more a more complex shape designed
to fit in with the sculpture.

118
119
 Section III

Geometric Solids and

Pattern Construction

120
121
Introduction

NURBS modeling uses spline curves to create surfaces with qualities such as might be
found on life forms or in the contours of a landscape. The tutorials in Section II looked
at the use of spline modeling in conveying these qualities. In contrast the group of
tutorials in this section will look at geometric modeling.

Principles of Geometric Modeling

Geometric modeling constructs models from a few basic geometric solids. These basic
solids, called primitives combine into the more complex objects sought by designers.
In the following tutorials you will learn to identify, work with and relate three
categories of geometric solids: polyhedrons, cylinders and cones, and spheroids. You
will learn to re-create these solids from folded paper.

There are three important components to geometric modeling:

 The primitives, which provide the basic parts of the model.
 The spatial transformations, by which these components are manipulated in 3-
D space and
 The Boolean operations, which provide the means for the interaction of form
and space.

Each of these are a technical means to crafting the object you wish to create, but
each of these serves a second, equally important duty as visual principles for
structuring effective 3-D expression.

Transformations

Geometric modeling offers four basic transformations of an object's relationship to the

space it occupies:

 Move, the change of an

object's position in space,
also called translation.

When an object occupies a defined

space it always has a position in that
space relative to the center and
boundaries of that space. It also has a
position relative to the other objects
in that space: near/far, above/below,
in front/behind, inside/outside, etc.

122
The computer defines these by numbers and angles with amazing precision. For highly
systemized and patterned arrangements of visual elements this is an extremely
effective capability. In other cases a more intuitive judgment of relationships is
preferable. Good 3D programs have the flexibility to accommodate this approach, too.

 Rotate, the change in an

object's direction in space.

When an object occupies a defined

space it always has a direction in
that space relative to gravity and to
the boundaries of that space, most
notably the surface on which it
rests. It also has a direction relative
to the other objects in that space:
parallel, perpendicular and skewed.

Rotate allows the 3-D artist to steer

the eye of the viewer to a point of
focus or to another element in the
composition. A series of carefully
directed objects can move the eye
along specific paths in space.

Like position, direction can be

determined numerically (with
angular measure) or intuitively
through visual judgment.

 Scale, the change in an

object's size in space.

When an object occupies a defined

space it always fills a specific
portion of that space. If it fills only
a relatively minor volume of space,
then it is small in proportion; if it
displaces a major volume of space,
then it is large in proportion to the
space. The relative size of an
object can be measured against
other objects in the space. If that
size relationship can be stated as a
ratio, then that ratio is called a
proportion. When a set proportion
is applied systematically
throughout the whole space -- as is
commonly done in architecture --
the effect is that of powerful visual
cohesion.

123
  Reflect, the change of an
object by flipping it across
an axis of symmetry, also
called mirror.

Reflection is the one transformation

that implies a fourth dimension of
space. In order to understand this,
picture a flat shape lying on top of a
table. What can be done to the shape
to transform it into a mirror of itself?
It must be lifted off the table and
rotated through a 3-D space in order
to flip into a mirrored copy. Likewise
to mirror a 3-D object it must be
"lifted" out of 3-D space and rotated
through 4-D space.

In combination with the Copy function these three transformations are responsible for
the patterning of objects in space. You will use all of these basic transformations in
the upcoming tutorials. You will also used many useful tools that combine these
transformations with other functions, for example, the Polar Array tool, which
systematically combines rotation and copy, or the Orient tools, which combines move,
rotate and scale into one execution.

In the following tutorials the transformations will be applied as tools to construct the
individual forms and properly layout patterns, and as visual principles for creating
strong designs.

Positive and Negative Form

Designers think of form as either filled or empty. A geometric solid, though normally
perceived as being made of a material, can be seen also as a hollow in that material. A
dowel rod, for instance, is a cylinder, but so is the hole drilled to accept it.

When most people think of a geometric shape they imagine its solid, or positive,
version. As likely as not, however, the hollow, or negative, version is most important.
Dowels, for example, were invented solely to fit into drilled holes.

Visual designer's think as carefully about shaping empty space as they do about the
solid forms that comprise the material portion of the design.

Consider the array of cubes in the model below. Each is spaced at equal intervals
equivalent to the dimension of the cube itself. Between each pair of cubes is a cubic
interval of space bounded by vertical faces of the cubes. Furthermore, at the center
of each grouping of four cubes is yet another cubic interval, one defined by the inside
edges of the four cubes. These negative cubes are not apparent, but they are key to
the composition of the array. They space out the solid cubes into a steady rhythmic
structure.

124
A designer can arrange the primitives to make the interval space a strong and
apparent shape, more complex and interesting than the positive forms. In the example
below four boxes and four cylinders deploy to define a strong negative volume within.
More visually arresting than its more primitive companions, this volume borrows shape
features from them. Its formation is a composite of box and cylinder forms.

125
It is possible to reverse the situation -- to use negative spaces to define solid forms
between the negative spaces. The model below began as a flat, featureless slab. At
regular intervals the designer inserted solids identical in shape to the interval space
above. These were then extracted from the slab. The remainder of the slab forms into
cylinders connected by boxes. Designers will think of these solid areas as intervals
between the extracted shapes.

Boolean Operations

The extractions in the last example were executed by a Boolean operation called
difference (or subtraction). The Boolean operations come into play when two solids
interpenetrate. The Boolean operator looks at the regions of the two solids, which do
and do not overlap and then decides which to keep and which to discard:

 Union (or addition)

Everything is kept, nothing is discarded. The

two interpenetrating solids merge into one,
more complex solid.

 Difference (or subtraction)

One of the two solids is discarded, taking the

overlapped region with it. One of the solids
remains, minus the region of overlap between

126
the two solids. This is the operation used to extract the holes in the perforated slab
above.

 Intersection (or common)

This operator keeps only the

common area of overlap between
the two solids and discards the
rest.

Pattern Construction

Surface modeling programs build geometric solids by piecing together surfaces to

completely enclose a volume of space. Because only the surface is visible, this gives
the illusion of a solid and the modeling program treats it as such.

A similar technique has been used since well

before computers to construct geometric
solids from sheets of materials like wood,
steel and paper. This technique, known as
pattern construction, scribes the shapes of
the individual surfaces of the solids onto the
sheet material. This 2D array of the surfaces
of a 3D object is called a pattern. It can be
cut out, folded and assembled into a solid.

127
Solids: Surfaces and Faces

A physical model created by pattern construction is, of course, not solid, but rather a
closed volume that appears solid. This is very convenient in that it achieves the visual
impression of a solid mass with a minimum of weight and quantity of material.

The types of solids that can be built from a sheet of material are limited by that
material's ability to conform to the surface characteristics of the solid. Common
plywood sheets typically used by carpenters are, for instance, very stiff and only in
special instances can they be curved. These are therefore best suited for solids whose
surfaces are composed only of flat surfaces. Such a solid belongs to a category of
solids known as polyhedrons. Cubes, pyramids, or diamond crystals are examples of
polyhedrons.

If a material is more flexible -- like paper or thin metals-- it can be rolled into arcs. It
then becomes possible to create solids with simple curved surfaces, most notably
cylinders and cones. The end and base faces of these solids feature curved edges,
typically circles.

Cylindrical and conical surfaces curve in only one direction. Geometric solids that
curve in two directions are common-- especially a category called the spheroids.
Domes, eggs and donuts fit into this category. Standing under a dome you can see it
curve overhead from left to right, and you can see it arc from front to back.

Pattern construction works only for solids with faces and developable surfaces. This
means that, while polyhedral, cylindrical and conical forms can be formed from paper,
spheroids and other surfaces of double curvature cannot.

Fortunately there are a number of good methods for representing double curvature
with folded and rolled paper surfaces. The term "represent" denotes that a folded
paper model may do a good job of conveying a sphere even though it is not a true
sphere.

128
Pattern Construction
of Polyhedrons

Program requirements: Rhino 3D,v.2 and Adobe Illustrator v.8 and higher.
Tool requirements: Exacto knife, 12" stainless steel ruler
Material requirements: 120lb index board, white glue

Polyhedrons
Polyhedrons are geometric solids edge
whose faces are polygons. The
prefix poly means "many" and
hedron means "face". A face (or
facet) of a solid is by definition a
flat plane. A polygon is a plane
figure demarcated by straight face vertex
sides. As part of a polyhedron the
sides of the polygon become the
edges of the polyhedron and the
corners of the polygons meet to
become vertices of a polyhedron.

Types of Polygons

Geometers name polygons according to the number of sides enclosing them. Triangles
have three sides and quadrilaterals have four sides. Beginning with five sided figures
polygons are named according to the Greek name for the number of sides: pentagons,
hexagons, heptagons and octagon, for example, feature 5, 6,7 and 8 sides
respectively.

The sides and corner angles of regular polygons are all equal. Most polygons tend to be
convex, meaning that all of their angles point outward, but should a corner turn
inward, the polygon is labeled as concave.

129
Types of Polyhedrons

The simplest and most common polyhedrons used in constructive

modeling are prisms, pyramids and the truncation, or frustum, of a
pyramid.

 A prism is a solid whose base and top are congruent (i.e.,

equal) polygons and whose side faces are rectangles.

 A pyramid is a solid whose base is a polygon and which tapers

to a point called its apex. The side faces of a pyramid are
triangles.

 A frustum is a solid whose base and top faces are similar (i.e.,
same shape, different sizes) polygons. This is essentially a
pyramid, whose apex has been cut off.

These three categories of polyhedrons constitute the vast majority of constructive

modeling and are the subject of this tutorial. A particularly elegant, but less common,
family of polyhedrons is the spherical polyhedrons. These tend to have many, many
faces deployed around the center as if on a ball.

Topics
The following tutorial covers the digital modeling of basic polyhedrons and the pattern
construction of their physical models.

Part I of this tutorial demonstrates how to draw polygons, and to use extrusion and
lofting tools to create prisms, pyramids and frustums from these polygons. Part II takes
you through procedures for unfolding these solids into flat patterns and to edit those

130
patterns for printing. Part III illustrates the process of scoring, folding and gluing
patterns into solid models.

Part I: Extruding and Lofting Polyhedrons

The set of geometric primitives offered by modeling programs varies greatly from
program to program. Rhino, for example, includes a lot of primitives with curved
surfaces, but the only prism offered as a primitive is the box (a box can be defined as
a rectangular prism). Fortunately prisms can be easily and quickly modeled using
extrusion and lofting tools.

Set Up

1. Click on the Polygon icon or choose Curve, Polygon or keystroke

Alt C, Y. At the command prompt type in the number of sides of the polygon
and hit enter. This tool will insert a regular polygon of the number of sides you
specified. Activate Snap and set the radius at three grid units. The size of a
regular polygon is often stipulated as the circle in which it can be inscribed.
This is because the vertices of all regular polygons lie on a circle.

The default prompt will read Center of inscribed

polygon. This indicates that the polygon will be
inserted as the radius of the circle in which the
polygon can be inscribed. In practice this is the
distance from the center of the polygon to a
vertex (corner) of the polygon. The first click will
set the center of the polygon and the second will
locate a vertex.

If you click and hold the Polygon icon a fly-out

menu of other options will appear. Click the
second icon, Circumscribed Polygon, or choose
Curve, Polygon, Center, Radius or keystroke Alt
C, Y, C. The prompt will read Center of
circumscribed polygon. Your first click will set
the center and the second click will locate the
middle of an edge (side) of the polygon.

A third option is to insert the polygon by clicking the beginning and end of a
side of the polygon. Activate this tool by clicking the Polygon, Edge icon or
choosing Curve, Polygon, By Edge or keystroke Alt C, Y, E. The first prompt will
read Start of Edge.

2. You may now insert the polygon nine times in a 3 x 3 array or you may
try the Copy tool. Keep Snap activated and select the polygon. Click the Copy
icon in the toolbar or choose Transform, Copy or keystroke Alt T, C. Now click
on a grid point just to the left and below the polygon. Each subsequent click

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 will insert a copy of the polygon. Using the grid as your guide, create three
neat rows of three copies.

3. In the Right or Front views copy the entire array about 5 or 6 units and set the
copy directly above the original array.

Extruding Polyhedrons

Extruding is the process of generating a

surface by moving a curve along a path in
space. Extruding is a dynamic version of
lofting, which generates a surface between a
series of fixed curves. These processes can be
used to extrude a solid provided the curves
are closed and the program can cap the ends
of the loft or extrusion into a closed
polysurface.

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The most common extrude is on a straight path perpendicular to a planar surface or
curve. Rhino uses such a tool for creating solids.

4. In the first row of the array, using the extrude tools, create one of each of a
prism, a pyramid and a frustum.

Select the lower polygon of the first pair of polygons and

Activate Osnap, End. Click and hold on the Box icon and in the fly-out Solid
toolbar click on the Extrude Planar Curve icon, or choose Solid, Extrude Planar
Curve, or keystroke Alt O, X. Immediately the polygon will begin to extrude in
the direction of the cursor. Click on a vertex of the upper polygon to complete
the extrusion of the prism.

5. To extrude a pyramid from a polygon use the Extrude to Point tool. This is not
a Solid tool, but a Surface tool.

Activate Osnap, Center and then select the next base

polygon in the row. Click and hold on the Surface from 3 or 4 Corner Points
icon, then on the fly-out Surface toolbar click and hold on the Extrude Straight
icon to access the Extrude toolbar. Click on Extrude to Point; or choose
Surface, Extrude, To Point; or keystroke Alt S, X, P.

Move the cursor over the upper polygon until the cursor point jumps from the
cross to the center of the polygon. Click to extrude.

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6. This extrusion is a surface
and not a solid. The base is still open and
you will need to cap it to close the
polysurface into a solid.

To do this select the extruded surface then click and hold on the Boolean Union
icon to access the Solid Tools toolbar and click on the Cap Planar Holes icon. Or
choose Solid, Cap Planar Holes; or keystroke Alt O, H. The extrusion will cap
into a solid to complete the pyramid.

7. Select the last base polygon in the front row and initiate an extrusion as you
did in creating the prism. This time, though, type in "t" after the command
prompt and hit Enter. This instructs Rhino to taper the extrusion.

The command prompt now calls for the Draft angle. The draft angle refers to
the angle from 90° that the taper tilts inward (or outward, depending on the
direction of the taper). Type in " -20°" and click on the top polygon to
complete the extrusion into a frustum.

Lofting Polyhedrons

8. Select and delete entire front row (or save by exporting prior to deleting), and
then proceed to the next row in your array. In this row you will build the same
polyhedrons except this time using lofting tools.

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 From the Surface toolbar click
the Loft icon. At the command prompt, Select
curves to loft, click on the base and top
polygons and hit Enter. Each curve will appear
on screen connected by a line and with two
small arrows. The line should be connecting
corresponding points on each polygon and the
arrows should point in the same direction. If not
the loft will twist between the curves. Hit Enter
again and a menu box should appear. Make no
changes. Use the default settings as they
appear and simply click OK or hit Enter.

9. A loft yields a surface, not a solid. You will need to turn to the Cap Planar
Holes tool (see Step 6 above) to complete the prism.

10. To generate a pyramid the loft must build a surface between the
polygon and a point. Before lofting the pyramid place a point object at the
planned location of the apex. In this case the location is at the center of the
upper polygon of the next pair in the row.

Activate the Osnap, Center snap and click on the Single Point icon; or choose
Curve, Point Object, Single Point; or keystroke Alt C, P, P. Hover the cursor
near the upper polygon and snap the point to its center.

Loft as with the prism. Click on the base polygon and then on the point object
rather than the upper polygon. Cap to complete.

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11. Up until now lofting has proven less efficient than extruding for producing the
polyhedrons. The situation is different with the frustum. Extruding works great
where the key information is the angle of taper and the height of the
extrusion. However, without careful calculation it would be difficult to arrive
at the correct size for the top face.

Lofting, on the other hand, begins with two polygons of specific sizes and lets
the draft angle form on its own. In cases where the key dimensions are the
height of the frustum and the size of its base and top faces lofting is required.
To loft a frustum it is necessary, then, to change the upper polygon to the
correct scale.

Activate Osnap, End and Osnap, Center. Select the upper polygon and
right click the Scale icon; or choose Transform, Scale, Scale 2-D; or keystroke

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 Alt T, S, 2. Snap to the center of the polygon and then snap to a vertex. Drag
and click to the desired size.

For a more precise scale change: At the Origin point prompt snap to the center
of the polygon, at which time the command prompt will change to Scale factor
or first reference point. Type in the ratio of change needed. A scale factor of
.5 will reduce the polygon to half of its original radius; a scale factor of .37 will
reduce it to 37% of its original size.

12. Loft and cap as with the prism to complete the frustum

Creating Irregular and Skew Polyhedra

Typically when one uses the terms prism and pyramid they mean polyhedrons with
regular bases and right axes, i.e., they rise straight up from the base. Often, though,
the more visually interesting geometric forms are those that are less regular and
predictable. In this last row you will build polyhedrons that shift from the neat
regularity of the previous models. These will feature irregular bases and will skew in
odd directions.

Edit Points or Control Points?

Edit points are points that can be clicked and dragged to change the path
of a curve or surface. In this they are similar to control points, which you
worked with on your relief surface. However, edit points lie directly on
the curve or surface, while control points lie off the curve or surface, the
exception being a straight curve or flat surface. In the geometry of a
spline curve a control point is the point that the curves strives to reach,
the point toward which it bulges.

An edit point, by contrast, is always a point through which the curve

passes. Move the edit point and the curve will adjust to continue passing
through that point as well as through the nearby points on the curve.

Look at the curves below. The first is a straight curve with control points.
Click and drag on one of the points, pull it out and note how, in the
second curve, the bulge pulls away from the straight line toward the
control point.

