Grade 10 SHS Music History

Name: ___________________________________________________ Class: ___________

Stirling High School

GRADE 1O MUSIC HISTORY MODULE

After silence, that which comes nearest to expressing the inexpressible is music.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Contents
Introduction to Music ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
A Definition of Music .................................................................................................................................................... 5
The Role of Music in Various Societies ......................................................................................................................... 5
Elements of Music ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Musical style ................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Musical Instruments ......................................................................................................................................................... 7

Voice.......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Strings........................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Woodwinds ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
Brass .......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Percussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Keyboards.................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Electronic Instruments .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Instrument Classification ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Aerophones ............................................................................................................................................................. 10
Chordophones ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Idiophones .............................................................................................................................................................. 10
Membranophones .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Electrophones ......................................................................................................................................................... 10

Musical Forms ................................................................................................................................................................. 11

Binary Form ............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Ternary Form........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Rondo Form............................................................................................................................................................. 12
Theme and Variation Form ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Verse-Chorus Form ................................................................................................................................................. 12

Musical Styles.................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Rock Music .................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Pop Music.................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Afrikaans Music ........................................................................................................................................................... 19
Boeremusiek ............................................................................................................................................................... 19

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Moppies & Goemas..................................................................................................................................................... 20

Indian Music ................................................................................................................................................................ 21

The Baroque Period ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

Definition .................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Style Characteristics .................................................................................................................................................... 22
Musical Developments................................................................................................................................................ 23
The Orchestra.......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Major and Minor key system .................................................................................................................................. 24
Basso Continuo ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
Genres - Vocal ............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Opera....................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Oratorio ................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Chorale .................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Cantata .................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Mass ........................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Genres - Instrumental ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Suite ........................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Sonata ..................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Concerto Grosso...................................................................................................................................................... 26
Fugue ....................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Forms .......................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Composers .................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Antonio Vivaldi ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
George Frideric Handel ........................................................................................................................................... 28
Johann Sebastian Bach ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Representative Works................................................................................................................................................. 29
Vivaldi – The Four Seasons (Primavera) .................................................................................................................. 29
Handel – The Messiah ............................................................................................................................................. 32

The Classical Period......................................................................................................................................................... 34

Definition .................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Style Characteristics .................................................................................................................................................... 34
Musical Developments................................................................................................................................................ 35
The Orchestra.......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Music for the Piano ................................................................................................................................................. 35
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Genres – Vocal ............................................................................................................................................................ 36

Opera....................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Genres – Instrumental ................................................................................................................................................ 37
Sonata, Trio and Quartet ........................................................................................................................................ 37
Symphony................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Concerto .................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Forms .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Sonata Form ............................................................................................................................................................ 38
Composers .................................................................................................................................................................. 41
Joseph Haydn .......................................................................................................................................................... 41
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart .................................................................................................................................... 41
Ludwig van Beethoven ............................................................................................................................................ 41
Representative Works................................................................................................................................................. 42
Eine Kleiner Nachtmusik – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (chamber music).............................................................. 42
The Pathétique Sonata – Ludwig van Beethoven (Sonata) ..................................................................................... 43

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Introduction to Music
A Definition of Music
Imagine a bird chirping, an infant banging a woodblock on a table, the sound of wind whistling through some trees,
or yourself singing in the shower! Which of these would you classify as music? How you answer this largely depends
on how you define music. And how to define music has long been a subject of debate. Definitions have varied
throughout history, in different regions, and within different societies. Music, like art, is a subjective phenomenon,
and so different perceptions exist with regard to what music is, or is not. Some of the more common definitions
include:

 Music is the art of organizing sounds and silence, and expressing intellectual, emotional and spiritual aspects
of human experience.
 Music is the art or science of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form,
harmony, and expression of emotion.
 Music is any agreeable (pleasing and harmonious) sound.
 Music is organized sound.