Edit points divide the third line. Drag an edit point and note how the curve
follows through that point. Note, too, how in the fourth example the rest
of the curve must reflex in order to keep tracking through the other
stationary edit points. Finally, look at how in the fifth example the control
points have adjusted to permit that tracking. In general editing with
control points yields subtler and more streamlined changes when
compared to using edit points.

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13. Select and delete second row (or save by exporting prior to deleting), and then
proceed to the next row in your array.

or Select the first pair of polygons in the final row and click on the
either Edit Points icon or the Control Points icon. On a polygon both edit and
control points appear on the vertices and exert the same effect in changing its
shape.

Working in the top view, drag and select over a vertex. Dragging rather than
clicking will ensure that the vertex points on both the base and top polygons
are selected. Continue to adjust vertices into the desired shape for the prism.
Editing both polygons simultaneously will ensure that they remain congruent.

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14. To skew the prism select and move the top (or base) polygon off center. Loft
between the two polygons and cap to complete the prism.

15. Adjust the base of the pyramid and, with the Extrude to Point tool, extrude to
an off center point. In the example above a vertex of the top polygon serves as
the apex of the pyramid. Cap to complete the solid.

16. Build the irregular skew frustum just as you did the prism. Be sure, however, to
reduce the scale of the top polygon (see step 11).

In order to create true prisms and frustums the base and top polygons must be
parallel, that is, all congruent sides must be parallel. This means that neither
of the polygons may be rotated in any direction. To do so will cause a slight
twist in the side surfaces and that surface will no longer be planar.

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Part II: Creating Patterns of Polyhedrons
In concept the process of pattern construction is simple: unfold the model into a
pattern, print it out on stiff paper and then fold it back into its original form. In
practice the process is not quite so simple.

Unfolding

For starters, unfolding in a digital

environment takes some getting used
to. This is the bad news. The good
news is that unfolding is perhaps the
best way to learn to navigate 3-D
space on a 2-D screen.

The key is to start with the most

basic polyhedron and work up to the
more complex geometric solids.

17. With this in mind insert a

pyramid. Select the pyramid
and explode. The pyramid is
now no longer a solid or a
polysurface, but rather a set
of polygonal surfaces abutting
to form a pyramid.

18. Activate Snap and Osnap, End. Select one side face of the
pyramid. Right click the Rotate icon to access the Rotate 3-D tool; or
choose Transform, Rotate 3-D; or keystroke Alt T, 3.

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Click on the two bottom corners of the selected face to establish the
axis of rotation, which is also the line of the fold. Then click on the apex
and in a Front or Right view swing the face downward and click on the
line of the x,y plane, The Snap tool will lay it flat on this horizontal
plane. Repeat for each side face.

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19. Folding the side faces of prisms and frustums is very similar to unfolding a
pyramid. Let's try the irregular skew prism modeled in Part A, steps 13 and 14.
Explode the prism and with the Rotate 3-D tool unfold the side faces of this
prism.

20. This leaves the top floating, but it should remain attached to the rest of the
pattern. Before attaching it to the pattern it will need to be flipped, so that
the side of the top surface that faces inward (and down) will be facing up. Note
that the process of unfolding ends up turning the inside of all the faces up,
while turning the exteriors down.

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 The easiest way to flip the top
surface is to mirror it. Select the top
face and click on the Mirror icon; or
choose Transform, Mirror; or keystroke
Alt T, I. With Osnap, End still activated
click on two vertices of the face.
Delete the original.

21. To place the top face on the pattern use the Orient: 2 Points
tool. Select the top face and click and hold on the Move icon to access the fly-
out Transform toolbar. Left click the Orient icon to access the Orient: 2 Points
tool; or choose Transform, Orient, Orient: 2 Points; or keystroke Alt T, O, 2.

Click on two vertices on one edge, and then, in the same order, click on the
vertices of the corresponding edge of a side face.

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Editing for Assembly

At this stage you could go on to cut out, fold and tape a print of this pattern into a
physical version of the original prism. This could serve as a crude preliminary model --
not an object to put on display, but a useful visualization to determine what
modifications, if any, may need to be made before proceeding to a more finished
version.

For finer models, intended for display or presentation to a client, you will need to
prepare a bit more. One important preparation is to add tabs for gluing the folded
pattern together. Each adjoining edge will require a gluing tab. In determining where
to place these tabs try to anticipate how the pattern will fold together:
 The first step for the prism will be to fold the side faces upward until their
common edges meet, one with a gluing tab attached.
 The second step will be to fold over the top polygon to join the upper edges of
the side faces to the polygon's edges.

In the case of the example above this means that six more tabs are to be added. Put
these tabs on the upper edges of the side faces and not on the edges of the top. When
assembling a pattern, it is always better to press the last fold against awaiting tabs.

22. Before beginning to edit

change the unfolded surfaces into a 2-D
drawing. Working in the Top view, select the
unfolded surfaces. Click and hold on the
Project Curve to Surface icon to access the

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 fly-out Curve from Objects toolbar. Click on the Make 2-D Drawing icon. A line
drawing of the surfaces will appear. Delete the surfaces, leaving only the
drawing.

23. To draw tabs: Zoom in to a face of the pattern and select the edge
where you intend to add a tab. Click the Copy icon; or choose Transform, Copy;
or keystroke Alt T, C. Click and drag the line out from the edge. After the
prompt, Point to copy to, type in the distance of the tab's width.

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 In the example above that distance is 1 unit. When the pattern is printed out
the unit value will be specified at 1 cm, so the printed tab will be 1 cm in
width. As a rule a tab's width should be between 1/4" (6 mm) and 1/2" (12
mm), with the optimum about 3/8" (9 mm). This is wide enough to fold easily,
but narrow enough to limit the amount of glue. Too much glue will wrinkle
paperboards.

24. Activate Osnap, End and Osnap, Near. Click the Polyline icon; or choose
Curve, Line, Polyline; or keystroke Alt C, L, P. Draw the tabby clicking on the
endpoint of the edge and then in a bit on its copy so as to form approximate
45° angles on each end of the tab. Delete the copied line. Repeat until all of
the tabs are drawn.

Part III: Printing and Assembly

25. Export the pattern as an Illustrator file. Remember to specify a unit dimension,
so that the Illustrator image will be the intended size of the printed pattern.

26. Open the file in Illustrator and center the pattern on the page. To fit
the pattern onto the page you may need to rotate the pattern. To do this
select the entire pattern and click on the Rotate icon in the toolbar. A graphic
symbol for the center of rotation will appear inside the pattern. Drag anywhere
on the screen to rotate. While the Rotate tool is engaged you can shift the
position of the pattern by using the arrow keys.

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27. Follow this with flipping the pattern using the Reflect tool. (The reason for this
will become clear during assembly.) Select the pattern and choose Object,
Transform, Reflect. Then choose either vertical or horizontal and click OK.

28. The lines that demarcate the pattern are layout lines. They should be just
visible enough for cutting and folding, but should not distract once the pattern
is folded. The next step, then, is to reduce the line weight by thinning and
lightening the lines.

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 Select the pattern. Go to the Window menu and make sure that the stroke and
color menu windows are visible. Change the stroke to 0.25 pt and move the K
slider in the color window to 50. Choose Object, Group to group the pattern
before deselecting.

29. At this stage surface graphics could be added. One popular alternative is to add
a texture to the model in order to give it the appearance of a material like
stone, wood or rusted metal.

A texture is a photographic bitmap bearing the image of a material. Libraries of

textures are available online for free download. You can copy a texture into
Illustrator and place it in the background. If the texture image is too small to
fill the background, the image may need tiling. Textures are often designed to
tile seamlessly, so try to find either large format texture images or a tiling
texture.

30. After copying the texture into Illustrator go to the Object menu and, while the
image remains selected, choose Arrange, Send To Back; or keystroke
Ctrl+Shift+[.

An alternative approach would be to print the texture onto the pattern paper
first and then print the pattern over the texture. Yet another tack is to
purchase paper stock already decorated with a texture.

31. Print the pattern on a heavy paper like an index board or a cover paper, 80 lbs
or heavier in weight. A good choice is 140 lb index board. Printing paper this
thick will require an ink jet printer with a back feed.

32. Using a pencil-style craft knife fitted with a

narrow triangular blade (a No. 1 Exacto knife
with a No. 11 blade is a common choice) cut
out the pattern. A good straightedge is a
must. The best choice is a stainless steel ruler
with a cork backing. It stands the least chance
of slipping and will not be nicked by the knife.

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33. For straight, clean and accurate fold you will need to score all of the folding
edges. A score is a cut partially through the paper for the length of the fold.
Too deep of a cut will weaken the joint too much and cause it to separate
when handling the model; too shallow and the fold will be ragged. Scoring is
best done by "feel". It is a good idea to practice on scraps of the board until
you get the feel of how much pressure will produce the right balance between
strength and clean folding.

In the pattern below dashed lines indicate the score lines:

Always score on the OUTSIDE of the fold. This is why you flipped the pattern in
step C, 3 above. This placed all of the lines to be scored on the outside of the
model. The line weight was reduced so, though you could see them enough to
score, would be virtually hidden by the scoring cut.

34. Before assembling the pattern break, i.e., pre-fold, each score line. Move from
tab to tab and joint to joint, and fold each a full180°. This process will assure
that each fold is accurate and limber.

35. Glue the side faces together first. Apply the white glue carefully as smeared
glue is impossible to remove. After the sides are glued together lift up the top
tabs, so that they rise somewhat above the top edges. Apply glue to all of the
tabs and press the top face against them, holding for a moment as the glue
begins to try. It sometimes helps to turn the prism upside down and press its
top face against table top to ensure even pressure on all top edges.

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150
Modular Structure

Using Rhino 3D and Adobe Illustrator

Material: 8.5 x 11 index board
Tools: Cork-backed stainless steel ruler, Exacto knife

Introduction
Beginning with a simple polyhedron it is possible, through repetition, to build
extremely complex structures. The polyhedron acts as a module, or cell, in a larger
structure comprised of varying numbers and arrangements of that polyhedron. Anyone
who has played with blocks has created a modular structure.

Modular design, though not exclusive to the 20th century, reached its peak about the
middle of that century. Mass production applied to the fabrication of multiples of the
same module, just as it applied to the manufacture of automobiles: it was faster and
cheaper. Designs of buildings, office spaces, kitchen cabinets, playground equipment
and the like incorporated mass-produced modules that rearranged in a host of patterns
that could be designed specific to any number of locations.

In the late 19th and early 20th century architects began incorporating modular
principles to the design of their buildings. Notable among these was Frank Lloyd
Wright, who credited much of his inspiration to a set of his childhood blocks designed
by the noted German educator and founder of kindergarten, Friederich Froebel.

In this tutorial you will create a polyhedral module of your own design and then unfold
that polyhedron into a pattern to be printed repeatedly. These repeated patterns then
fold and assemble into multiples of the polyhedron. A group of these multiples will in
turn combine into a larger, complex object.

This tutorial looks at two types of modular form: one in which simple modules grow to
create lively and potentially life-like structures, and another exploring the possibilities
of architectural modules.

Composing

The multiple elements of a composition appear ordered when they join in exploiting
certain natural tendencies of the human eye and mind to impart structure. Following
just a few such tendencies, or principles of unity, a designer can encourage a viewer
to use those tendencies.

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 • repetition with variety

One of the chief principles of composition is repetition with variety. Repetition

enables a natural sense of union, as the similarity between elements leads the mind to
instinctively group them. Modules do this implicitly: each is an exact copy of the
others. Variety subverts the visual monotony of constant repetition. Repetition
provides organized structure; variety ensures visual interest.

• continuity

Since the modules themselves do not vary, variety ensues in modular composition in
the different means of joining one module to another. A well-designed module will
permit multiple contacts that enable continuity between modules. Continuity, too, is
one of the chief principles of composition. It governs the smooth and visually sensible
transition through the parts of a composition.

• balance: formal and informal organization

Compositions can exhibit relatively formal or relatively informal organization.

Systematic repetition and pre-planned arrangements mark formal organization. Two
most common examples of formal elements are patterns following grid structures and
those with symmetrical balance. Informal organization, by contrast, relies on intuitive
arrangements in which parts achieve order within asymmetric balance. A sort of
psychological contrast pits one part of a composition against the other creating
dynamic equilibrium, a balanced, but active composition.

In general, most compositions fall somewhere in between these two organizational

poles. Approximate symmetry is a common type of balance that can nudge a
composition away from the formal pole and toward the informal. Approximate
symmetry begins life as a symmetric composition, but evolves by varying features on
either side of the axis (or plane) of symmetry.

Modular forms, though, tend to drift toward symmetry and can achieve four types: bi-
lateral (mirror), radial and/or rotation and translation. Symmetry exists when an
object repeatedly undergoes the same transformation and always ends up matching its
copy.

a: bi-lateral b: radial and rotation c: spherical

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 d: kaleidoscopic e: translation

In 3D form bilateral symmetry reflects across a middle plane. Radial symmetry relies
on rotation to copy objects evenly around an axis, like the slices of a pie. If this radial
pattern includes reflected pairs, it is sometimes called kaleidoscopic symmetry. The
spherical version of this symmetry resembles the seed head of a dandelion. Translation
symmetry moves the position of the units in a consistent direction and a consistent
distance.

Although one type of symmetry may dominate the appearance of an object, other
symmetries are often present. In image a above the the upper object also exhibits
radial symmetry around its lengthwise axis. Similarly image e includes rotation in
order to match the lower to the upper tier of modules.

• emphasis and focus

A highly patterned, formal organization may also gain some informality by including
one area of seeming disorder. This anomaly, as it is termed can also provide a region
of emphasis in a composition. Properly emphasizing one region of a composition can
effectively engage the viewer s attention and is another chief principle of
composition.

Closely related to emphasis is the principle of focus. Focus draws the eye to a specific
area of the composition. It marshals patterns of continuity to steer the viewer s eye to
that spot. The point of focus itself does not usually contrast with the remainder of the
composition, but gains its prominence from the service of the other parts in delivering
the viewer to that point.

Hierarchical Organization

It becomes apparent when confronted with a pile of modules, each of which can
combine with the others in dozens of different ways, that some sort of strategy is
needed to know where to begin. One classic approach is to subdivide the problem of
composition into simpler components, to divide and conquer. One form of organization
that is especially amenable to modular composition is to arrange the structure into
levels, or hierarchies of complexity.

In nature, always a good place to turn for examples of organization, atoms join into
molecules, which in turn unite into organelles and then into cells. These cells

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assemble into organs that coordinate into a living person. People then gather into
families, which are the cells for higher social organization.

Similarly two or more modules may unite into a super-module that may then serve as a
more complex module for the finished composition. This simple strategy yields three
levels of hierarchy: the module, the super-module and the completed composition.
Super-modules can, and often do, combine into yet higher-level modules, i.e., more
complex super-modules built from simpler super-modules. Levels of hierarchy may be
innumerable in nature, but for this tutorial three is sufficient.

Frequency

Three basic elements determine the form of a modular structure:

1) The configuration of the module, which will determine the possibilities for
joining each module, as well as the possible directions in space it can take.
2) The pattern of assembly, essentially the compositions that can develop.
3) The frequency of the repetition of the modules.

Cube modules will configure into more architectonic arrangements. This is because
they offer the orthogonal alignments preferred by architecture. Tetrahedrons (4-sided
polygons) on the other hand feature 60° angles on their faces and approximately 71°
between faces, yielding configurations with skewed and dynamic angles. These lend to
a sense of motion and life-like, organic character. This tutorial looks at some of the
potential of both.

Frequency denotes the number of occurrences within a single composition, that is, the
number of modules incorporated into the form. At a low frequency of just four or five
modules the composition succeeds or fails on the basis of only a few relationships.
Individual characteristics of the module are of key importance, as are the specific
position and direction of one module to another.

If one were to up the frequency to forty or fifty units, then the importance shifts to
the overall configuration of the total object. Despite the geometry of an individual
module the overall assembly form can begin to look organic. At four or five hundred
modules all the impressions of geometry virtually disappear and the form becomes an
organic mass. The individual modules become like voxels forming a digital mass: the
individual components disappear into the mass, even though they themselves create
the mass.

Without pattern, though, frequency can lead to a shapeless conglomerate. Each level
of hierarchy should maintain a clear pattern in its arrangement of the previous level.
Clear, in this case, means perceivable or easily detectable within the whole.

Number and Frequency

For this tutorial it is best to start experimenting with arrangements of 3 to 5 modules

and working up to between 12 and 18 modules. This is a good number for maintaining
a good balance between the visual impact of the geometric unit and the overall unity

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of the whole. This frequency also permits incorporating simple super-modules of 3 to 5
units each.

These numbers are not arbitrary. For compositions of like units it becomes important
to distinguish between few and many. At what number does few stop being few and
start to become many? The answer is, of course, relative to the situation and the
items under consideration -- similar to the distinction between cheap and expensive,
where it depends on what is purchased. But psychologists and anthropologists have
nevertheless established a number based on some simple perceptual experiments.

Scientists rapidly flashed cards with dots distributed randomly on their faces, and then
asked their test subjects the number of dots on each card. Up to four dots the
subjects had no problem instantly recognizing the number of dots. At five dots
problems set in and, without some practice, most subjects could not answer correctly
without pausing to count. The perceptible number rose when the dots were arranged
in regular patterns, such as with the markings on dominoes, dice or playing cards.

Limiting the number of units at each level of hierarchy is a good idea when creating
compositions of looser and more informal structures. Highly structured arrangements
with apparent and regular patterns can manage many more modules.

(Curiously, the number four turned up during similar tests with animals as various as
crows and monkeys. If a monkey were shown a box containing its meal of up to four
bananas and one was surreptitiously removed and then presented to the monkey
again, it protested obstreperously. However, if experimenters began by showing five
or more of the fruits and removed one, no protest ensued.)