Write your own definition of music in the space below.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Role of Music in Various Societies

Close your eyes and think of all the various places you hear music. Are all these places the same? Is the same style of
music heard everywhere? Why do we have differently types of music at different places? Many of these answers
come down to the role or function of music in our societies. Musicologists speak of four main roles of music in
society; these are to add:

Cultural value
- to preserves our culture and heritage
- to communicate + shape the values and principles in our society/culture

Aesthetic value
- to add beauty to life
- (“music for the sake of music”)

Utilitarian value
- as a teaching aid and carrier of knowledge
- as a means of healing
- as a tool to assist work and labour
- to communicate political and power messages

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Spiritual value
- as a creative outlet to express emotions
- to touch the human soul/spirit
- to communicate and experience the religious/transcendent/supernatural

Can you think of any other functions of music in various societies?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Elements of Music
A variety of elements help to characterise music. While not all of these characteristics may be present in a musical
composition at one time, they nevertheless are the essential ingredient or characteristics found in music. They
include:

1. Timbre – the quality of a musical tone that distinguishes different types of sounds
2. Duration (rhythm) – a series of short or long sounds (or silences) in a specific order
3. Pitch – how high or low a sound is
4. Volume – how loud or soft a sound is
5. Structure – the overall form or pattern of a musical composition
6. Texture – how the sound of instruments and voices are arranged together in a musical group
7. Mood & atmosphere – the emotional tone of a piece of music

Musical style
Combining these elements in different ways is what creates the many different musical styles around the world (e.g.
folk music, military music, rock, jazz, western art music, Indian music, African music).

Like most other things, musical styles change from one era in history to the next. These changes are continuous, and
so any boundary line between one style period and the next can be only an approximation. Though sudden turning
points do occur in the history of music, even the most revolutionary new style is usually foreshadowed in earlier
compositions. And few changes of style sweep away the past entirely.

Listen to the following sound clips and comment on the way in which different musical elements combine to
produce that particular style of music (e.g. What element is prominent? Which elements are not present?).

Jazz - _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Opera - _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Musical Instruments
Voice
The range of a singer's voice depends both on training and on physical makeup. Professional singers can command 2
octaves or even more, whereas an untrained voice is usually limited to about 1 octave. Men's vocal cords are longer
and larger than women's, and this difference produces a lower range of pitches. The classification of voice ranges for
women and men follows, arranged from highest to lowest.

Women: Soprano
Mezzo-soprano
Alto
Men: Tenor
Baritone
Bass

Because of differences in taste, methods of singing vary widely from culture to culture. Asian singing, for example, is
more nasal than that of the west. While classical singers in our culture stand erect, singers in West Africa stand
bending forward; and in India they sit on the floor. In fact, there are differences in performing styles in the west
alone: classical, popular, jazz, folk, and rock music are all sung differently.

Strings
The violin, viola, cello (violoncello), and double bass (sometimes called simply a bass) form the symphony orchestra's
string section. They vary in tone colour as well as in size and range: the violin is the smallest and has the highest
range; the double bass is the largest and has the lowest range. For symphonic music the strings usually are played
with a bow, a slightly curved stick strung tightly with horsehair. Symphonic strings are also plucked with the finger.

Of all the instrument groups, the strings have the greatest versatility and expressive range. They produce many tone
colours and have wide ranges of pitch and dynamics. String players can produce tones that are brilliant and rapid or
slow and throbbing; they can control tone as subtly as a singer. Orchestral works tend to rely more on the string
instruments than any other group.

The most frequently used techniques by string players are:

 Pizzicato (plucked string): The musician plucks the string, usually with a finger of the right hand. In jazz, the
double bass is played mainly as a plucked instrument, rather than being bowed.
 Double stop (two notes at once): By drawing the bow across two strings, a string player can sound two notes at
once. And by rotating the bow rapidly across three strings (triple stop) or four strings (quadruple stop), three or
four notes can be sounded almost-but not quite-together.
 Vibrato: The string player can produce a throbbing, expressive tone by rocking the left hand while pressing the
string down. This causes small pitch fluctuations which make the tone warmer.
 Mute: The musician can veil or muffle the tone by fitting a clamp (mute) onto the bridge.
 Tremolo: The musician rapidly repeats tones by quick up-and-down strokes of the bow. This can create a sense
of tension, when loud, or a shimmering sound, when soft.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Woodwinds
The woodwind instruments are so named because they produce vibrations of air within a tube that traditionally was
made of wood. The woodwind instruments of the symphony orchestra are listed as follows, arranged from highest to
lowest in range: piccolo, flute, oboe, English horn, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, contrabassoon.