Part I: Simple Polyhedral Modules

Keep the module simple. Begin the design with a simple polyhedron, such as a cube or
pyramid. Make sure that all of the faces of your polyhedron are regular polygons: a
cube, a tetrahedron, or a square pyramid with equilateral faces are good, and will be
among those used for this tutorial. This will ensure ample joining possibilities between
modules.

This is the first of two approaches to creating a modular structure, both of which
provide different design concerns. In this approach the modules will be whole,
unedited polyhedrons whose faces are regular polygons. For the sake of this portion of
the tutorial the faces of the polyhedron will be restricted to equilateral triangles and
squares. The final structure will comprise two such polyhedrons, repeated to a total of
15 modules or more units.

The digital portion of the tutorial concentrates on creating the following polyhedrons:
cube, tetrahedron, semi-regular square pyramid, semi-regular triangular prism, and
square anti-prism. Try building models of all five and then choose two to serve as the
final modules.

1. Insert the polyhedron with edges in whole units of the major grid lines, 2, 3 or
4 major units (10, 15, or 20 minor units) per edge. Since the faces of the
polygon are all regular polygons, then all of the edges will be equal. For now

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this whole unit proportioning is solely for convenience and consistency.
However, it will prove essential for the architectonic modular structure later in
this tutorial. Keep this edge length standard for all five polyhedrons.

Before proceeding with the following insertion instructions, be sure to activate

the Snap tool and the End, Middle, Intersection and Center snaps.

1a. To insert a cube:

Choose the Box, Corner to Corner,
Height tool from the Solid menu and
click in the Top view to set each corner
of a square base and then move the
cursor to the Front view to set the
height. In the example to the right the
box has 3 major units on each side,
forming a cube.

1b. To insert a square pyramid:

With the Curve, Rectangle, Corner to Corner tool insert a square in the
Top view. Choose the Curve, Polygon, By Edge tool and at the command
prompt type in 3 for the number of sides and then hit Enter to confirm.
Click on two adjacent corners of the square to insert an equilateral
triangle to abut the right edge of the square. Repeat on the left edge of
the square.

The next step is to determine the height

and position of the apex of the pyramid.
This can be determined constructively:

Select the Curve, Arc, Center, Start,

Angle tool. In the Top view click on the
middle of an edge between the square
and a triangle. This will set the center of
the arc. In the Front view click on the
apex of the triangle to start the arc.
Continue the arc almost to the opposite
side of the square. Repeat from the
other side.

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 The intersection of these two arcs will be the tip of the pyramid.
Extrude the square base to this point. Follow up by capping this
extrusion. (For a full explanation of this extrusion process refer back to
the insertion of pyramids, as covered in the previous tutorial.)

1c. Insert a tetrahedron:

A tetrahedron has a triangular base and three triangular sides. It can be

built similarly to the square pyramid.

Insert an equilateral triangle with the Polygon, By Edge tool, placing its
base on a horizontal grid line. Mirror this triangle along its base line.

To construct the apex point draw an arc as for the square pyramid. This
is the only arc permissible, since the program only allows arcs to be
drawn parallel to the orthogonal view ports. However, since this arc
passes through the axis of the tetrahedron, it is possible to find its
intersection with the axis in order to determine the apex. With the
Orthogonal snap and Center snap activated, select the Line tool and
snap to the center of the base triangle in the Top view. Drop down to
the Front view and draw the line vertically up through the arc.
Complete the tetrahedron by extruding the triangular base to this point
of intersection. Cap to complete.

1d. Insert a triangular prism:

While in the Top view insert an

equilateral triangle with the Polygon,
By Edge tool. Select this triangle and
choose Extrude Planar Curve from the
Solid menu, or click on the Extrude
Planar Curve icon in the Solid toolbar.
With the grid Snap tool active, extrude
to a distance equal to the side of the
triangle. This will yield a prism with
equilateral triangles for end faces and
squares for side faces. (For a fuller

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 coverage of this procedure refer back to the insertion of prisms as
covered in the previous tutorial.)

1e. Insert a square anti-prism with regular triangular side faces:

Draw the square base of the anti-prism. Select this square and
rotate/copy it 45° around the center. Also draw a regular triangle
attached to one side. From this triangle draw an arc as in 1b above.

Make sure that End, Near and Ortho snaps are active, but no others.
Select the rotated copy of the square and choose Transform, Move or
click on the Move icon. Click on a corner of the rotated square and drag
it upward. The Ortho snap will guide it straight up and the Near snap
will fasten it to the arc directly above its previous position.

Delete the construction lines and select the two squares. Explode.
Choose Surface, Extrude, To Point and activate End snap. Click on the
edge of the base square and then on the corner of the top square just
above that edge. This will build a surface in the shape of an equilateral
triangle. Repeat on all sides of the base square and similarly from the
edges of the top square to the corners of the bottom square. This
completes the side faces of the anti-prism. Join all eight triangles and
cap the ends to complete the anti-prism.

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2. Choose two polyhedrons from the five models and unfold. Select and make a 2D
drawing from the unfolded surfaces. These procedures are detailed in the previous
tutorial. Delete the surfaces.

Create the Pattern

3. It is a good idea to size the 2D patterns just produced before exporting to Adobe
Illustrator. The patterns for both modules should be scaled simultaneously to
ensure that the finished modules fit together accurately. In the examples below
the two chosen polyhedrons are the pyramid and the anti prism.

Draw two rectangles which are 8 major gridlines by 10 major + 2 minor gridlines.
This will be very close to the proportions of the printable area of an inkjet printer
on an 8.5 x 11 sheet. Now select and drag the larger of the two patterns into one
of the rectangles. Rotate the pattern too orient it for the best fit and bring it flush
into one corner of the rectangle. Depending on the original dimensions of the
polyhedron this pattern will be too large or too small to fit economically into this
rectangle. In this example the pattern for the anti-prism is too large.

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4. Select both patterns, making sure to keep the rectangles unselected.
Activate the End snap and choose Transform, Scale, Scale 2D or right click on the
Scale 2D icon. At the prompt Origin point click on the corner of the rectangle that
is flush with the pattern. Now click in an open area some distance from the
rectangle and drag to shrink (or enlarge) the pattern. When the pattern fits neatly
into the rectangle click again to keep that scale. Selecting both patterns while
scaling the larger pattern ensures that both modules have changes equally and that
the smaller will also fit into its rectangle.
5. Add tabs to the patterns and export as separate Illustrator files. In the pop-up
menu check the Preserve unit scale box and set the scale as 1 Rhino unit = 0.2
inch.

(Note: In the case of the sample pattern it turns out that the pyramid pattern is
equivalent to half of the pattern of the anti-prism. Further, the two halves of the
anti-prism s pattern mirror one another. The pattern design was then modified into
two mirrored pyramid patterns, so that only one pattern sheet is needed.)

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6. Print several copies of each module pattern on 110 lb. or heavier index
board. Cut out, assemble and begin experimenting with arrangements of
these modules. Try creating super-modules comprising 3 to 5 modules each,
such as that shown below. Attach the modules like face to like face only.

This super-module in turn becomes the module for a yet more complex structure.
Assemblies of modules and super-modules can generate by following the natural
symmetry of their form. In the examples above and below the cross-shaped super-
module disperses in a highly symmetric rectilinear lattice. Strict adherence to such
symmetry will lead to a very formal composition, a heavily patterned region of 3D
space.

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Eschewing symmetry in favor of more intuitive assemblies will tend to belie the
geometric character of the modular unit and express more organic qualities, as in
the image below. This composition relies on a significant degree of symmetry,
though much less than the lattice above. The modules themselves have radial
symmetry and its super unit to the right is mirrored from top to bottom. At this
level of hierarchy the symmetry is as great as that of the composition above. The
composition as a whole differs in that it has only rotational symmetry: its left and
right halves are exactly the same and not mirrored copies.

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Part 2: Architectonic Modules
This will be a relatively long tutorial to create
a simple 3D form. This is because it includes
some new procedures for managing the
modeling environment. Among these are
locking and unlocking, grouping and
ungrouping as well as manipulating the
visibility of objects.

This structure employs only one repeated

module derived from a cube. Subtracting
portions of the cube, however, will introduce
active negative spaces into the composition. In
addition to joining like faces to like faces this
module will incorporate a surface grid to
control the joining pattern.

1. Insert a cube with sides proportioned evenly to the major grid lines. The cube
should be 3,4 or 5 major grid units per side.

2. The next step will be to draw grid lines onto the faces of the module. From the
Curve menu choose Curves from Object, Section. Select the cube and hit enter
to activate the Section tool. This tool will draw a curve around the cube on an
imaginary plane that passes through the cube.

Activate the Snap tool and the Ortho snap. Click on the major grid lines
crossing the cube at a point on each side of the cube, but not at the corners.
The program then automatically draws a line to gird the cube on four sides.
Repeat this procedure in all three directions of the cube.

3. Select the cube and all surface lines. Choose Edit, Group. Make a copy of the
group.

4. From the Tools menu

choose Options, Shade. In the
Shade menu under Show
check Curve Objects. Keep
the other boxes unchecked.
From now on, when shading
the model, the surface grids
will also appear.

5. Now is the key stage in the

design of the module: to use
the copy of the cube to
subtract a portion of the

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 original cube. A successful subtraction will leave a negative volume that
follows the proportions of the surface grid. Thus it is advisable to use this grid
as an aid in intersecting the subtracting polyhedron.

Select one of the two grouped polyhedrons and from the Edit, Visibility menu
click Lock. The selected group will then dim to denote that it is locked. A
locked object cannot be edited in any way but other objects may be snapped
to it. This locked polyhedron, along with its surface lines, is to become the
module, and the free copy will become the subtracting volume.

6. Deactivate all snap tools except for Int and End. This will ensure that all
snapped positions correspond to the intersection and corners of the surface
lines and the vertices of the polyhedron.

With this preparation, the various transformation tools will allow precise
repositioning and placement of the free cube onto the locked cube. Also
ungroup both cubes. The planned module design will determine which
transformation tools to use. In the demonstration example below the free cube
was rotated 45° and then moved to intersect with the locked cube. The End
snap picked the grid point to move from and the Int snap picked the grid point
to move to.

1: Rotate 2: Move

3: Subtract 4: Delete free grid

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7. Note how this position of the cubes makes use of the surface grids for its
alignment. Now unlock the locked cube and then subtract, as follows.

Select the cube to be retained, and then choose Solid,

Difference, or click on the Difference icon in the Solid
Tools fly-out toolbar. Select the other module and hit
Enter to complete the subtraction. The grid lines will
remain since the Difference operation only works for
solids. Delete these lines.

8. The module is now nearly complete, except for

extending the grid lines onto the surfaces created by
the Difference operation. The following procedure will
quickly create these grid lines.

Choose Edit, Select, Curves, or click and hold on the ALL button,
located on the Standard toolbar, to open the Select toolbar, and then click on
the Curve icon. This will select all of the lines on the subtracted cube. Choose
Surface, From Planar Curves, or click on the From Planar Curves icon in the fly-
out Surface toolbar. Since the selected curves are section curves they are both
closed and planar, they will generate the sectioning planes through the
module. With the curves still selected, hit Delete to remove them.

9. Select the module and click on the Trim icon. Click on the visible plane
surfaces to trim the planes back to the surface of the module.

5: Surfaces from curves 6: Create Intersection lines

10. or Choose Curve, From Objects, Duplicate Edge (or Duplicate

Border). Select all and hit Enter. This tool will turn all of the edges into curves
and, since the planes all touch the surfaces of the module, it will draw these

165
 curves onto these surfaces. The grid is re-formed to include all surfaces of the
module.

Choose Edit, Select, Surfaces, or click on the Surfaces icon in the Select
toolbar. Delete these surfaces.

Create the Pattern

Since this module is a polyhedron, the unfolding and pattern editing process is similar
to that of the previous tutorials, but with two differences. First, the surface lines
should remain as part of the pattern; second, the module s pattern includes concave
surfaces from the subtraction.

10. Retaining the surface grids.

Select the entire module and explode. The module will appear the same, but
each surface will now be separate, as will the surface lines.

Select each surface one at a time, including the surface lines and choose Edit,
Group. The best way to select is to use the program s closed window mode of
selection. Closed window means that dragging the selection window only picks
up those graphic entities that the window completely surrounds. Open window
mode picks any graphic entity that the selection window touches. In Rhino
dragging the selection window left to right functions in the closed window;
dragging right to left functions as the open window mode. Use the closed
window mode while working from various views.

2. Including the concave surfaces.

Unfold the concave portion and the convex portion separately, making each a
separate pattern. First unfold the convex surfaces, using the procedures in the
previous tutorial on polyhedrons. With the open window mode select the

166
concave surfaces and move them well away from the convex portion of the
module. Use the procedures in the previous tutorial to unfold these surfaces.

Also use the procedures from the previous tutorial in editing the unfolded
pattern for printing, but with one modification: put no tabs on the outer edges
of the concave pattern. Instead place these tabs on those edges of the convex
pattern to which these edges will attach.

Export into Adobe Illustrator for final edits, especially if graphics will be added
to the surface of the module. (If adding graphics retain the definition of the
grid as part of the design.) Scale the pattern to fit snugly on a single 8-1/2 x 11
page. Lines should be light but visible.

167
 Print on 110lb or heavier index (or similar) board with a back-feed ink jet
printer. Cut out, score, and glue together as in the previous tutorial.

Assemble the convex pattern first, and then assemble the concave portion.
There will be an opening in the convex assembly, surrounded by tabs and
waiting to accept the concave assembly. Apply glue to these open tabs and
insert the concave assembly.

Part 3: Assemble the Modules

Assembling the modules into a composition offers not just the possibility of continuity
that results from joining corresponding faces, but also the continuity of grid lines
meeting between modules. In the joining of the three modules illustrated below, note
how grid units match even though the modules are staggered with respect to one
another.

a. b.

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Note, too, how complex the composition has become with only three modules. This is
a consequence of the inclusion of subtractive form in the design of the modules. Each
module is actually a super unit comprised of two cubes, one positive and one negative.

In fact, the most complex task of this composition is to control of its negative spaces.
This, plus the use of the grid as a proportioning and placement element, ties this
composition closely to the architectonic planes of the first tutorial in this workbook.
This is a good point, then, to pause and review the three basic ideas about positive
and negative space introduced in that tutorial.

The first idea is that negative spaces can be divided into active and passive negatives.
Active negatives are extractions of form from an existing form, like a bite from a
sandwich. In modeling this is the intended outcome of the Boolean difference
operation. In the composition above the active negatives are the subtracted portions
of the modules. Passive negatives, though, are simply the spaces between two positive
forms, like the alley between two buildings. In the composition below the most
notable example is the space beneath the outcropping of the top module.

active negative

open spaces

closed space,
passive negative

c.

The second principle is that a negative space can be relatively closed or relatively
open. A closed space is most defined, since it tends to have the most positive forms
enclosing it. In the above composition the space below the outcrop is the most
enclosed. Three modules, plus the ground plane on which they rest, gather to enclose
four sides of this space.

The open spaces on the second story of the composition are, on the other hand, barely
defined. On this upper level are four spaces: three open negatives and one completely
closed positive. (One way of thinking about positive space is as a completely closed
volume.) Granted, it may be somewhat counter-intuitive to perceive the three open
negatives, since only two planes are in place to suggest their cubic volumes and, in
some cases, only a portion of those planes.

169
One reason is that the boundaries between these spaces is not physical, but only
suggested, so that they all flow together around the inside corner of the top module.
This brings up the third idea about positive and negative spaces: continuity of form
and continuity of space. The latter has to do with the passage from one negative space
to another, a concept crucial to architecture. In architecture these are the spaces
conditioning the movement of the user.

Picture the composition as a full-scale work of architecture and then picture

users/viewers on the second story of the composition. Following their movement
across this level it is apparent that they must walk from one larger balcony, follow a
walkway past a drop off and around a corner to arrive at a second smaller balcony.
Though the viewers do not typically stop to think, Look, I ve just moved through
three spaces and around a fourth! , they do experience these transitions. The designer
should think consciously about such transitions, in order to shape the viewers
experience.

It is a good idea then to conceive of space in this structure as building from negative
modules, just as the positive forms build from the material modules. The two
examples below illustrate how visually effective the process of building negative
spaces can be. The ability of modular form two develop complex design from simple
components applies to the spaces amongst the modules as well.

170
Pattern Construction
of Cylinders and Cones

Program requirements: Rhino 3D,v.2 and Adobe Illustrator v.8 and higher.
Tool requirements: Exacto knife, 12" stainless steel ruler
Material requirements: 120lb index board, white glue

Representing Cylinders and Cones

Cylinders and cones are solids whose sides are rolled surfaces. Grab a piece of typing
paper and roll it end to end and it is a tube -- a cylinder with open ends. Roll one end
of the tube tighter than the other and the tube will taper into a conically curved
surface. Because rolled surfaces can unroll flat, it is possible to create patterns for
cylinders and cones.

Before the invention of NURBS modeling all curved surfaces were created from
frequently repeated polygons. Cylinders and cones were modeled as prisms and
pyramids whose end polygons featured enough sides that viewers saw them as round.

Although the solids above appear convincingly like a cylinder and cone they are built
entirely out of flat, polygonal surfaces

171
Types of Cylinders and Cones
This tutorial is devoted to variations on cylinders and cones:

 the cylinder, whose base and

top are congruent circles

 the cone, whose base is a

circle

 the frustum of a cone, whose

base and top are circles of
different diameters

 elliptical and free-form

cylinders

 elliptical and free-form

cones and frustums

In addition to the solids covered in this tutorial cylindrical and conical surfaces can
combine to yield a particular elegant set of polyhedron-like solids. In effect rolled
surfaces supplant the faces of polyhedrons.

172
Topics
The following tutorial covers the digital modeling of basic and freeform cylinders and
cones and the pattern construction of their physical models.

Part I of this tutorial demonstrates how to draw circles, ellipses and closed free-form
curves, and to use extrusion and lofting tools to create prisms, pyramids and frustums
from these curves.