Woodwind instruments are great individualists and are much less alike in tone colour than the various strings. The
woodwinds' unique tone colours result largely from the different ways in which vibrations are produced;

 Blowing across the edge of a mouth hole (flute and piccolo)

 Using a single-reed (clarinet, bass clarinet , saxophone)
 Using a double-reed (oboe, English horn, bassoon, contrabassoon)

Tone colours also differ greatly among the various registers of each woodwind instrument. In general, low registers
tend to be breathy and thick, and top registers are more penetrating. Unlike the strings, which can double-stop, the
woodwinds can produce only a single note at a time.

Brass
From high register to low, the main instruments of the symphony orchestra's brass section are the trumpet, French
horn (sometimes called simply a horn), trombone, and tuba. Trumpets and trombones are often used in jazz and
rock groups. Some brass instruments, such as the cornet, baritone horn, euphonium, and bass, are used mainly in
concert and marching bands. Brasses are powerful instruments; when played loudly they can almost drown out the
rest of the orchestra. Brasses are used at climaxes and for bold and heroic statements. They cannot play as rapidly as
most of the string or woodwind instruments and serve less often as soloists.

Percussion
Most percussion instruments of the orchestra are struck by hand, with sticks, or with hammers. Some are shaken or
rubbed. Percussion instruments are subdivided into instruments that are pitched and those that are not pitched.

 Definite Pitch: timpani (kettledrums), xylophone, celesta, glockenspiel, chimes

 Indefinite Pitch: snare drum, triangle, bass drum, gong, tambourine, tam-tam, cymbals

Percussion instruments have long been used to emphasise rhythm and to heighten climaxes, but were not as
important as strings, woodwinds, or brasses. It was not until the beginning of the 1900s that percussion began to be
used more.

Keyboards
The piano, harpsichord, organ, and accordion are the best-known keyboard instruments. During the last two
centuries, more great music has been written for the piano than for any other solo instrument, mostly because of its
exceptional versatility.

Electronic Instruments
An electronic instrument is one that produces or amplifies sound through electronic means. Electronic instruments
were invented as early as 1904 but have had a significant impact on music only since 1950.

Listening example: The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra - Benjamin Britten

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Instrument Classification
Musical instrument classification is the discipline of grouping musical instruments into similar categories or classes.
At various times, and in various cultures, different methods of musical instrument classification have been used. In
an effort to correct the shortfalls of previous methods of instrument classification the Sachs–Hornbostel system was
developed at the beginning of the 19th century (1914) by Curt Sachs and Erich Moritz von Hornbostel. The system
divides instruments into five broad categories according to how the sound is initially produced:

 air column (aerophone)

 string (chordophone)
 the body of the instrument (idiophone)
 membrane (membranophone)
 electrically produced/aided sounds (electrophone)

Aerophones
Aerophones make sounds as air vibrates through a tube. The vibration begins with either a lip vibration (as in a
trumpet), a reed (as in clarinets, saxaphones and oboes), a ball (as in a whistle) or by air striking a sharp edge (as in a
flute). The shape of the soundwave is determined by the width and length of the tube through which the air travels.
Examples include: Bassoon, Accordian, Concertina, Bagpipe, Clarinet, English horn, Flute, French horn, Harmonica,
Oboe, Ocarina, Organ, Pan flute, Panpipes, Piccolo, Recorder, Saxophone, Sousaphone, Trumpet, Tuba.

Chordophones
Chordophones make their sound when a stretched string vibrates. There is usually something that makes the sound
reverberate such as the body of a guitar or violin. Examples include: Banjo, Dulcimer, Fiddle, Guitar, Harp, Lute,
Piano, Ukelele, Viol, Violin.

Idiophones
Idiophones are instruments that are made from materials that have their own unique sounds - ceramics, glass,
metal, or wood all create different vibrations. Sometimes they are hit (wood blocks, chimes), moved (bell and
clapper) or shaken (rattles). They are generally considered part of the percussion section in a band or orchestra.
Examples include: Bell, Castanets, Cymbals, Glockenspiel, Gong, Rattle, Woodblock, Xylophone.

Membranophones
Membranophones are instruments that make sounds when a stretched skin vibrates. Usually a membranophone is a
drum which makes a sound when the membrane is hit. Examples include: Bongos, Congas, Bass Drum, Gong, Snare
Drums, Tambourine.

Electrophones
Electrophones are instruments which use electricity to produce their sound. Examples include: Synthesiser,
Keyboard, Rhodes piano, Keytar, Hammond organ.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Musical Forms
Form in music is the organization of musical ideas. In a logically organised piece of music, one thought grows from
another, and all the parts are interrelated. Three techniques in particular help to establish musical form; repetition,
variation and contrast.

Repetition
Musical repetition appeals to the pleasure we get in recognizing and remembering something. In a play, a scene or
act is rarely repeated, but in music the repetition of melodies or extended sections is a technique widely used for
binding a composition together. Through repetition a melody is engraved in our memory. When a musical idea
returns during a piece, the effect produced is not duplication but balance and symmetry.

Contrast
Forward motion, conflict, and change of mood all come from contrast. Often a composer can emphasise the power
and excitement of a musical idea by contrasting it with one that is calm and lyrical. Other contrasts can include fast
and slow, major and minor and instrument timbres (strings and woodwinds).

Variation
In the variation of a musical idea, some of its features will be retained while others are changed. For example, the
melody might be restated with a different accompaniment. Or the pitches of a melody might stay the same while its
rhythmic pattern is changed. A whole composition can be created from a series of variations on a single musical idea.

There are many musical forms used in Western Art Music. The most commonly used forms are discussed below.

Binary Form
 Binary form consists of two sections: A B. Each section is also often repeated (A A B B).

B
 These two sections are different to each other and are contrasted against each other.
 The first part will usually modulate to the dominant key at the end, and the second part will modulate back to
the tonic.
 Often the two sections are in different musical keys and have different melodies, but maintain the same rhythm,
duration and tone.
 This form was often used in the 18th-century for dances as the alternating two tunes gives enough variety to
allow a dance to be extended for as long as may be required.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Ternary Form
 Ternary form consists of three sections: A B A

A
 The first two sections contrast each other, while the third is a repeat of the first section.
 Often the first section is repeated twice at the beginning (AABA).
 This approach was popular in the 18th-century operatic aria and was called da capo form (i.e. "repeat from the
top"). Later this form gave rise to the 32-bar song, with each section containing 8 bars: (A-8, A-8, B-8, A-8). The B
section then is often called the "middle eight".

Rondo Form
 Rondo form has a recurring theme alternating with different (usually contrasting) sections:
A B A C A D A...
 These contrasting sections (B, C, D...) are called episodes.
 Rondo form may be asymmetrical (A B A C A D A...) or symmetrical (A B A C A B A).
 The recurring section, or main theme, is sometimes varied slightly as the piece develops (A B A1 C A2 D A3...),
or else one episode may be a development of it (A B A C A A1 A D...).

Theme and Variation Form

 Theme and Variation consists of one section that repeats itself in slightly different ways:
A A1 A2 A3 A4 A5...
 The first A section is played, and then is repeated, but is changed slightly.
 Examples of these changes can be slight alterations in the melody, harmonies, rhythm, key, tempo, dynamics or
instrumentation.
 In 17th-century English music a repeating bass theme was often used, over which the rest of the piece unfolded
with different variations.

Verse-Chorus Form
 In verse-chorus form (also called strophic form) the chorus is highlighted by being prepared and contrasted with
the verses. The chorus often sharply contrasts the verse melodically, rhythmically, and harmonically, and
assumes a higher level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation.

 The arrangement of verses and chorus’ can take many ‘shapes’, e.g.:
o V1 > Ch > V2 > Ch > V3 > Ch
o V1 > V2 > Ch > V3 > Ch
o V1 > V2 > Ch > V3 > V4 > Ch

Two listening examples below outline Ternary Form and Binary Form.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Listening example: Dance of the Reed Pipes – Peter Tchaikovsky

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Listening example: Badinerie from Suite No.2 in b Minor – JS Bach

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Musical Styles
Rock Music

Introduction
Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed during and after the 1960s, particularly in the United
Kingdom and the United States. It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s Rock ‘n Roll, which came from Blues and Country
Music. Today, Rock has evolved to include a wide range of sounds and styles.