Part II takes covers procedures for unrolling these solids into flat patterns.

Part III shows how to edit those patterns for printing and assembly and illustrates the
process of scoring, folding and gluing patterns into solid models.

Part I: Cylinders and Cones

Primitives

Where a prism is an extrusion of a polygon the standard cylinder is an extrusion of a

circle. If you like, you may model the cylinder by doing so. Try this out. In some cases
it is the easiest way to do it. However, Rhino, like most modeling programs, has an
individual tool just for inserting cylinders more quickly.

1. To insert a cylinder:

Click and hold the Box icon

to open the Solid toolbar and click on the
cylinder icon; or choose Solid, Cylinder; or
key stroke Alt O,Y. Click in any of the
orthogonal viewports (Top, Right or Front)
to set the center of the base and click
again to set the radius of the base. The
circle thus created will automatically
extrude in the direction of the mouse
cursor. Click to finish the cylinder.
Depending on the direction of the cylinder

173
 you can move the cursor into another viewport for the last click. For ease of
unfolding it is best to place the cylinder base down on the x,y plane.

Where a pyramid is an extrusion of a polygon to a point, the standard cone is

an extrusion of a circle to a point. If you like, you may model the cone by doing
so (Don't forget to cap the cone.). Try this out. In some cases it is the easiest
way to do it. However, Rhino, like most modeling programs, has an individual
tool just for inserting cones more quickly.

2. To insert a cone:

Click and hold the Box icon

to open the Solid toolbar and click on the
cone icon; or choose Solid, Cone; or key
stroke Alt O,C. Click in any of the
orthogonal viewports (Top, Right or
Front) to set the center of the base and
click again to set the radius of the base.
The circle thus created will automatically
extrude in the direction of the mouse
cursor. Click to finish the cone.
Depending on the direction of the cone
you can move the cursor into another
viewport for the last click.

One method to model the cone's frustum is similar to modeling the frustum of
the pyramid. Try this out by substituting circles for the two polygons. In some
cases this may be the easiest way to do it. However, Rhino, like most modeling
programs, has an individual tool just for inserting cylinders more quickly.

3. To insert the frustum of a cone:

Click and hold the Box

icon to open the Solid toolbar and click
on the Truncated Cone icon; or choose
Solid, Truncated Cone; or key stroke Alt
O,E. Click in any of the orthogonal
viewports (Top, Right or Front) to set
the center of the base and click again to
set the radius of the base. Another circle
concentric to the first will appear; click
once again to set the radius of this
second circle. The circle thus created
will automatically extrude in the
direction of the mouse cursor. Click to
finish the frustum. Depending on the
direction of frustum you can move the
cursor into another viewport for the last
click.

174
Lofting Cylinders and Cones

Geometric primitives like cylinders and cones are simple forms that, in and of
themselves, do not generate keen visual interest. However, their basic forms can be
varied to model forms that are simultaneously simple and visually engaging. Building
these solids from scratch using the lofting tools offer ample opportunity for
experimenting on the basic configuration of these solids.

Strictly speaking cones and cylinders by definition have circular bases. In practice,
however, designers will frequently vary that base into ellipses or even free-form
closed curves. Lofting, building a surface between a series of curves, is a good method
for modeling variations on cylindrical and conical surfaces.

As a start try the following exercise, in which you will apply lofting and scaling tools to
create a cylinder, a frustum of a cone and a cone.

4. Insert three circles, 6 units in diameter into the Top view.

5. Activate Ortho. In the Right view select all three circles and copy them about 6
units directly above the originals.

175
6. Model a cylinder by lofting between two circles:

Open the Surface toolbar and click on the

Loft icon; or choose Surface, Loft; or
keystroke Alt S,L. In Perspective view click
on the bottom and top circles at the left,
then hit Enter. The screen image will
change as shown in the screen shot below.
This is a very simple loft and no edits are
needed, so just hit Enter again. The loft
window will pop up with a number of
options for controlling the surface being
lofted. Again no edits are needed and the
normal default settings are fine. Complete
the loft by clicking OK or hitting enter.

7. Model a conical frustum by lofting between

two circles of different scale.

Select the top circle of the middle pair of circles. Right click on the
Scale icon to activate the Scale 2-D tool; or choose Transform, Scale, Scale 2-
D; or keystroke Alt T,S,2. Activate Osnap, Center and Quadrant.

Click near the edge of the circle to snap to its

center; then click on a quadrant (quadrants are
the points located at the ends of the horizontal
and vertical diameters of the circle). Move the
mouse to reduce (or enlarge) the circle.

176
 Note: As a brief experiment try the same scaling
procedure, but use the Scale 1-D tool. You can access this tool by
clicking and holding on the Scale icon and then clicking on the
Scale 1-D icon. Again snap to center and quadrant and watch the
circle transform as you move the mouse in all directions.

8. Model a cone by lofting from a circle to a point.

Click on the Point icon and snap a point object to the center of the top
circle of the right pair of circles. Loft from the bottom right circle to the newly
inserted point by selecting the two in sequence as if the point were another
curve.

177
9. Select all three lofted surfaces and use the Cap Planar Holes tool to close them
into solids.

Click and hold the Scale icon and click on the Scale 1-D icon in
the fly-out toolbar. Go to Top view and, with Osnap, Center and Quadrant
active, click to the center and the top quadrant of the middle solid. Deactivate
all of the snaps and activate Ortho. Drag the circles inward (or outward) to
create ellipses. Note that with all of the figures select the scale transformation
affects all simultaneously.

Elliptical Cylinders and Cones

10. While the surfaces are still selected, let's transform these
solids into their elliptical versions.

11. If time permits, model these solids again, but this time begin with ellipses
instead of circles.

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Free-form Cylinders and Cones

Free-form cylinders and cones can be among the most sculptural and visually engaging
of geometric forms. The same techniques used to make the elliptical cylinders and
cones will work for modeling these free-form solids.

The key is to build on a base whose curved shape is more visually active and unique
than a circle or oval. Modeling programs offer two basic approaches for creating
uniquely curving shapes:
 direct drawing using spline drawing tools
 editing circles and ellipses

13. Most modeling programs, including Rhino, offer two options for
drawing spline curves. These are the Control Point Curve and the Curve:
Interpolate Points tools. The first lays down a line shaped by control points.
Each mouse click will set a control point, rather than a point on the path of the
curve. Conversely the second tool causes each mouse click to set a point on the
path of the curve, and the curve will automatically snake to follow the points.
These also serve as edit points for the curve

To access the Control Point Curve tool click on the

Control Point Curve icon in the side toolbar; or choose
Curve, Free-form, Control Points; or keystroke Alt C, M,
C. To access the Curve: Interpolate Points tool click
and hold the Control Points Curve icon to pop out the
Curve toolbar and click on the Curve: Interpolate Points
icon; or choose Curve, Free-form, Interpolate Points; or
keystroke Alt C, M,I.

To close one of these curves return to your starting point and click to close the
curve. Don't worry if the shape is not exactly what you wished. Just turn on the
points to adjust the curve.

179
14. In spline geometry circles and ellipses are closed spline curves. They therefore
feature control and edit points. Turn these on and you can edit circles and into
free-form shapes:

15. Note in the illustration above how

the quadrant points of the ellipse
pull out to a point. In spline
geometry this is called a kink.
Splines require the kinks to
produce circles and ellipses. This
can be desirable for creating some
shapes (like a heart!) or it can be
an unwanted characteristic if the
intent is to craft a shape with
continuous flow.

To eliminate kinks
just rebuild a circle, for example,
as you did the surface in modeling
the relief. This will not produce a
true circle, but a close enough
approximation for editing closed
curves

Select the circle. Click and hold

the Fillet icon in the side tool bar
to access the fly-out Curve Tools
toolbar, and then click the rebuild
icon; or choose Curve, Edit Tools,
Rebuild; or keystroke Alt C, T, R.

180
 The pop-up window offers the option to adjust the point count. Rebuilding will
slightly change the shape of the circle, but this will not be visually noticeable if
the degree remains at 3 and the point count at 5 or higher. For the sake of
curiosity try rebuilding with the following specifications: a) point count 4,
degree 2, b) point count 3, degree 1 and c) point count 10, degree 1.

16. Turn on the control or edit points to adjust the circle into a free-form shape.

17. Place the three free-form shapes in a row:

18. From these three shapes build a skew free-form cylinder, a skew free-form
frustum and a free-form cone respectively. You can set up for this as you did
for the irregular polygons in the previous tutorial:
 Copy the first figure vertically and off to one side.
 Copy the next figure vertically and off to one side. Reduce its scale.
 Place a point above and off to one side of the third figure.

19. Loft and cap all three pairs of elements, again, just as with the irregular skew
polyhedrons.

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Part II: Unrolling Cylinders and Cones
Polyhedrons unfold; cylinders and cones unroll. In this part of the tutorial you will
unroll cylinders and cones into patterns.

Unrolling a Cylinder

1. To unroll first explode the cylinder. A cylinder will explode into three
surfaces: the two end circles plus the rolled surface. To create a pattern it is
necessary to unroll the rolled surface. The technical name for a rolled surface
is a developable surface.

Open the Surface Tools toolbar by clicking and holding on the Fillet Surface
icon, then click on the Unroll Developable Surface icon; or choose Surface,
Unroll Developable Srf; or keystroke Alt S,S. Select the rolled surface and hit
Enter. The surface will remain where it is, but its copy will unroll from the
origin of the x,y grid. Delete the original surface.

182
183
2. Go to Osnap and activate Middle and Quadrant snap. Click on a quadrant
of the top circle and drag to the middle of the top edge of the unrolled
surface, then repeat to bring the bottom circle to the bottom edge.

Unrolling a Cone

3. Explode the cone and unroll the surface by following the same procedure
as with the cylinder. Notice that Rhino again begins the unroll at the
origin of the x,y grid and directs the unrolling into the positive quadrant
of the grid. The resulting shape is a segment of a circle whose radius
equals the length of the side of the cone. Delete the original surface and
move the base face near the broad edge of the unrolled surface.

A
P

Unrolling a Cone s Frustum

4. Explode the frustum and unroll the side surface. Delete the original rolled
version of the surface. Move the base circle near the convex edge of the
unrolled surface and move the top circle near the concave edge of the unrolled
surface to complete the pattern.

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 P

B
A
P

B
A

Unrolling Elliptical Cones

5. The sides of elliptical cylinders and cones are also rolled -- developable--
surfaces, and can be unrolled in the same manner as their circular cousins:

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 A circle curves with the same radius at all points on its circumference. An
ellipse curves with a larger radius on its broad sides and with a smaller radius
at its narrow ends. The same holds true for the unrolled sides of elliptical
cones. In assembling the pattern it is important that the curvature of the
unrolled sides match with the corresponding points on the oval faces.

Rhino simplifies this alignment because it starts unrolling from a quadrant

point, which in circles and ellipses are also kinks. In laying out the pattern just
match the corresponding quadrant points of the base and side.

6. Unless they were shaped from circles and ellipses, which were not re-built,
free-form curves do not have the kinks. Aligning the edge of an unrolled side to
the edge of an end face can be difficult. One solution is notch an edge of the
cone or cylinder prior to unrolling.

Insert a small, thin cylinder to intersect the cone or cylinder at an edge and
subtract the cylinder to create a tiny notch.

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 Click and hold on the Boolean Union icon to pop out the Solid
Tools toolbar and click on the Boolean Difference icon; or choose Solid,
Difference; or keystroke Alt O,D. Click on the solid you wish to unroll. Hit enter
and click on the small cylinder. Hit enter again to complete the operation.

7. Explode and unroll into a pattern.

8. Use the Orient: 2 Points tool to match the cusps of the notch in the
unrolled side to those of the notch in the base.

Part III. Editing for Assembly

At this stage you could go on to cut out, fold and tape a print of this pattern into a
crude preliminary model -- not an object to put on display, but a useful visualization
to determine what modifications, if any, may need to be made before proceeding to a
more finished version.

For finer models, intended for display or presentation to a client, you will need to
prepare a bit more. One important preparation is to add tabs for gluing the folded
pattern together. Each adjoining edge will require gluing tabs. With cones and
cylinders however there is only one pair of straight edges on which to place a tab. All
other edges are curved.

In pattern construction curved edges are joined by a string of small triangular tabs
arrayed along the edge of the curve. Rhino has a number of excellent tools to make
this a fairly quick process.

9. The best location for placing this series of tabs is along the edge of the
unrolled side. The first step is to make the edge a continuous curve once again.

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 Activate Osnap, End and snap a line across the mouths of the notches. Join this
line segment with the curve segments on each side of the notch.

The Join tool works the same for joining curves as it does for joining
surfaces. Click on the Join icon; or choose Edit, Join; or keystroke Alt E,J.
Select the curve segments in sequence and hit Enter.

10. Next let's divide the newly joined curve into 24 segments and place a tab on
each segment.

Click and hold on the Point Object icon to pop out the Point
toolbar; then right click on the Divide Curve icon to divide by the Number of
Segments. Or choose Curve. Point Object, Divide by, Number of Segments; or
keystroke Alt C,P,D,N. Select the curve and hit Enter. At the command prompt
Number of segments type 24 and hit Enter. A series of points will appear on
the curve, dividing it into 24 equal lengths. Note: for a cylinder of frustum
divide both edges.

11. Activate the Osnap, Point and de-activate all other snaps. At one end of the
curve draw a polyline to form a triangle with the curve and the first two
points.

12. To copy the tab along the curve use the Orient: 2 Points tool. Select the
triangle and activate this tool. At the command prompt Reference Point 1
type in c and hit Enter to activate the copy function. Click on the first point on
the curve then on the second point. Now click on the second point again and
then on the third point; click on the third point again and then the fourth
point. Continue in this rhythm to copy the triangle repeatedly along the curve.
Note that as the curve bends more and the straight line distance between
points shortens, the triangle will automatically re-scale to fit.

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For a cylinder or frustum, repeat on the opposite edge.

189
13. Click and hold on the
Select All icon to pop out the Select
toolbar; then click on the Select
Points icon. This will select all of
the points arrayed along the curve.
Delete.

Activate Osnap, End and draw a series of lines from the each tab end to the
cone point. For cylinders and frustums the lines should run between
corresponding tabs on each edge.

These lines are to be score lines. When assembling the printed pattern, scoring
these lines will relieve surface stresses in the paperboard and allow the surface
to bend more easily and regularly. Paper will tend to bend along stress curves
innate to the physical material. The bends are not necessarily prone to exactly
follow the curves of your model. Thicker boards are also reluctant to navigate
tighter bends. A series of regularly spaced score lines will solve these
problems.

14. One more tab is needed to join the edges where the unrolled surface will curve
back on itself. Select the first score line just inside the edge to be tabbed.
Mirror that line using the tabbed edge as the reflection axis. (Make sure that
Osnap, End is still active.)

Activate Osnap, Near. Draw the lines to form the ends of the tab. Trim to
complete the tab. Note that for cones the end of the tab is moved down from
the tip of the cone. If the tab were to extend all of the way to the tip, there
would be no leverage for cleanly folding the tab as it nears the tip. This tends
to distort the tip during assembly.

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15. The last step in editing the pattern for assembly is to replace the tabbed
curves with polylines. Select these curves and delete. With Osnap, End active
draw a polyline from end to end of the bases of the tabs. This polyline
functions as a good representation of the original curve, while providing
straight score lines for folding the tabs.

16. Export to Illustrator. While in Illustrator fit the pattern to the printed page and
adjust the line color and weight as you did for the polyhedron pattern. At this
stage you can add textures, text and other graphics with which you wish to
decorate your model.
Note that you will need to flip, i.e., mirror, the unrolled portion of the pattern
in order to place the score lines on the outside of the pattern. When unrolling
the surface, Rhino placed it on the construction plane (the x,y plane) with the
inside up.

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17. Two more edits will aid in the attractiveness and ease of assembly. The first is
to replace the notches with registration points.

Zoom in on a notch end and activate the ellipse tool. With

the stroke set at null and the fill set for the same as the line color of
the pattern, draw a dot around the notch end. Do the same on the
corresponding end of the second notch. Delete the notches.

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18. The final edit is necessary only if the final model features a concave surface.
The model for the demonstration pattern possesses one such concavity.

An important rule for scoring folds is that the fold should always be scored on
the convex side of the folded sheet. This means that a concave edge or curve
should be scored on the inside of the physical model. Consequently some
scoring must be executed on the back surface of the printed pattern.

In the pattern above two lines will need to be scored on the back. These are
indicated by filling the tab flanked by the lines.

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Geometric Sculpture

Using Rhino 3D and Adobe Illustrator

Materials: 8.5 x 11- 20 lb white paper, 8.5 x 11- 110 lb or heavier index board, white
glue, transparent tape
Tools: Cork-backed stainless steel ruler, Exacto knife

Objects seem sculptural if they project exceptionally strong and expressive

interactions of forms in space. In modeling much of this strength of interaction derives
from the spatial editing tools, the transformations and the Boolean operations. These
are the primary tools for developing form-on-form relationships in space, especially in
eliciting drama and movement from this interplay of form.

This tutorial tackles the design and construction of a geometric sculpture crafted from
separate geometric forms integrated into a single dynamic object. This tutorial will
restrict the number of geometric forms to five, with representatives from the families
of polyhedrons, cones and cylinders. Of necessity all of the transformation will come
into play, and, in the interest of unique and engaging design at least two of the
Booleans will be at work.

Concave/Convex Form

To the sculptural eye a depression or hole in a stone is not just a thing to be named,
but also an action to be inferred. It is the penetration of space into material: at some
point in time some force and some process was needed to gouge it out. Perhaps the
inexorable grind of a glacier, or the abrasion of wind-blown sand on the softer parts of
the stone, or the insistent turbulence of a stream carved this opening of space into
form.