Listening example: Nickelback - How You Remind Me (Live at Sturgis 2006)

The musicians and fans of the rock genres Progressive rock, Glam rock, Punk rock and Hip Hop/Rap all show anti-
establishment characteristics (such as crime, the use of drugs, and anti-political and religious slurs). Hard rock
initiated Heavy metal and Progressive rock: during the 1970's rock groups like "Black Sabbath" who paved the way
for heavy metal emerged with a hard-edged, loud approach to music. Fans of heavy metal music accordingto studies,
show a greater tendency towards delinquency and anti- authoritarian behaviour. The music of Glam rock performers
is marked by live performance kitch antics, provocative lyrics and the performers have an androgenous image,
defying sexuality. Punk rock groups on the other hand felt that rock had lost sight of its rebellious, cutting-edge
origins. This music was loud, angry and rebellious and the "Sex Pistols" in their lyrics attacked the pillars of British
society, such as the monarchy. They also show a tendency of violence and anti-romantic depictions of sex and love.
Punk rock initially served as a reaction to disco, heavy metal and progressive rock. Rap and Hip Hop lyrics cover a
variety of subjects from social struggle to monetary boasts to sex and promiscuity and sometimes also racial issues.
The lyrics can also be overtly political. Almost all popular rappers identify with heterosexuality and homophobia is
both prevalent and blatant throughout Hip Hop culture. This form of music also inspired the graffiti movement:
spray- painting of city subways for example.

Characteristics
Musically, rock music is centred on the electric guitar, bass
guitar, drums and vocals. Other instruments that are added are
often keyboard (piano, Hammond organ or synthesizers), rhythm
electric guitar, steel-string acoustic guitar, and back-up vocals. A
typical rock band usually has 4 players, but can be anything
between 2 to 7 players.

Rock music uses simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter,

with a repetitive snare drum backbeat on beats two and four.
Rock songs used the verse-chorus structure with occasional
variations.

The dominance of rock by white, male musicians has result in it Red Hot Chilli Peppers uses a quartet of
mainly focussing on love, sex, rebellion, drugs, and social issues. electric guitar, bass, drums & vocals.

Rock places a high degree of emphasis on musicianship, live

performance, and authenticity.

A simple 4/4 drum pattern common in

rock music.
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

History
The foundations of rock music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and
early 1950s, and quickly spread to the rest of the world. The first rock and roll musicians were players like Elvis
Presley, Big Jo Turner, Chuck Berry, Fats Domino and Little Richard.

Elvis Presley
The roots of Elvis’ music was in rhythm and blues, gospel and jazz, but he quickly developed a new and ‘catchy’ style
that was the beginning of rock n’ roll. Elvis managed to captivate audiences through his rebellious attitude and sexual
directness. His music had a loud and pounding beat and his voice had a unique dark and ‘weighty’ sound. The range of
Elvis’ voice was that of a Baritone and comfortably ranged from G in the second octave below middle C to B in the
first octave above middle C. His voice was both unpredictable and unreliable in his low register, but his top falsetto
register was clear. Elvis was also an important figure to help breakdown racism in America as he frequently
performed with African-Americans.

Listening example: Elvis Presley – That's Alright Mama (1954)

At the beginning of the 1960s a number of distinct rock music genres had emerged (including blues rock, folk rock,
country rock, and jazz-rock fusion), and many rock musicians and bands had become very famous (e.g. the Beach
Boys, Chubby Checker). The mid-1960s saw the beginning of the ‘British Invasion’, where many British Rock Bands
arrived in America and became very popular (e.g. the Beatles, Cliff Richard, the Rolling Stones).

The Beatles
The highly original style of The Beatles developed from a variety of other styles, including the initial blues, Chuck
Berry's rhythm and blues, Elvis Presley, English folk music and the lyrics of Bob Dylan. They purposely omitted cliches
in their use of chords and always experimented with new styles of melodic composition and harmony. The use of
modes rather than major and minor keys led to innovative chords. Sometimes the beat and rhythms of a song were
changed so that phrases became uneven. New sounds were created by the addition of various instruments not
normally associated with rock music. The influence of Indian music can be seen in the use of the Indian string
instrument, the sitar. They also used French singing in some of their songs. New electronic sounds also form part of
their recording technique. The lyrics of Lennon and McCartney were exceptionally novel and fresh. Their vocal
delivery sounded carefree and spontaneous.

In the 1970s and 1980s a number of sub-genres emerged in rock,

including:

 Garage Rock – a grungy and aggressive sound, often with growing

or shouted vocals, that sounded like it had been recorded in a
garage.
 Pop Rock – a soft, commercial form of Rock (Elton John; Paul
McCartney; Rod Stewart)
 Blues Rock – a combination of Blues and Rock (Led Zeppelin; Deep
The Beatles arriving in New York in
Purple; Eric Clapton)
January 1964 at the beginning of
the ‘British Invasion’.

 Folk Rock – a combination of US and UK Folk music and Rock (The Byrds; The Mamas & the Papas)
 Psychedelic Rock – an experimental, drug inspired Rock (Rolling Stones; Jimi Hendrix; The Who)
 Jazz Rock – Combined the musical complexity and improvisational elements of jazz with Rock (Herbie Hancock;
Chick Corea; Weather Report)
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

 Early heavy metal – emphasised volume, power and speed (Aerosmith; AC/DC)
 Christian Rock – Rock music by Christian artists with Christian themes and messages (Amy Grant; Collective Soul)
 Punk rock - fast, hard-edged rock, typically with short songs, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political,
anti-establishment lyrics (Ramones; Sex Pistols; The Clash)
 Death metal –intense volume, power and speed, with occult and ‘dark’ associations (Black Sabbath, Metallica)

Some of the more established rock genres include:

Punk Rock - emerged from the working class, but had violent anti-establishment ideals. The musicians who
performed in the punk style were not only rebelling against the government and social norms, in many ways they
rebelled against even the style of performance and music that had immediately preceded them. Many of the punk
bands were made up of very bad musicians who played a style of music that was similar to that of garage bands. Sex
Pistols - Anarchy in the U2, God Save the Queen.

Glam Rock - a theatrical type of rock that was focused on flashy performances. Costumes were created from
fantasy, with glitter, feathers and sequins. Often mystical characters were portrayed by the musicians. E.g. David
Bowie created the character Ziggy Stardust.

Progressive Rock - The music reflected newer technologies in electronics through its prominent use of stereo
panning and electric keyboards and psychedelic interpretations, with extended improvised sections and 'spaced out'
solos. Lyrics were entirely surreal and often referred to folklore, such as "The Gnome". Poetic lyrics and an eclectic
mixture of music, from the avant-garde free-form pieces and whimsical songs such as Pink Floyd’s songs – ‘The
Scarecrow’. Albums: The Dark Side of the Moon, Animals, and Wish you were Here.

From the 1990s alternative rock began to dominate rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form
of grunge (Nirvana), Britpop (Oasis), and indie rock (The Cranberries). Further fusion sub-genres have since emerged,
including rap rock (Beastie Boys; Red Hot Chilli Peppers), nu-metal (Korn), and rap metal (Linkin Park). Since 2000 a
few new genres have emerged (e.g. emo, electronic rock), and many old genres have re-emerged (e.g. post-garage,
post-metal, post-britpop).

Social Impact
Rock music has been associated with political activism as well as changes in social attitudes to race, sex and drug use,
and is often seen as an expression of youth revolt against adult consumerism and conformity. Rock music has served
as the vehicle for many social movements, leading to major sub-cultures, such as rockers, hippies, punks, goths and
emo’s.

 Discuss the anti-establishment nature of rock music and how this can be seen in the music. (5)

Pop Music
Pop music (an abbreviation of "popular") is a genre of music that derived from rock and roll in the 1950s in the US
and UK. The main goal of pop music is that of being pleasurable to listen to, rather than having much artistic depth,
and generally is aimed at appealing to a mass audience.

Listening example: ABBA – Mamma Mia (1975)

Listening example: Michael Jackson – The Way You Make Me Feel (1987)

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Although Pop Music often borrows elements from other styles (e.g. urban, dance, rock, Latin and country), there are
core elements which define it, such as:

 short-to-medium length (2 ½ - 3 minutes)

 written in a basic format (often the verse-chorus structure)
 repeated choruses
 pleasant sounding melodies (easy to sing and remember)
 catchy musical ‘hooks’
 catchy beats that are easy to dance to
 lyrics centred around love and romantic relationships

Pop music instrumentation uses vocals, electric guitars, drums and bass. Other instruments include the keyboard
(synthesisers, piano), electronic sounds, and acoustic and rhythm guitars. Pop music shares many similar
characteristics to rock music, and many pop bands also can be classified as rock bands (e.g. the Beatles). However,
there are some significant differences between pop and rock, such as:

 Pop is created in order to appeal to a mass audience for commercial purposes (to make money). Rock is
created to experiment musically and express the artist’s feelings / opinions.
 Pop is created by musical professionals in order to craft a ‘slick’ song. Rock can be created by anyone and is
often ‘raw’ and un-edited.
 Pop is not limited to any particular taste or sub-genre, but is designed to appeal to everybody. Rock is often
very limited to a particular sub-genre (e.g. punk-rock; folk-rock; heavy metal).