Similarly, a protuberance from the stone signals that a part of the stone was able to
withstand these same forces. In sculptural terms such an outcrop is the mastery
temporarily, at least of form over space.

In nature concave and convex forms are directly attributable to physical processes.
Terms used by sculptors generalize this into more abstract associations and describe
concave and convex elements as the consequence of the interplay between form and
space. In this sense, the properties of materials, their strength and durability,
correspond to form, while environ-mental forces correspond to the incursion of space.

Sculptors try to retain this shape-engendering dialectic between strength and force in
their thinking about the interplay of visual forms. Such abstract terminology is a good
tool for talking about form in a modeling environment, too. Form in this environment

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is purely abstract: no winds blast sand against stone and no chisels cut along the grain
of wooden blocks in the virtual world of the digital model. Instead, geometric
elements, numerically computed, translated into screen visuals of the model.

Snow builds masses on an armature of tree branches gnawed and stripped for food by
beavers. As the weather warms the thinner areas melt more quickly, creating undulating
depressions across the surface.

The formal analogs for material processes by which sculptors analyze sculptural
relationships can thus greatly inform the digital stage of the expressive process of 3D
design. Digital modeling is comparable to the crafting paper models by sculptors and
other design professionals during the process of conceptualizing the proposed object.
At this stage of design, traditional sculptors and designers also must think in formal
terms, because the paper model, like the digital model, is only a representation of a
potential physical object.

Characteristics of Form

A form with no concavities is termed a monolithic solid, or simply a monolith.

Monoliths convey strength in that their corners and surfaces project outward and have
not been conquered by space.

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In digital modeling the geometric primitives are the most common examples of
monoliths. Intersecting two or more primitive monoliths will create more complex
versions of a monolithic solid, (see below).

Concave-Convex Solids

Most solid forms fall into this category. This is because most objects in this world are
designed by nature or by man to possess strengths and purposes that require give and
take with their environment, including their users and other objects.

The Boolean operations of union and difference will yield a concave-convex solid. The
top row below overlaps the intersected solids created earlier. The next row employed
the union operation to join both into one solid. The last row features the effects of
the difference operation.

Though the effects of both union and difference are concave and convex in their
surface changes, the feel of the results are very distinct. Union creates the effect of
interpenetration of masses: the two solids appear as separate parts that penetrate
one another though in reality they are one solid. This is a powerful illusion introduced
into sculpture by Constructivist movement of the early 20th century.

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The effect of difference is equally powerful, but completely different. The viewer
senses the original mass and infers a shape subtracted from it. The extracting shape
still seems present, hovering like a negative force.

Positive-Negative Balance

One effective compositional strategy is to seek positive-negative balance. This is not

balance in the sense of gravity, but the equivalence between the forces cutting into
and pushing out from the sculpture.

The form on the left below is nicely balanced with respect to gravity. A subtle thrust
to one side by the larger form, counters the sharp overhang of the smaller for shifts in
the opposite direction. There is, however, less equilibrium between the positive and
negative interactions. The positive masses are strong, with two active and contrasting
monoliths interpenetrating one another. The sculptor may decide that this is a

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sufficiently compelling sculpture, reliant on the direct effectiveness of its positive
forms, or may elect to balance these forms against the incursion of negative forms.

At this point the single negative is the valley between these two masses. It is an
elegant and continuous channel of space moving in an upward spiral. Such a negative,
formed by the presence of two or more positive elements, is termed a passive
negative. A negative that extracts a shaped volume from a solid is, by contrast,
termed an active negative. Such a negative was extracted from the form on the right.
It is a pyramid that penetrates deeply, nearly to the bottom of the original form.

The passive negative is relatively shallow, while the active negative cuts deeply to the
center of the positive masses and beyond. In design terminology shallower negatives
are called concavities and the deeper cuts are called penetrations. Where the cut
continues on all of the way through it is called a perforation. Where concavities read
more as surface undulations, penetrations and perforations read as aggressive
incursions of space into form.

The bones of the human body provide a virtual

compendium of concave and convex form. Nature as the
primary sculptor has, through the tools of evolution,
shaped this skull to effectively fit its various functions: a
thick, monolithic shell to house and protect the brain, a
protruding brow to shade the eyes and a penetrating
cavity to harbor them. The hole perforating this
prehistoric skull indicates a process that tells a story: it
is clearly the work of man, in this case a surgeon, who
bored the hole, perhaps to relieve pressure on the brain
or to release a malevolent spirit. The rounded edge of the
hole reveals the operation to have been a success at
least to the degree that the patient survived.

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Line and Plane

A second cut splits the form in two, but the halves rejoin after a slight rotation. This
has added considerable dynamism to the sculpture and made the entry of space into
the masses more complex. Instead of a closed polygon the entrance is now a gapped
spiral, echoing the other spiraling edges on the surface. Just as with the earlier
surface tutorial edge once again functions as line. As such it can add vertical thrust
and movement around the form, encouraging one s eye to move around the sculpture.

The lighting has been dimmed to emphasize the changing silhouettes of the rotating sculpture.

Also similar to the earlier relief sculpture line can exist as concave and convex entities
on the surface of the sculpture. A solid 3-D sculpture like the example above can be
regarded as a closed surface that moves through all dimensions of space. But line
manifests in two additional guises with a full-dimensioned object. One is as outline or
silhouette; the other is in the elongation of the masses themselves.

Solids become more and more linear as they elongate. Such objects as bars, rods,
columns, beams and the like, suggest a certain amount of massiveness, while at the
same time possessing linear extension.

Likewise flattening a solid confers more and more the character of a plane. A slab of
material, for example, conveys the sense of plane and mass at the same time. Like
line plane can also exist as an attribute of a surface. Facets, such as the surfaces of a
polyhedron are planar. Chances are good that many of the surfaces of this tutorial s
resulting sculpture will be planar.

Part I: Applying Transformations and Booleans

The above examples provide a preview of the procedures in this tutorial. It will limit
the number of solids incorporated into the design of the end sculpture to five, with
the stipulation that at least two different types of solids are used and that at one of
these have a developable surface, i.e., a cylinder, a cone or the frustum of a cone.
Spheres and other surfaces of revolution, though used in the examples above, will not
be introduced until the next tutorial. Avoid these for now.

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1. Choose and insert the desired primitives. The size and proportion does not
matter for the time being, as these can change dramatically under
transformations. The two primitives inserted below fulfill the problem
restrictions:

There are an unlimited number of ways that these can be inter-related and
transformed, and thousands of these are potentially good sculptures. As with
the modular form design, this calls for some sort of strategic culling. Potential
ideas need to be tried and evaluated. Initially this process is by far the quickest
if done as thumbnail sketches. By contrast the computer is slow and
cumbersome.

2. Prior to the sketch and evaluate stages,

however, it is a good idea to practice the
transformations and the Booleans. Even
though prior tutorials have incorporated
these tools for practical purposes, it is
equally important to test their effect on the
visual impact of a form.

(The next several pages digress to introduce some new

transformations and take a look at the visual potentials of
transformations and Boolean operations.)

a. scale transformations

Rhino has tools to scale an object in one-, two- or three-

dimensions. These are located in the Transform menu. Click on
Scale and a sub-menu of four options will appear. These are

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Scale 1-D, Scale 2-D, Scale 3-D and Non-Uniform Scale. The latter offers the
option of scaling differently in the x, y and/or z directions.

The Scale toolbar has three icons. Right click the first to activate the Scale 2-D
tool or left click to activate the Scale 3-D tool. Click the second icon for Scale
1-D and click the third for Non-Uniform Scale.

After activating the desired scale tool select the objects to be scaled and hit
Enter. At the Origin point prompt click on the point from which the scale
change is to begin. A second prompt appears asking for the scale factor or the
first reference point. This prompt offers two separate options for changing the
scale. The scale factor is a numerical value expressing the proportion of
change. Typing in 2, for example, will double the size of the object in the
scaling dimension, while .5 will halve the scale. Electing to scale with the
reference point entails clicking on a point to establish the direction (or vector)
of scale and then moving the cursor to a second reference point to establish
the change in scale.

Example of the same cone under scale transformation (left to

right): Scale 2-D, Non-Uniform Scale, original cone, Scale 1-D and
scale 1-D again.

The change in scale depends on the proportion of the distance of the second
reference point from the origin point to the distance of the first reference
point from the origin point. In the case of the Scale 2-D and Scale 3-D tools the
direction in which the cursor is dragged doesn t matter, just the distance from
the origin point.

This is not the case for the Scale 1-D tool, however. Direction does matter.
Fixing the direction of change at a skew angle will cause the object to skew:

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 ref. 1

b
a a

origin
b
ref. 2

ref. 2

ref. 1

origin

b. transformations implying force

The Shear transformation tool generates a skewed scale distortion, but

with much more control over the outcome. Like the previous Scale tools it, too,
prompts for origin and reference points.

ref. 1 ref. 2

origin

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 ref. 1
ref. 2a

ref. 2b
ref. 2c

origin

Note that the Shear tool distorts at right angles to the line determined by the
origin point and the first reference point. This is because shear is, by
definition, two opposing parallel forces applied at right angles to a fixture. The
illustration above demonstrates this with a series of Shear copies. In this case
that reference line was drawn diagonally across the box.

In the geometric realm of modeling space Shear, though imitating the physical
force after which it is named, is actually a scale change applied in a lateral
direction while one point remains fixed. Rhino and other NURBS modeling
programs have other transformation tools that imitate distortions of objects
under force. As the term imitate implies, no force is actually at work, rather
the program designers have created tools that exploit geometric
transformations in such a way as to represent the effects of physical forces.

The other shape changing transformations, Taper, Bend, Twist, Flow, etc. do
not work on polysurfaces, which, by the problem definition, all of the objects
contributing to this sculpture are. Thus the only shape changing
transformations available to this tutorial are 1-D, 2-D and Non-Uniform scale
changes and the Shear transformation.

c. Why can t polysurfaces bend, taper, twist and flow?

The sample polysurface below is a cone trimmed along a plane. Select this
polysurface or any polysurface and try to turn on its control points. Nothing
happens, because the underlying NURBS geometry is locked by the need for the

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surfaces to attach. Explode the solid into its component surfaces and turn on
the control points.

Notice how they distribute in square patterns. Recall that this is the patch-wise
topology discussed in the introduction to surfaces. These surfaces can now be
rebuilt and subjected to numerous edits. The cone portion has been point
edited, the base has been twisted and the parabolic face has been bent. These

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transformations work by marshalling the control points and modifying their
positions in a prescribed fashion.

Although the cropped circle and the parabola have curved edges, the isoparms
of the U/V NURBS coordinates extend to fill a squared plane. They cannot, in
general, be edited in a polysurface without the joining edges gapping and
destroying the geometry of the surface. Many solid modeling programs,
however, permit such edits.

d. direction and position transformations:

These transformations, Rotate and Move, have been covered fairly thoroughly
in the instructions on pattern creation for the practical manipulation of the
graphic elements. In terms of visual perception and in regard to its crucial
importance to design, transformations play additional and powerful roles.

The modeling environment permits any forms and form relationships that are
possible within its geometric, computational reality. The additional constraints
imposed by material, gravity and other physical effects do not impede on this
realm (though there are engineering programs which do enforce physical
constraints.) Since we are creatures from a physical world, the actualities of a
real existence have conditioned our perceptions and expectations.

This is, in a number of ways, especially true of our response to form as it

transforms in actual space. First of all we read any change as having a physical
cause, a force or action imposed on an object. This is not true of a digital
environment where only computable geometric changes account for all
transformations.

Second, the over-riding, constant and insistent force that governs perception,
i.e., gravity, is not at all present in the digital realm. One can, for example,
build a digital model of a concrete house hovering in mid-air or floating on the
water - it need not rest on the ground. Third, a material in digital space is
only an illusion, so that one may ignore with impunity the physical properties
that make its use viable. The aforementioned house can be crafted from water
or fog or fire or any other improbable material.

Direction (Rotate):

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Transformations in direction are the most affected by the experience of
gravity. The four cones in the illustration above all touch the ground, but are
depicted in different levels of stability from left to right. 1) Resting on its base
the cone is very stable; 2) laying on its side the cone may roll to one side or
another; 3) standing on its point the cone is sure to tip over; and 4) tilting the
cone is seen in the process of falling.

Of these the least real is the cone standing upright on its point, since this is
the least likely state in which to find a cone. The tilting cone is more plausible:
the viewer will interpret the cone as if it is in the act of falling.

Transformations in the direction of a cone have the added function of guiding

the eye along paths implied by the orientation of objects. In the example
above the sloped side of the first cone leads the eye to the base of the
reclining cone, which in turn tapers toward the cone balanced upright. The
falling cone teeters toward the balanced cone also leading the viewer to that
cone. With the viewer s eye steered to it from two sides and with its unnatural
equilibrium, this cone, especially its point, becomes the focus of the
composition.

Position (Move):

That cone s tip marks a precise position in the composition. Position defines
the location of an object in the compositional array. In the digital space this is
numerical, a function of the x, y and z dimensions. In visual design the primary
role of position is to express interval, that is, the magnitude and direction of
space between objects.

The visual role of the move transformation, then, is to adjust the scale and
direction of the spaces between elements. In this regard objects or the
features of objects, such as faces, edges, corners, etc., serve to mark off
segments of space.

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e. combined transformations:

If one thinks of scale and rotation as the coordinated changes in the position of
the features of an object, then all transformations are based on the move
transformation. This is in fact how modeling programs compute all
transformations. A scaled cube is simply one whose corners have moved, each
by the same magnitude in the direction needed to maintain the configuration
of the cube.

In the mind of the computer a polyhedron is simply a set of points, its

vertices, connected by edges that mark off the boundaries of its faces. In order
to create a rotation transformation, for example, the program gathers all of
the points and co-ordinates their move to effectively rotate the object as a
whole. Similarly the Twist, Bend and Taper transformations perform
coordinated moves of points, but in these cases the points are the control
points of the surfaces.

Copy, Array:

As far as the computer is concerned each transformation equates to the

creation of a new object, performed under numerical constraints applied to the
original. If the original version is retained then the new object is a copy. Thus
the Copy tool is simply a transformation with the starting data retained

Arrays are multiple copies created with equivalent transformations from copy
to copy. Polar arrays copy an object in a series of equal angular changes, radial
to a selected point. These will be covered in the next tutorial on surfaces of
revolution.

Rectangular arrays copy the object in rows and columns in the x, y and z
directions. In Rhino the Array, Rectangle tool prompts the user on the number
of rows to copy in each direction, and then on the distance of interval between
copies. In the array above there are 5 rows on the x axis, 3 along the y axis and
2 in the z direction.

Affine Translation:

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The image below is a special sort of an array in which the object is copied back
onto itself. Such an array uses all of the three basic transformations, changing
the scale, position and direction of the original. This simultaneous application
of all three basic transformations is called an affine translation: the object is
moved, but at the same time rotated and re-scaled. The Orient transformation
tools in Rhino enables this translation. The previous tutorial introduced the
Orient 2D tool in applying tabs to cone patterns. The tabs gradually shifted
direction and changed subtly in scale as they arrayed along the pattern s edge.

Specialized modeling programs can generate intricate patterns called fractals

by using affine translations to make smaller and smaller copies of a form onto
itself. The spiky cones above do this in regular fashion that is planned and
artificial, but with some allusion to nature. Plant modeling programs and
landscape generating programs apply affine translations that include a
randomizing factor. This creates such effects as branching patterns in trees or
cracking in rocky surfaces.

f. Booleans

Like the transformations, the Boolean operations are geometric operations that
garner intense visual power when viewed as physical relationships.

All of the Booleans create more complex objects from simpler objects, which
are most commonly the geometric primitives. In fact, the term primitive refers
to a geometric object at its simplest, i.e., primitive, level. Under
transformation a primitive changes, but gains no complexity. However, under
the Boolean operations the features of two or more simple objects combine
into a third more complex entity. The new object carries qualities inherited
from two parents, but, in addition, features new qualities emerging from the
interaction created by the Boolean operation

Each operation, therefore, carries its own set of expressive properties.

Union (addition):

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The union operation suggests growth, accumulation, integration or any number
of other additive processes. This can be seen in the fractal cone pictured
above. As the cone sprouts cones, which in turn sprout other cones, it mimics
common growth patterns found in nature.

Difference (subtraction):

This operation uses one object to take a bite out of another and, consequently,
conveys the effect of eating away, erosion, decay or any number of other
subtractive processes. This can be seen in the fractal cone pictured below.
Smaller copies of the original cone chomp from the original and yet smaller
copies nibble at the inner surfaces created by these first copies. This mimics
common erosive patterns found in nature.

Intersection (common):

Although they result in a single object both union and difference bear clear
evidence of the parent objects. In the former one sees the joining of two
separate objects and in the latter reveals the negative of the subtracted
object. Each parent survives as a part, positive or negative, of the new object.

By contrast intersection reads as the melding of two into one. By enclosing

their common volumes, the remaining surfaces collaborate in forming a new,
composite object. There is neither growth nor decay, only the merging of the

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 two. The intriguing solid above possesses round, oval and square profiles. What
were its parents?

The answer is the orthogonal intersection of four cones (below). Though it

reads as its own unique shape, it does retain many features from the original
cones. From one view its profile is circular like the cross-section of a cone. On
a diagonal its profile is oval, like the diagonal section of a cone. A third profile
is nearly square, the artifact of the orthogonal position of the intersecting
cones. Finally, like the surfaces of the cones, its surfaces are tapered and
developable.

Despite all it has inherited from its parent objects, only the most experienced
eyes would identify this volume as the composite of conical parts.

(The tutorial continues )

3. Begin by stocking up on
primitives. Make a few copies
of each and store the
copies by moving them well
off to one side of the
workspace. It may also be
useful to make a number of
copies of re-scaled versions of
each primitive, so that these
are available for selection
during the process of
composing the work.

This tutorial will adapt a

composing technique employed by the noted American sculptor David Smith, a
pioneer of geometric sculpture. Smith warmed up by drawing extensively
prior to working on the sculpture itself. He purchased large sheets of rag paper

210
 by the ream, so that he always had a fresh sheet of paper at the ready. Within
a week Smith had exhausted all 500 sheets in the ream.

Smith began with geometric shapes and volumes that he had previously
fabricated and arranged these on the floor of his studio, nudging them into
various positions with his feet and trying dozens of arrangements until he was
satisfied with the composition.

One key to this approach was that the sculptor had many more forms on hand
than he was to use in a single sculpture: as he worked Smith could scan his
stock of forms and pick the ones he needed as he worked through the
composition. (Earlier the great 19th century French sculptor, Auguste Rodin,
similarly warehoused body parts that he and his assistants had modeled in clay,
plaster and wax. From this inventory he eventually assembled his figurative
sculptures.)

The digital version of this approach is far quicker than with Smith s huge steel
constructions. Primitives may be swiftly copied and transformed, and kept on
hand during the composing process.

4. Create a rectangular surface on the x. y plane. This will serve as the ground
plane upon which to compose the sculpture. In physical reality this would be a
paved plaza, a floor or a table. Since the final version of this sculpture will be
in paperboard, imagine this as the tabletop on which the sculpture will rest.

5. Start composing from the bottom up, i.e., determine the relationship between
the first element of the sculpture and the ground plane. The sculptor has two
options: the first is to place the elements of the sculpture in direct interaction
with the ground plane, and the second is to mount the sculpture on a base or
pedestal. This tutorial will concentrate on composing a sculpture with base.

What is a base?

A base is traditionally that part of the sculpture that rests on the ground plane
providing support for the sculpture and setting it off visually from the
surrounding environment. A base provides visual and physical stability and acts
as a transition between the flat space of the ground plane and the active array
of forms that is the main body of the sculpture. For this reason, it is generally
the simplest and most architectonic portion of the sculpture.

A base differs from a pedestal in that it is integral to the sculpture, as opposed

to a separate stand on which it may rest. The same pedestal may be used
interchangeably with other sculptures, but a base is unique to the sculpture of
which it is a part. Consequently the base needs to take on a form that is
consonant with the sculpture as a whole.

A good approach for this tutorial is to create a base that is the composite of
two primitives, leaving three primitives for the remainder of the sculpture. The
examples below are composites of a cone and hexagonal prism created, from
left to right, by union, intersection and difference:

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6. Once the base is established the sculptor once again can choose from two
options: to simply rest the main body of the sculpture on the base or to
integrate all or part of the main body with the base. This tutorial will elect the
latter and will use the Boolean operations to effect the integration. Since the
finished sculpture is to be a single object comprising five transformed
primitives, this leaves three with which to complete the composition.

With some possible bases to choose from the search for a candidate sculpture
begins with quick exploratory thumbnails. On the following page a series of
thumbnails explore the idea of slotting a portion of the base by subtracting the
hexagonal prism and then responding to the slot in the placement of the
remaining two solids. The first sequence of sketches uses this slot as a foil for
an elongated version of the prism to begin activating the space above the base.
The form of this slot varies as does the placement and direction of the
hexagonal bar. Common to all three versions of this idea is the dynamic thrust
of the bar and the use of a large disk-like cone counter that thrust.

The second sequence shifts gears by testing a stacked arrangement of cones

tied together by extending the slot through all of the cones. The hexagonal bar
now appears only as a negative. This tutorial selects this version of the idea to
model.

7. The model stage begins the refinement of the idea generated by sketching. At
this stage positions, directions and proportions are honed under the more
comprehensive control of the modeling environment.

The modeling stage is also the first test of the viability of the idea. The first
model will most likely prove to be less interesting than imagined, or it may
simply have a number of visual glitches that need to be worked out, or the idea
itself may be abandoned in favor of a better idea. Fortunately, the tutorial
sculpture proved to have potential and needed only simple, though substantial,
changes.

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Below, on the left, stands the first modeling attempt. It is the initial draft
model created for evaluation of the selected sketch idea; to the right is the
refined model. Between these two models numerous other drafts may be built
and rendered for evaluation. This version is known as the presentation model
In this case the upper cone changed in scale so that the diameter of its narrow
end the waist of the sculpture would match the side of the subtracting
prism. At the same time the top diameter of the sculpture adjusted to
intersect this prism at its greatest width. The prism itself shifted to the
vertical and penetrated only slightly into the base.

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 Such precise modifications in proportion, direction and position comprise the
special strengths of the digital modeler s numerical environment. Such an
environment is poor for initial invention, but great for refining that invention.

Part II: Pattern Construction

The finished sculpture will contain the surfaces of all five solids incorporated into its
design. In this case portions of three cones and two hexagonal prisms, one elongated
and one flattened, have combined into a single complex form. The rule of thumb
for constructing a pattern for this design is to create a separate pattern for the
surface portions that remain of each of the five solids.

a. production prototype

8. For such complex forms begin by constructing a production, or working,

model of the sculpture. Also referred to as the prototype, this is a
revision of the model from which the physical version can be built.

Production models display geometry that will correspond readily to the

production processes used to create the final object, in this case, the
paper pattern construction. In the field of product design and
engineering this is the most sophisticated manner of modeling. The

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 production modeler must preserve as much of the visual character of the
design as the geometric constraints of the production process permits.

For the purposes of this tutorial the production model is relatively

straightforward: simply rebuild the presentation model by substituting
the developable surfaces with faceted surfaces. Effectively, this means
using multi-sided pyramids in lieu of the cones.

Depicted are three versions of the production model of the refined

design. They differ only in the number of sides employed to represent
the cones as a pyramid. Beginning on the left with 12 sides as a
minimum number to convey roundness, the models increase in multiples
of 6 to 18 and then to 24 sides. Beyond 24 the paper construction will
grow excessively difficult. Since fewer facets make for easier
construction, it is wise to select the least number of sides that will do
the job visually.

b. unfolding and unrolling

9. Make a copy of the production model to retain as a reference.

10. Select the model and explode.

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11. The procedure for unfolding the exploded model into a pattern is the same as
that for unfolding the unit module in the earlier tutorial on modular. Instead of
two parts to the pattern there will be 5, one for each solid linked by the
Boolean operations.

By left and right dragging of the selection arrow choose a set of surfaces
comprising the extant surfaces of one of the original solids. Chances are some
surfaces will not select or unwanted surfaces will select. In the first case left
click on the unselected surfaces while depressing the Shift key. In the second
case de-select by clicking on the extraneous surfaces while depressing the Ctrl
key. Drag the completed selection off to the side. Note that dragging the
selection arrow while depressing the Shift key will add to the current selection,
while dragging with the Ctrl key depressed will de-select.

Repeat for all of the remaining sets of surface portions.

12. Select one of the surface sets to

unfold, and then choose Edit, Select, Invert,
or open the Select toolbar and click on INV.
This will select all of the model forms except
for the one just selected.

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13. Click on the HIDE button on the top toolbar to eliminate everything
from view except for the surface set to unfold.

14. In the example below only the top cone/pyramid from the production
model is left on view. Check to make sure that it is still exploded. Select the
sides of the pyramid and join. (Note: Do not select the base surface.)

15. With the sides still selected

open the Surface Tools toolbar and click on
the Unroll button, or choose Surface, Unroll

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 Developable Srf. The joined sides will unroll into a flat pattern on or near the
origin of the world plane.

This is a quick method to unfold the sides of a prism or pyramid, especially

those with many sides used to represent cones and cylinders.

16. Flip the base surface of the cone/pyramid and, using either End or Mid snap
move it to attach to the unrolled pattern.

17. Select and move this unfolded surface set

to one side. Open the Visibility toolbar and click on the
SHOW SEL button, or choose Edit, Visibility, Show. This
should reveal the other four surface sets. Select the next
one to unfold and hide the rest. Unfold each set one by
one.

18. To edit the pattern parts for printing follow similar procedures as in the
previous three tutorials. Select a part, make a 2D drawing and then Group lines
of the drawing by choosing Edit, Group while they are still selected. Delete the
surfaces. Repeat for all five parts.

19. Before adding tabs it may be a good idea to print out some trial patterns in
order to create preliminary sketch models. These will help to determine the
best procedure for assembling the physical version of the sculpture and
therefore to work out the best placement of the joining tabs.

218
20. Export the line drawings to Illustrator. Just as in the previous tutorials size the
patterns to fit onto the 8.5 x 11 page. Take care to ensure that all parts of the
sculpture are scaled equally. Edit lines to minimize line weight. Print and
assemble.

219
220
Pattern Construction
of Spheroids and Revolved Solids

What are Spheroids?

Spheroids are the category of geometric solids created by revolving a conic section
around an axis. They are part of a larger category of forms called surfaces of
revolution. Rhino includes four types of spheroids among its primitives: spheres,
ellipsoids, paraboloids and toroids.

What are Conic Sections?

A conic section is a slice or section of a cone.
Depending on the direction of the slice a conic
section may be a circle, an ellipse, a parabola
or a hyperbola.

Types of Spheroids

Spheroids are classified according to the conic

section that is revolved to generate the solid:
 A sphere is a circle rotated around its
diameter.
 If the circle is rotated around any other
line, then it defines a toroid. The most
familiar toroid is the common donut. A
circle revolving around a line outside of
its perimeter defines this solid.

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  Ellipsoids are rotations of ellipses around either their major or minor
diameters. If an ellipse revolves around its longest (major) diameter, it
generates a solid resembling an elongated sphere. This is a pronate ellipsoid. If
an ellipse revolves around its shortest (minor) diameter, it generates a solid
resembling a flattened sphere. This is an oblate ellipsoid.

 Rotating parabolas and hyperbolas generates paraboloids and hyperboloids

respectively. These are very similar in appearance.

Double Curvature

Cylinders and cones curve in only one direction. Spheroids, however, curve in two
directions. To understand the difference between a surface that curves in one
direction and a surface that curves in two directions, try this experiment: roll a sheet
of typing paper into a tube and then try bending that tube into a donut. Impossible?
Yes: you cannot execute the second curve. The surface of a tube is cylindrical and can
be unrolled into a flat sheet, while the donut (also called a torus) or any surface with
double curvature cannot unroll into a flat sheet.

Pattern construction works only for solids with faces, like polyhedrons, and
developable surfaces, like cylinders and cones. This means that, in order to construct
a spheroid from a pattern, it is necessary to represent them with developable
segments (called gores) or polygons.

222
Topics
The following tutorial covers the digital modeling of spheres and ellipsoids, toruses
and surfaces of revolution in general, as well as the pattern construction of their
physical models.

Part I of this tutorial demonstrates how to draw arcs and curves in order to revolve
these into solids.

Part II demonstrates how to reconstruct spheroids and other revolved surfaces from
gore segments.

Part III explains how to reconstruct spheroids and other revolved surfaces from
polygons.

Part IV illustrates how to edit patterns for the process of scoring, folding and gluing
patterns into solid models.

Part I: Modeling Spheroids as Surfaces of Revolution

Spheres, ellipsoids, paraboloids and toruses are available as primitives in Rhino.
However, for the sake of pattern construction these primitives are not very
useful. Instead, it is best to build spheroids from gores and polygons. Before
doing so lets look at the revolve tool as a means to create spheroids and other
double curved solids.

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To revolve a sphere:

1. Begin by inserting a semicircle. Since a circle has 360°, then a

semicircle is a 180° arc of a circle. Instead of inserting a whole circle
and splitting it in half it is better to use one of the Arc tools.

Activate Snap then click on the Arc: Center, Start Angle; or choose
Curve, Arc and Center, Start, Angle; or keystroke Alt C, A, C. Click on a
grid point to set the center of the desired arc, then click on a grid point
directly above the center. This will establish the radius length as well as
the starting point of the arc. Now click directly below the center to
complete the semicircle. Depending on the path of the mouse the arc
will open to the right or to the left.

2. Select the semi-

circle. Activate the fly-out Surface
toolbar and click on the Revolve
icon; or choose Surface, Revolve;
or keystroke Alt S, V. Click on the
endpoints of the semicircle to
set the axis of revolution. In the
pop-up window make sure Exact
is selected and the start angle is
0 and the end angle is 360°.
Click OK.

224
To revolve an ellipsoid:

3. Create the semi-ellipse by

using the Scale 1-D tool to
flatten or elongate the semi-
circle.

4. Revolve the elliptical arcs as

with the sphere. Depending
the axis of rotation the
ellipsoid will either be
pronate or oblate.

225
To revolve a torus:

5. Insert a circle. Select it and activate the Revolve tool. Click on two points to
set an axis outside of the circle.

To revolve a free form curve:

6. Insert a free-form curve using the

Control Point or Interpolate Point
curve tools or by rebuilding and
editing the semicircle. These are
the same methods used to create
the bases of the free-form
cylinders and curves in the
previous tutorial. Try to shape the
profile of a vase or bowl. Turning
a piece of pottery on a wheel is a
physical realization of the
concept of a revolved form. In the
example note how well spline
curves replicate the supple curves
of malleable clay.

Part II: Representing Spheroids with Gores

In the Age of Exploration, the 16th and 17th centuries, no truly educated or wealthy
household was without a globe to signify its sophistication. Big sellers of map
publishers were globe gores, printed images that could be cut out and glued to
plaster, wood or cast paper spheres to create terrestrial and celestial globes.

226
Vincenzio M. Coronelli, Terrestrial globe gores, 1700, Venice, Osher Collection

This classic method can be adapted to fit ellipsoids, toruses or almost any surface of
revolution.

Spherical gores:

1. Insert a semicircle in the Front view so that it centers on the origin and the
ends lie on the z, or vertical axis.

2. Go to the Top view, where the semicircle, seen end on, will look like a line.
Select the semicircle and activate the Rotation tool. At the Center of rotation
prompt click on the origin. The prompt now changes to Angle or first
reference point (Copy). Type "c", then hit Enter to activate the Copy function.
The prompt will re-appear at which point type in 30. Hit Enter to complete the
Rotation Copy.

227
3. To complete the gore loft between the two lines.

4. It will take 12 copies of

this gore to complete the globe. The
quickest way to accomplish this is to
use a multiple copy tool called an
array, specifically a polar array,
which makes multiple copies in a
radial pattern.

Click and hold on the Rectangular

Array icon to call out the Array
toolbar. Click on Polar Array.

Or choose Transform, Array, Polar; or keystroke Alt T,Y,P. In the Top view
click on the point of the "wedge" to establish the center of the array and at the
prompt Number of elements type 12. Hit Enter. At the next prompt Angle to
fill type 360 and again hit enter.

5. Join all twelve gores to complete the sphere.

Elliptical gores:

6. Once the sphere is complete the ellipsoids are just one step away. Simply
select the sphere and with the Scale 1-D tool stretch or flatten the sphere into
an ellipsoid. It is a good idea to save the sphere as a template for future
spheres and ellipsoids.

228
Toroidal gores:

7. Working in the Front view insert a

circle to represent the thick-ness
of the torus ring and a point
object outside the circle to mark
the center of the torus.

8. Move to the Top view and select

the circle. Activate the Rotation
tool. Place the center of rotation
on the point object and copy the
circle at 30° from that center.

229
9. Loft between the two circles to create the gore section.

10. Select the section and copy

in a polar array using the
point object as the center of
the array.

Gores for revolved objects:

11. Draw the profile curve in

the Front view and draw a
line indicating the axis of
rotation.

12. From the Top view Rotate

and Copy the profile 30°.
Use the axis line as the
center of rotation.

13. Loft between the two curves

to create the gore section.

230
14. Once again complete the surface with a polar array.

15. Join the gores into a polysurface and then cap to complete the solid.

Patterns from Gores

To construct each of the above solids you took a single gore and copied it around a
center to fill and close the surface. To create a pattern for each of these solids the
process is the same: unroll one gore and copy it the correct number of times to
enclose the solid.

16. Select the solid you wish to unroll and explode.

231
17. Unroll one of the gores as you unrolled the surfaces of the cylinders and cones
in the previous tutorial. The unroll begins at the origin and follows the y-axis.

18. Activate the Osnap, End tool. Select the unrolled surface and activate the Copy
tool. Click on the left middle of the gore then click on the left middle to make
a copy along side of the original gore. Click on the right middle of the new copy
to place yet a third copy. Continue until sufficient gores have been copied.

19. Following this procedure will result in the following patterns for ellipsoids and
toruses.

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 How many gores?

The more gores that are used to construct a model of a spheroid or a

surface of revolution, the smoother it will appear. Also the more
difficult it will be to assemble. As a very general rule, 12 gores are, for
most purposes, a sufficient minimum to strongly suggest a revolved
figure. 24 gores are a practical maximum.

The choice depends on the purpose of the solid model. Globe makers,
for example use either 12 or 24 gores to correspond to the hours of the
day and to divide easily into 360°. Divide the number of gores you
intend to use into 360° to get the degree of rotation needed when you
model the first gore of the surface. With 12 gores this figure is 30 or
360/12; with 18 gores this figure is 20, or 360/18.

20. Creating a pattern for surfaces of revolution generated from free-form curves
is a bit trickier than with the spheroids. It is possible to copy the series of gores
in perfect alignment, because each gore has a kink at its widest horizontal
point. (This is left over from the fact that it was lofted from a circle or
ellipse.) Free-form curves possess no such convenient feature.

233
 Fortunately Rhino has a tool --
the Curve Bounding Box -- especially intended
to demarcate the horizontal and vertical
extents of a curve or set of curves.

Unroll one of the gores from the vase. Make

sure that Osnap, End is active. Select the left
and right edges of the vase gore

To access Bounding Box tool click and hold the

Direction icon in the side toolbar; then click
the Curve Bounding Box icon in the fly-out
Analyze toolbar. (The Analyze tools give many
useful facts on the dimension and geometry of
a graphic element.) You may also choose
Analyze, Bounding Box; or keystroke Alt A, B.