Pop music was both enabled and fuelled by the breakthroughs in technology of the 1950s and beyond. The vinyl
enabled music companies to mass-produce records and distribute pop music to foreign countries. The television
forced pop artists to create a ‘visual presence’ to their music, which caused them to invent interesting stage
personas with startling costumes and makeup.

Disco - music not performed live and characterised by a steady, strong beat, with vibrant bass patterns, violin riffs
and electronic sound effects, designed for dancing. Discotheques with illuminated dance floors, strobe lights and
mirror balls, became the meeting place of the adventurous, fun seeking crowd, while the recreational use of drugs
like cocaine became commonplace among the urban socially mobile. Disco bridged racial, economic and sexual
divides. Songs: AB BA - Summernight City, Gimme, Gimme, Gimme (A Man after Midnight); Blondie - Heart of Glass,
Atomic.

Between the 1970s – 2000s a number of pop-genres have emerged, including:

 Bubblegum pop – an upbeat sound marketed to appeal to pre-teens and teenagers
 Dance-pop – dance-oriented pop music developed from disco which is up-tempo and
intended for clubs and hit radio
 Europop – pop music that first developed in Europe (particularly France, Germany,
Italy, Ireland, Netherlands, UK and Sweden) throughout the late 1970s. It is generally
trance and dance focussed. E.g. ABBA
 Teen pop – pop music that is created, marketed and oriented towards teenagers,
which uses aspects of dance, R&B, hip hop, country and rock, and focuses on
choreographed dancing, emphasis on visual appeal (faces, bodies, hair and designer
clothes), and lyrics focused on teenage issues (love/relationships, finding yourself,
friendships, fitting in, and growing up).
 Indie pop – a genre indie-rock music that it is more melodic, less abrasive, and
relatively angst-free.
Lady Gaga
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Examples of modern pop musicians include Madonna; Katy Perry; Lady Gaga; Britney Spears; Bruno Mars; Justin
Bieber; and Justin Timberlake.

Listening example; Christina Aguilera - Genie in A Bottle (1999)

 You attended a concert where a pop artist was performing. Write a review of this concert by referring to style
characteristics of the pop artist. (5)

Afrikaans Music
While the Afrikaans community has a long history of traditional Afrikaans music, the Afrikaans music industry has
only seen large growth and development since roughly 2000, with many new artists, genres, album releases and
sales. In 2004 an Afrikaans album by Steve Hofmeyr was named best-selling album of the year!

Many Afrikaans festivals, dance halls, and even the first Afrikaans television music channel
(which focuses mainly on Afrikaans rock music), have contributed to the growing popularity
of Afrikaans modern music. And the massive purchasing power of the Afrikaner minority in
South Africa has enabled the genre to grow and develop.

Afrikaans Pop, Rock, Alternative, Punk and Rap

The first modern genre of Afrikaans music was Afrikaans rock and pop, which saw many artists like Jurie Els, Patricia
Lewis, Steve Hofmeyr, and Kurt Darren finding national acclaim.

Listening example: Bobby van Jaarsveld – Liefling

Since 2000 a variety of Afrikaans genres have developed. Artists like Karen Zoid ushered in a distinctly alternative
Afrikaans sound. Shortly afterwards, a band of young punk rockers called "Fokofpolisiekar" became the first group to
create punk rock in Afrikaans. Their controversial name (translated as Fuckoffpolicecar), statements and behaviour
drew much public attention, making them a symbol of the Afrikaans Rock revival movement. Bands like Battery9,
Terminatrix, NuL, K.O.B.U.S. and Thys Nywerheid continue to reinvent alternative Afrikaans music, while Jack Parow
has continued the Cape's development of Afrikaans rap from pioneers Brasse vannie Kaap, finding success as far
afield as Holland with his 2009 single "Cooler as Ekke".