The gore is now tightly enclosed in a box

whose length and width are determined by the
tallest and widest dimensions of the gore.
Select both the gore and the box and activate
the Copy tool. Click on the upper left hand
corner of the bounding box and then click on
the upper right hand corner of the box. This
will place the copy flush right on the original.
Click on the upper right hand corner of the
new box, then on the third until the correct
number of gores is aligned.

Part III: Representing Spheroids with Polygons

234
Vectors and Polygons

Prior to NURBS modeling all curves were represented by a series of straight lines called
vectors. A vector is a straight line with a precise position, direction and length. A
series of connected vectors with the right change of directions and sufficient
frequency will draw a respectable curve (see Part II - Stacking).

This idea can be expanded from curves represented by straight-line segments to

curved surfaces represented by polygons. Polygons are planar and a polygonal
representation of a curved surface breaks that surface down into minute surface
planes, or facets.

Early computing created forms in virtual space by specifying the points in space that
defined the figure. A box, for instance, was specified by keying in the co-ordinate
points of each of its 8 vertices. The 3-D technician had to calculate each of those
points and type them on a punch card. Today's computing automates this process into
tools that organize thousands of these data points into one entry.

NURBS geometry works directly with curves and not aggregates of straight lines.
Nevertheless, even NURBS models must be converted to a mesh of polygons for
rendering. This is because modeling programs calculate the degree and angle of light
reflection from the individual surface polygons.

Polygonal representations are useful for building physical models, not just because
they enable building curved surfaces from patterns, but also because they allow the
artist/designer to abstract the model into a surface of elegant shapes.

Polygonal sphere:

1. Begin by inserting a
semicircle as in step
I.1 above.

2. The next step is to interpret

the semicircle into a polyline of equal
chord segments of the semicircle.

Select the semicircle. Click and hold on the

Point icon to call out the Point toolbar.
Right click on the Divide Curve by Number
of Segments icon; or choose Curve, Point
Object, Divide Curve By, Number of
Segments; or keystroke Alt C, P, D, N.

At the prompt Number of segments type in

the number of divisions of the curve. In this
case the number is 6, equivalent to 12 for a
full circle. Hit Enter to insert points. Now
activate Osnap, Point and draw a polyline
from point to point.

235
3. Delete the points and semicircle. Rotate/Copy the polyline by following the
procedure for copying the semicircle in II.2 above.

4. Loft between the two curves. You have just constructed a polygonal segment of
a sphere. A segment is an angular cut or "pie slice" of a sphere or ellipsoid. A
gore is also a segment.

From now on you can treat this segment as if it were a gore. Copy it using the
Polar Array tool to complete a sphere -- see step II.4 above. Like the gored
sphere created from the polar array, this sphere can also be re-scaled into
pronate and oblate ellipsoids -- see step II.6 above.

236
Polygonal torus:

5. Insert a circle and point, as you did in step II.7, to begin the torus.

6. Select the circle and divide into 12 segments with the Divide Curve by Number
of Segments tool. In the case of the circle an arrow will appear at the right
quadrant of the circle and the prompt will read, "Select seam point to adjust.
Press Enter when done." This prompt is simply offering you the option to drag
the seam point (the point with the arrow attached) to another position on the
circle.

The seam point is the point at which Rhino will start to place the dividing
points and the arrow indicates the direction in which the points will be added.
For the purposes of this tutorial no adjustment is needed. Hit enter.

7. or Connect the points with a polyline. The resulting polygon is a

dodecagon, a 12-sided figure. An alternate approach is to use the Polygon:
Center, Radius tool to directly insert a dodecahedron.

237
8. Rotate/copy the dodeca-
hedron using the procedure
in step II.8 above.

9. Loft between the two

polygons.

10. Copy into a torus using the

Polar Array tool.

Patterns from Polygonal Segments

Polygonal segments unroll like gores

and like gores they represent one of a
repeated set of segments required to
complete a model. Creating polygonal
patterns for spheroids, then, is very
similar to creating gore patterns:
unroll a segment and copy it the
appropriate number of times.

Polygonal patterns for spheres and

ellipsoids:

11. Unroll the segment completed

in step C4 above.

12. Make 12 copies of the unrolled

segment with the Mirror tool.
Use one edge of the segment as
the reflect axis.

Where the curved sides of gores

allow them to touch only at a
point of tangency, polygonal
segments can join along an
edge.

238
Polygonal Pattern for a Torus:

13. Unroll the torus segment in C7 above.

14. The segment may unroll asymmetrically from top to bottom. If so edit as
follows to establish symmetry to the segment:

239
 Activate the Osnap, End tool. Explode the segment and move the bottom
polygons to the top. Use the snap to place the polygons precisely.

15. Make 12 copies of the segment with the Mirror tool. Use a side edge near the
middle as the reflect axis.

Part IV: Editing Patterns for Assembly

When the cartographers of the 16th and 17th centuries marketed their globe gores
they frequently printed one half of a gore at a time. Each gore was divided into its
northern and southern halves and then the globe was sold as a set of 24 or more
individually printed pages.

The globe makers knew that it is easier to create a sphere or ellipsoid by building one
hemisphere at a time and then assembling the two halves. Taking its cue from these
cartographers of yore, this tutorial will follow the same strategy in designing its
patterns.

Gores
Spheres and ellipsoids:

1. Begin with a single unrolled

gore. Select and make 2D.

2. Delete the original gore and

then delete the bottom half
of the drawing. Snap a line
between the bottom two
end points of the remaining
curves.

240
3. Add a tab to the bottom edge as you did to the edges of the polyhedron
patterns.

4. Add a series of triangular tabs to one of the curved edges as you did to the
curved edges of the unrolled edges of the cylinders and cones. Note that the
topmost triangular tab will be too large to glue under the tip of an abutting
gore.

To trim this tab to the right size:

Select the opposite edge of the gore and mirror it along an axis determined by
the first two dividing points on the tabbed edge. Activate the Trim tool and
select the mirrored line as the trimming edge. Click on the tip of the first tab
to trim it. Now trim the excess from the mirrored line by using the remainder
of the tab as the trimming edge.

5. Just as in previous tutorials, you will need to export

the edited pattern into Illustrator. There you should
decrease the line weight by thinning and lightening
the lines. Surface graphics and material texture may
be added while in Illustrator.

24 of these half-gores should be printed for

assembly. Fit as many as you can on a page to
conserve material.

6. Print on heavy cover stock, 120lb index preferred.

7. Cut out all 24 pieces and score as indicated by the

dotted lines in the figure to the right. Pre-fold all
tabs.

241
8. Assemble 12 half segments by the curved edges to construct a dome. Do the
same to build a second hemisphere.

9. Glue the two hemispheres together by two of the bottom tabs. This provides a
fixed hinge point and will make it easier to fit the two hemispheres to one
another.

Fold all of the remaining tabs inward. Spread glue on the up side of on set of
tabs. Carefully align and gently press and hold to complete the paper sphere.

Torus:

The torus pattern will also be edited as a set of

gores rather than a single connected pattern.
The torus assembles better by first building
separate halves or quadrants and then
assembling these larger parts into the torus.
This division will be into two or four tubes
rather than two bowls.

10. Select the unrolled gore of a torus and

make a 2D drawing.

11. Delete the original. Also delete the top

half of the drawing and the bottom edge
of the drawing.

12. There will be two symmetric curves

remaining. Snap a line between the top
ends.

242
13. Add a series of triangular tabs to one of the curved edges as you did to the
curved edges of the unrolled edges of the cylinders and cones.

14. Export to Illustrator to complete the edit. As before you will need to adjust the
line weight.

15. In addition you will need to prepare 2 of the 12 gores, so that tabs run along
both sides of the gore. These two are be end pieces of the half tubes you will
create during assembly.

16. Print on heavy cover stock, 120lb index preferred.

17. Cut out all 12 pieces and score as indicated by the dotted lines in the figure to
the above right. Pre-fold all tabs.

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18. Assemble 6 half segments by the curved edges to construct a half torus. Be sure
to include one of the double-tabbed segments, so that tabs will protrude at
each opening. Repeat to build the second half of the torus.

19. Fold all of the protruding tabs partially inward. Apply glue to all of the tabs on
one of the halves. Carefully align and gently press and hold to complete the
torus.

Polygonal Patterns

In some cases a polygonal representation of a spheroid can be the more visually

satisfying than a gored model and they are easier to construct. The choice is
essentially aesthetic and dependent on the visual effect desired.

Polygonal representations of curving surfaces are faceted, that is, they break up the
surface into a regular series of planes that can form engaging patterns of shapes in
space. The result is comparable to the work of Cubist artists, who interpreted natural
form into planes. Since polygons are flat they can be formed from sheets of stiff
materials. Gores, on the other hand, require more flexible material, but they preserve
part of the original curvature of the spheroid.

Think of the polygonal representation of a spheroid as a polyhedron (since that is what

it is!), and recall how the tabs of the pattern of a polyhedron ran the length of the
mating sides of the pattern. The same holds true for the polyhedral models of
spheroids and other surfaces of revolution.

Assembling a polyhedral spheroid is much like assembling a gored spheroid. Simply

replace each gore panel with a corresponding panel of polygons. Samples of such
panels can be found in section C above.

Sometimes it is more efficient to adapt a gore panel into a polyhedral panel than to
design the polyhedral panel from scratch. This is especially true for somewhat more
complex surfaces of revolution. A method for executing this adaptation is given below,
using the vase above.

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Just as with the sphere and the torus patterns above, the vase pattern will be edited
as a set of gores rather than a single connected pattern. The pattern will include end
caps at the mouth and the foot of the vase.

20. Begin with the unrolled gore panel of the vase. Activate the Divide Curve by
Number of Segments tool. Recall that this is one of the point tools. Select each
side edge of the gore and divide the curve into at least 6 segments.

The number of segments will vary from curve to curve. Experiment and choose
the number of segments that best express the curvature of the edges. In the
case of the example below 9 segments worked best, because that was the
number needed to plot the reverse curve from the neck to the shoulder of the
vase. When in doubt, increase the number of segments.

245
21. Activate Osnap, Point and connect the first four point objects with the Polyline
tool to draw the first polygon. Go on to the next group of four (including the
last two from the previous group) and draw the second polygon in the same
manner. Continue until all polygons are drawn. Delete the original gore and the
dividing points.

22. The end pieces of a surface of revolution will be a regular polygon with the
same number of sides as there are panels to be used in assembling the model
twelve in this case.

Click on the Polygon

icon and then click on
the Polygon: Edge icon.
At the prompt type in
the number of sides and
hit enter. Now click on
one end of the top edge
and then on the other,
and a polygon whose
sides are equal to the
top edge of the gore
will appear. Do the
same at the bottom.

By default Rhino will

insert the polygon
above the points you
selected. To reverse
this and place the poly-
gon below the points,
as in the example
above, type in f for
flip after clicking the
first point.

23. Draw in tabs along one

edge of the gore panel
and at each end. As was
the case for the sphere
and torus above, two of
the panels will need
tabs along both sides in
order to allow assembly
from two halves.

246
Object Sculpture I:
Creating the Model

Using Rhino 3D

This tutorial features the modeling of a common object with geometric primitives. The
next tutorial will cover the re-construction of that object as a physical model.

Introduction
For nearly all of history sculptors far and away preferred to craft images of the human
body, followed in order by those of animals and plants. Except to fill out a scene in
which the main subject was human or to adorn that human, depiction of objects in
sculpture was negligible. When and if an object became the central focus of a
sculpture it was due to its status as a symbol. A crown, for example, served as emblem
of a king. Most frequently such symbolic objects were religious, alluding to sacred
ritual or, in religions where depiction of a deity was forbidden, signifying that deity
indirectly.

The transformation of life-like form into still materials, e.g., the illusion of stone
coming alive, was and yet remains one of the most powerful effects of sculpture.

247
Object vs. Sculpture

Abstract sculpture, such as the modular sculpture and the geometric sculpture,
fabricated in previous tutorials, did get artists and designers thinking about a
sculpture as an object in its own right. A sculpture, they reasoned, need not replicate
something else to be visually engaging or expressively powerful. Artists and designers
of an even more theoretical bent began to question what, if anything, set sculpture
apart from other objects? Was it the degree of expression embodied in the formation
of the sculptural object, or were there other prerequisites for an object to enter the
category of sculpture?

These latter sculptors attacked this question first by making sculptures of everyday
objects, objects carefully chosen not to possess symbolic references or unique
functions that set them apart from the ordinary.

The great Spanish artist, Pablo

Picasso, chose what he could find
from the local café, wine glasses,
a plate of fruit, tableware, the
morning paper, and fashioned still-
life sculptures in bronze, painted
plaster, folded paper or metal
sheets.

A second approach borrowed from

the art form of collage and formed
new objects as composites of pre-
existing objects. Sculptors
assembled these objects to serve
as the parts of a sculpture.
Consequently, this approach to
sculpture became known as
assemblage. Once again, Picasso
took the lead. His famous Bull
consists of a bicycle seat for its
head and handlebars for its horns.

Transformation and Meaning

The delight and humor of viewing Picasso s Bull comes from the viewer s
simultaneous recognition of bicycle parts and the icon of a bull. Somehow the role and
meaning of the bicycle parts had changed dramatically. What caused this perceptual
transformation?

Two primary changes affected the seat and handlebars. First Picasso re-located them
from their normal position on the bicycle and attached them to one another. Second
he took the assembly and turned it vertically to hang it from the wall.

248
 Recall that such changes in position
and changes in direction are
transformations according to the
technical, mathematical definitions
used in the previous tutorials. Also
recall that such changes when applied
to forms in physical space carry
expressive readings conditioned by
the viewer s own experience of
physical space. Likewise, changing the
spatial circumstances of common
functional objects also affects the
reading of the purpose and meaning of
these objects. Almost without
exception sculptors seek out a more
symbolic meaning than that incurred
with form alone. Picasso s Bull , for
example, transformed its components
from their function in transportation
into an icon of a bull.

Bull did much to change the European world s view of art. The skill of the artist was
less in the hand that joined the parts and more in the mind that thought to put them
together. One contemporary of Picasso, the French artist Marcel DuChamp, elected to
remove the hand even more. Where Picasso juxtaposed two objects, such that their
conjoining mutually changed their meanings, DuChamp merely transposed, i.e.,
carried over, a pre-existing object from its everyday location into an art gallery. His
Hat Rack is simply the top of a hat rack removed and suspended askew from the
gallery ceiling. Thus re-positioned and re-oriented the hooks that once held hats
became the curling legs of a giant spider.

Adding Scale

By beginning with pre-ordained objects Picasso and DuChamp could transform position
and direction, but not scale. Later sculptors added scale to their transformations of
objects by re-creating the objects at a larger scale. Claes Oldenburg and Coosi Van
XXXX, a Danish-American team of sculptors, are noted for their monumental sculptures
of common objects, expanded to architectural scale.

Situated in large public parks and plazas, the couple s sculptures also incorporate
dramatic transformations of position and direction. At the University of Nebraska at
Lincoln passersby intent on shopping at the bookstore will confront wall-sized sheets
of notebook paper, seemingly twisting and scattering in the wind. Painted to look like
pages of notes, XXXXX captures an all too real nightmare of campus life.

The out-sized, wildly blowing pages of notes illustrate the sculptors careful attention
to direction, position and scale to achieve their expressive goals.

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Part I: Set Up
1) Choosing the Object

Where to find these objects? If not around the house or in a kitchen drawer try
hardware stores, office supply stores, electronics stores, household goods stores, etc.

• The object should be very small, so that enlarging it to the size of a shoebox
scale will elicit visual drama. It should fit in the palm of the hand and
disappear completely when the hand closes.

• The object should be a functional, useful rather than decorative. This will
make its transformation into sculpture all the more dramatic.

• Choose an object that breaks down into relatively simple geometric primitives,
rather than into lines and planes or into complex curving surfaces.

• In general more common and recognizable objects work best, because

familiarity to the viewer makes their transformation into sculpture all the more
intriguing.

• However, unfamiliar objects can work very well if their form is especially
interesting and their origins as functional, rather than decorative objects can
be seen in their form.

• Selecting one highly recognizable part of a familiar object is also a good

strategy. Examples are the nipples of a baby bottle rather than the whole
bottle, or the business end of a can opener without the handle.

250
 • Do the research: gather at least ten candidate objects. This will compel some
serious looking and visits to more than one store.

Below are a number of sample objects. Featured are items of hardware, stationery,
electrical, networking, medical and household use.

2) Draw, Draw, Draw the Object

In order understand the object well enough to model, carefully analyze it by executing
small, but detailed drawings. Concentrate on the three best choices from the ten
candidate objects and dedicate one page of the sketch/record book to each. Draw a
number of views of each of the three objects. If the object has two or more parts,
draw each part individually.

Only drawing will enable the quality of observation necessary for a good model. The
drawings below are of the plug for attaching a cell phone to its charger. This will be
used as the sample object for this tutorial.

251
3) Create the Working Drawing

Working drawings provide the measured details sufficient to execute a model,

either physical of digital. Typically these are line drawings executed as profile
views, i.e, from the front, side and/or top. In the design industry these are
drafting documents sent to a shop to build a prototype.

Working drawings are often executed on grid paper in order to more easily read
measurement and proportion data. Each grid unit corresponds to a unit of scale
that can then carry over into the modeling program. For small objects like
those in this tutorial the drawing will be larger than the object.

The working drawings for this tutorial should break out the object into its
component primitives and give the size of each primitive. Layout profile views
of each primitive scaled at one grid unit = one millimeter. At this scale a single
sheet of grid paper will suffice for the working drawing. Use quadrille paper
divided at 5 lines to the inch.

The working drawing may be quite simple, as is the case below. Since all of the
primitives are circular in cross-section, the drawing requires only side profiles
in order to supply all of their dimensions. The arrows indicate the direction of
the cylinders and fustrum s height. Symbols such as the arrows and written
notations are typically part of the working drawing, where these are needed to
clarify details.

252
Part II: Modeling the Object
1. Insert the primitives with the Snap tool active. Transfer the grid distances from
the working drawing onto the program s grid. If the measurements do not
correspond exactly to the grid, then choose the nearest grid and adjust the
scale using the Transform, Scale tool. This will block in the basic shape and
proportion of the model.

In the sample below all of the primitives corresponded to grid points, except
for the tip of the charger plug. This was placed with snaps and then adjusted
with the Scale tools.

253
2. Next create the additional primitives needed to modify the basic primitives. In
the sample the added primitives will create the negative shapes in the plug
with the Boolean Difference tool.

254
 The illustration above shows the model with the subtractions completed,
except for the box that is to form the slot in the tip of the plug. This will be
saved for later after the model has been filleted.

3. The steps below demonstrate the filleting procedure on the tip of the plug.
First, however, it is a good idea to temporarily remove the box at the tip by
hiding it. The Hide tool removes an element from view without changing its
position in the model.

Select the element to hide and then choose Edit, Visibility, Hide. The element
will disappear. To recall it simply choose Edit, Visibility, Show.

4. Filleting removes the hard, sharp edges of the model by rounding of the edges
of the polysurfaces. The Fillet Edge tool, found in the Solid menu, does this by
creating an intermediary surface of the desired radius of curvature.

Choose Solid, Fillet Edge and at the prompt, Select edges to fillet click on
the edge or edges to fillet, then type in the desired radius. (In the example
below the radius on the outer edge of the tip is 0.3 and the radius on the inner
edge is 1.) Hit Enter to confirm this number and then hit Enter again to execute
the fillet. Note that each fillet of differing radii must be executed separately,
but many edges of the same radius can be accomplished under the same
command.

255
 As a general rule, all edges of the model of an object should be filleted.
Otherwise the edges will appear unnaturally geometric and sharp to the touch.

The last two images below illustrate the previously hidden box once more
visible and then subtracted from the tip after finishing the fillets.

The finished model appears below. All the edges are now filleted, even the
sharpest edges whose radius is only 0.1. The softest edge has a radius of 20
units. This is at the transition between the fustrum and cylinder, which
comprise the body of the plug. First the artist joined the two primitives with
the Union tool and then applied the fillet to their joining edge.

Conclusion
It is important to note that giving a model its details, such as the tip of the charger
plug in this case, is a matter of treating each detail as if it were a separate model
unto itself. Often 3D artists will hide all but the detail they are working on and then
work on just that portion of the model.

256
Rhino provides several methods for doing this. One quick way is to select the portion
on which to work and then choose Edit, Select, Invert. This will cause the selected
portion to de-select and all unselected parts to become selected. The Hide tool will
cause all of these to disappear, leaving behind only the portion to be detailed.

Note, too, that there is a hierarchy to the modeling procedure in which the 3D artist
works from general to specific. This parallels the methods 3D artists have employed
for centuries, only now it occurs in a digital medium.

First, the primitives are inserted to establish the general overall shape of the model.
Sculptors call this blocking.

Next, the artist applies modifications to these basic forms and the model adopts most
of the specific form of the original object. Sculptors refer to this stage as roughing.

Next the artist refines the edges and applies the most specific detail. To sculptors this
is known as finishing.

With the model finished it is time to turn it into a physical sculpture. The next tutorial
details how this can be done.

257
Object Sculpture II:
Posing and Composing

Using Rhino 3D and Adobe Illustrator

Materials: 8.5 x 11- 20 lb white paper, 8.5 x 11- 110 lb or heavier index board, white
glue, transparent tape

Tools: Cork-backed stainless steel ruler, Exacto knife

Past tutorials have provided practice in all of the skills needed to translate the model
executed in the previous tutorial into a striking sculpture. This tutorial will tackle the
problem of combining those skills to effect that translation.

Losses and Gains: Trading Curvature for Pattern

It is important not to forget that this is a process of translation and that as a

translation it will lose important characteristics of the medium from which it was
translated. A successful translation overcomes this loss by replacing it with equally
important characteristics of the new medium. In the tutorial on surfaces of revolution,
for example, the index board of the final pattern cannot take on the smooth, double
curvature represented by the spline model of a sphere. Instead the sphere was
interpreted into either gores of single curvature or polygons of zero curvature.

With the loss of double curvature, however, comes the concomitant opportunity to
create strong and elegant surface patterns on the paper representation of a sphere.
The limited curvature of the paper opens unlimited possibilities of interpretation. In
one s interpretation of the model into paper are the possibilities of choosing either
gored or faceted representation. The two may also combine. Or the frequency of the
surface patterns can vary.

258
The sculpture of the pushpin shown below mixes gored and faceted surfaces. The
artist has also simplified the circular cross-section of the pin into only eight sides.
Normally, eight sides are not sufficient to suggest roundness (ten or more are usually
necessary), but the gored hemispheres and the viewer s immediate recognition of the

259
pushpin is enough to overcome this deficit. In fact, the deficit becomes a virtue, since
the sculptural image has resulted from a minimum of means.

Other changes accompany the translation, which exaggerate and modify qualities of
the original pin. For one the upper and lower flanges of the handle differ more than in
the original. Two, the handle now tapers to add a flare, both literally and visually, to
the sculpture.

Abstraction

The pushpin s artist has used a number of the processes of abstraction, of which there
are five: translation, simplification and exaggeration to name the three introduced
above, plus selection and stylization. Abstraction compiles these processes in order to
modify the representation of something, so that representation can serve as a more
effective symbol. Artists and designers use abstraction to formulate images and
objects that are quicker to recognize, more immediate in their effect and more
compelling in their meaning.

Selection includes the most significant features of the subject of an image and
excludes those that are expendable to the effect sought. Selection enables the viewer
to zero in on those characteristics of an object that are most important to the
meaning of a symbol. The pushpin sculpture does not require selection, because the
pushpin itself is such a simple object.

Stylization adapts the forms of the subject into a relatively small set of related
shapes, usually geometric. Of necessity the objects for this tutorial will be translated
into geometric planes. Stylization steps in when the designer decides exactly how to
adapt that geometry into the appropriate interpretation of the object.

Good examples of successful abstraction are the icons on computer interfaces. A good
icon is easy to spot, sports immediately recognizable features, sticks in the user s
mind and signals its purpose. Below is a selection of Webdings, a set of symbols found

260
among the typefaces offered by most computers. They are printed about the size of a
desktop icon. Note how, despite their small size, they are instantly identified.

         
        







Part 1: Designing and Prototyping the Sculpture

Like the geometric sculpture created in an earlier tutorial, the translation into
physical form begins by building a production, or working, model of the sculpture.
Also referred to as the prototype, recall that this is a revision of the model from which
the physical version can be built.

Production models display geometry that will correspond readily to the production
processes used to create the final object. In this case the production model must be
able to unfold into the pattern for the final sculpture.

For the geometric sculpture in that earlier tutorial the production model was simply
the rebuilding of the sculpture s design by substituting the curved surfaces with
faceted surfaces. For the object sculpture, however, the production model is
considerably more complex. In the previous case the purpose of the re-building was to
create a physically viable version of the sculpture; in the current case the re-building
constitutes the sculpture itself. Since the sculpture is a representation (think re-
presentation) of a recognizable subject, then deciding how to re-build the model for
physical production constitutes the actual design of the sculpture.

The viewer s response will blend two simultaneous perceptions: 1) the viewer will
recognize the subject and 2) the viewer will experience the unique forms of its new
material interpretation. The first perception entails familiarity, while the second
exploits novelty. The synchronized perceptions of familiarity and novelty are crucial to
the experience/meaning of representational sculpture.

Blocking the Prototype

1. Begin as with the original model by blocking in the major primitives, except
replace the original primitives with their gored or faceted versions. The
diagram below illustrates such a substitution. Each cylinder and the fustrum of
the cone translate into a ten-sided prism and a ten-sided fustrum of a pyramid
respectively.

261
Fining the Primitives

Fining means to modify the blocked version of the model to the appropriate level of
detail. Clearly there is a level beyond which it is practical to take a paper model, both
in the resolution attainable with the material and in what is easily discerned by the
viewer.

If the board, for example, is 1/32 thick, then there is a limit to the distance between
fold lines under which a clean and precise fold is likely. In addition the gapping of the
fold along the score will create a shadowed line that becomes too thick for the
proportion of the detail. In the case of gores one important limit is the radius of
curvature permitted by the board. The fining process, then, becomes an especially
critical part of the design, because it represents the major part of the selection
process, i.e., what can most effectively be kept and what must be eliminated.

In the sample model these factors limit the fillets to only those most needed visually
those from the plastic body to the metal plug-end and for rounding the plastic tip. The
next set of instructions lays out one of the fining procedure used in the sample model.

2. The screen shots below illustrate the process of fining the tip. (It may be a
good idea to practice the processes exemplified below.) The first images follow

262
 the filleting and chamfering processes. Note that chamfering is the method of
removing sharp corners by diagonally truncating a corner with a flat surface.
Although the fillet is, in this case, a more accurate representation than the
chamfer and could possibly be fabricated as a gore, at the relatively small
scale of the tip a chamfer is far more expedient.

Rhino has a tool for chamfering

between surfaces, but none for
chamfering solids. To execute the
chamfer first fillet the edge to be
chamfered (see the previous tutorial
for filleting instructions). Then
explode the solid and delete the
fillet. To insert the chamfer simply
loft between the edges and across
the gap left by the deleted fillets.

3. A critical detail of the plug is the keyhole opening in its tip.

Creating the keyhole is a relatively complicated process, so it is a good idea to
isolate the tip in order to ease visualization. Select the tip and, as in the
previous tutorial, Choose Edit, Select, Invert and then choose Edit, Visibility,
Hide to keep the tip visible but all else hidden.

4. Choose Curve, From Object, Duplicate, Edge and then select all
ten of the leading edges of the tip. Hit Enter and then click on the Join icon.
This creates a single decagon coincident with the front face of the tip.

263
5. Keep the decagon selected and using the Center snap place a point
object at the center of the decagon. Activate Point snap and de-activate
Center snap. Then Choose Transform, Scale, Scale 3-D and, at the Origin
Point prompt, click on the point object. At the first reference point
prompt click anywhere outside the tip and drag toward the tip until the
decagon is close to the size of the body of the hole. Click to set the size.

(Note that it is important to use the Scale 3-D and not Scale 2-D to ensure that
the decagon is not skewed into another plane of space.)

6. Activate the End snap and, using the Polyline tool, draw a rectangle
connecting the opposite edges of the decagon.

7. With Point and Mid snaps active select Transform, Scale, Scale 1-D.
Click on the point object as the origin point and on the middle of one end of

264
 the rectangle as the first reference points. Deactivate the Mid snap and drag to
extend the rectangle toward the edge of the face. Click to set scale.

8. Trim the intersecting edges of the decagon and the rectangle to leave only the
outline of the two overlapping shapes. Join this outline into one closed curve.

9. Choose Solid,
Extrude Planar Curve and
extrude the curve through
the tip. Subtract the ex-
trusion from the tip.

Unfolding

Similar to the previous tutorials, the same general rule for unfolding to pattern applies
to unfolding forms like the completed tip: each primitive, including those producing
subtractions, become a separate pattern. In this case the tip is exploded, and then
separated into two forms, one positive and the other the negative hole.

10. After exploding select each row of surfaces and join into a ring. Choose
Surface, Unroll Developable Srf and hit enter to unroll each ring:

265
The following procedures for posing the model, designing with construction
lines and unfolding non-primitives are somewhat advanced and offer some
possibilities for more complex design of the sculpture. These are offered for
those wishing to push their object sculpture a bit further than a straightforward
replication of the object.

266
Posing the Model

Look for a way to position and orientate the model in space that will engage viewers in
their re-perception of the object. A good way to do this is to pose it in reference to
its normal function, to catch it in action . Torn Notebook , depicted in the previous
tutorial, is a good example. It captures the pages of the notebook in full windblown
fury.

Something similar could be done with the sample model. The wire could be made to
look supple by giving it a curved path and the tapered collar, also designed to flex
could be posed in a flexed position.

11. In the images above the left model has a straight axis, while the axis of the
second model follows a curved path. The curves give this path it a feeling of
movement and that feeling of movement, that is referred to as the object s
gesture.
To create the posed, or gestured, version of the model this axis was drawn first
and then the model was adjusted to fit it. In this case the gestural axis is a
continuous curve comprising a straight segment and three circular arcs.

12. The gestural axis begins as a straight line where it parallels the rigid
body of the plug and then rolls into an arc where the flexible collar starts. To
draw this arc, select Curve, Extend, By Arc. Click on the line near the end to
be extended, and a perpendicular line will appear at the end of that line. This

267
 is the beginning radius of the extending arc. Drag this line and click to set the
radius length. After setting the radius a new radius will appear, trailed by an
arc tangent to the original line. Use the mouse to swing the arc to the desired
angle. The same procedure adds the subsequent arc extensions.

Before continuing on to the next steps explode this curve and join the last two
arcs into a single S-curve. The axis curve now has three parts corresponding to
the rigid body of the plug, the bending collar and the S-curve of the wire.

13. The image below illustrates the end edges of the rigid collar duplicated and
joined into two decagons. These were then copied onto the ends of the first
arc segment. The smaller of the two was then rotated to set it perpendicular to
the arc.

With the Center, Point and End snaps activated mark the center of that arc by
placing a point object there. Rotate the small decagon using its center as the
origin and a side vertex as the first reference point. Clicking on the point
object completes the rotation and aligns the decagon radial to the arc.

14. To create the flexed collar the designer selected Surface, Sweep 1 Rail
and at the Select rail curve prompt clicked on the arc segment. Then, at
the Select cross-section curves prompt, clicked on the two end decagons,
making sure to click on the corresponding points of each curve. Hitting Enter,
two arrows should appear, one on each curve and facing in the same direction.
Hitting Enter twice more completes the sweep shown below.

268
15. Select the newly swept surface and choose Solid, Cap Planar Holes to
close this surface into a solid.

16. Creating the wire follows much the same procedure employed to create the
collar. Duplicate the end decagon of the wire and transpose this decagon onto
the end of the S-curve. Rotate this decagon as in step #13 above.

Since the wire has the same diameter throughout its length only one decagon is
needed to sweep along the S-curve. Sweep to create the wire and then cap into
a solid, as in step #15. Place a copy of this new solid adjacent to itself to
replicate the double strand of the wire. Select both and center them on the
end of the collar:

269
17. The trickiest part of this pose is to recreate the slots in the flexed version of
the collar:

Note that what began as rectangular slots created by subtracting box primitives
takes on a taper as the inside of the bend compresses and the outside of the
bend expands. In this interpretation the tapers are assumed to follow the
radius lines of the arc of the bend. This is not, strictly speaking, the actual
behavior of the flexing collar, but it is a good approximation.

Designing with Construction Lines

This procedure makes far greater use of construction lines than did any of the
previous procedures in this manual. Sometimes called guidelines in graphic

270
 programs, construction lines provide the layout, proportion and other
references needed to set up for the creation of a model. As with the layout
constructed for the hole in the tip of the plug (steps # 4 8 above),
construction lines do not remain as part of the model.

Make sure that the Center, End, Near and Point snaps are active. Begin the
construction process in the Top view by drawing lines from the center point of
the axis arc of the collar (this is the same point used to orient the small
decagon in step #13 above) to the ends of the collar.

Select Curve, Arc, Center, Start, Angle and click on the center of the axis arc
to set the center of the new arc and draw an arc between the two lines well
outside of the bending collar. The Near snap will attach the arc to these lines
by clicking on each line. Repeat to draw a second arc well inside of the bend.

Two more concentric arcs will complete this stage of the construction. Again
click on the same arc center and then click on one vertex at the narrow end of
the top face of the collar. Complete the arc by clicking on the opposite line.
Repeat to draw another arc from the remaining vertex at the narrow end of the
top face of the collar.

18. The screen shot below shows the outside arc divided into nine equal parts. At
those points corresponding to the position of the slots are three circles whose
diameter is the width of the outside spread of the slots. Activate the Int snap
and draw radial lines from the center of the arcs to each intersection of the
circles with the outside arc:

271
19. Choose Edit, Select, Curves to select all of the construction
lines and then choose Transform, Project to Cplane. This will place all of the
curves onto the x,y plane.

During the construction process many of the snaps caused the lines to skew up
and down even though they all appeared flat in the Top view. This command
assures that all of the lines are on the same plane and below the model.

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20. Trim the radial lines with the arcs and the arcs with the radial lines to obtain
the six trapezoidal shapes shown above. Select these shapes and join.

Extrude these shapes as solids to pass completely through the collar. Subtract
these solids from the collar to complete the posed model.

Unfolding Non-Primitives

The flexed versions of the collar and wire were built from scratch because there are
no geometric primitives that correspond to them and, although they are related to the
three categories of geometric solids explored in previous tutorials, they do not unfold
in exactly the same ways.

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The collar and wire can unfold into gores because they both comprise developable
surfaces. (Recall that developable surfaces are those that can unroll onto a flat plane
with no distortion.) Any surface created by sweeping a straight line through space is
developable (see below). Cones and cylinders are examples of surfaces that can be
created by revolving a straight line. So are the collar and the wire, which were both
created by sweeping polygons along a curve. Since a polygon s sides are all straight,
then the surfaces of the swept forms are all developable.

21. The two screenshots below illustrate the unfolding of one wire strand from the
sample model. One half of the model is unrolled first by using the Unroll
Developable Srf tool and then mirrored to complete the other half of the wire.

The final pattern edited for assembly appears on the following page along with
the patterns for the other parts of the plug. It is apparent that the level of
work and attention rises considerably in the struggle to invigorate the final
sculpture with gestural qualities.

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