Listening example: Jack Parow – Cooler as Ekke

Boeremusiek
Boeremusiek (‘the music of the Boer/Afrikaaner’) is a type of South African instrumental folk music, originally
intended to be an accompaniment to social dancing at parties and festivals.

Listening example: Stellenbosch verlange wals

History
Boermusic is largely European in origin but was carried to South Africa through white European settlers. Whenever a
certain dance became popular in Europe, it was soon introduced in the Cape by military bands of the British Empire.
Whenever they were off duty, they hired themselves out for parties, weddings and other social events. Dance
masters taught the new dances to the locals and consequently Boeremusiek spread into the hinterland. It acquired a
local flavour and character of it's own in the process. A large volume of Boeremusiek was consequently composed by
local musicians, as is still the case today. The first person to transcribe local Boeremusiek tunes was the music
teacher, Charles Etienne Boniface (1787-1853), who arrived in the Cape in 1807.
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Characteristics
The concertina is the lead instrument in most Boeremusiek bands. There are many different types of concertinas,
which is why Boeremusiek has many unique sounds and styles. Other instruments include the guitar, banjo, bass
guitar, accordion, harmonica, piano, and cello. The sound of a Boeremusiek band may depend on what region the
band is from, and the dance style of the music, for example waltz, polka, masurka, settees, or the blues. Today, there
are many successful Boeremusiek bands and individual artists including Klipwerf Boereorkes, Danie Grey, Nico
Carstens, Taffie Kikkilus, Brian Nieuwoudt, Samuel Petzer, Worsie Visser and Die Ghitaar Man.

Moppies & Goemas

Moppies and Goema’s songs are a 200 year old tradition unique to the Cape of South Africa. These songs are mostly
performed by Cape coloureds and are meant to liven-up social occasions, particularly traditional New Year
celebrations. Moppies and Ghomma songs are divided into four categories namely; traditional wedding songs, Dutch
(Afrikaans) folk songs, moppies (humorous songs). Though the content of the texts is mostly light-hearted and funny,
there are nonetheless, examples of songs with a political content which were sung during the Apartheid period and
which expressed their opposition to the system.

Listening example: The Goema Captains – Daar Kom die Alibama.

Listening example: Cape Town Coon Festival 2008 + 2012

History

The music was predominantly created by slaves and poor musicians

who had no musical training. Melodies and lyrics where learnt by
memory and were passed down orally. Sometime the lyrics where
written on pieces of paper, however many of these were lost or
destroyed. Often interesting historical facts relating to the Cape are
related through the songs.
A Goema’s band performing at the Cape
Town festival

Characteristics
Choirs are accompanied by bands which include drums, banjo and guitar. Other instruments like trumpet, trombone
and saxophone are also used.The ghomma drum plays the goema beat, which is not muscially very complex,
consisting of a short, short, long pattern (i.e. tafa te - two semiquavers, quaver). The drum is made of a wine cask
with an open end on the one side over which a velum (skin) is fastened. The music is often accompanied by dance
movements.

The annual Cape Minstrel Carnival and choir competition has been in existence for more than 100 years and the
annual festival ensures the continuation of this tradition.

The most well-known artists today include Taliep Pietersen and David Kramer.

Listening example: David Kramer

 Write a short essay entitled, Features of Moppies and Ghomma songs. (6)

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Indian Music
The music of India includes multiple varieties of classical, folk, popular and Indian-fused styles. India is made up of
several dozen ethnic groups, speaking their own languages and dialects, having distinct cultural traditions, which
consequently makes its music very diverse and eclectic. In this section we study traditional Classical Indian music.

Classical Indian Music

Indian Classical music is millennia old, and began as a musical accompaniment to Indian sacred texts and scriptures.
It remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of spiritual inspiration, cultural expression and pure
entertainment. Music is composed for seasonal changes (monsoon), periods set aside for prayer, specific times of
the day (e.g. early morning), weddings and funerals.

Indian classical music is monophonic in nature and based around a single melody line. Indian music not notated, but
passed on from one individual to learner through 'prepared' improvisations (improvisations that have a set structure
and tradition). As improvisation is so important, live performances of the same songs are never exactly the same, but
differ from day to day, or from moment to moment. The improvised parts are played over a constant sound called
the drone. The drone consists of two sounds a perfect fifth apart. This forms the tonal centre and is determined by a
male soloist. The melodies are based on a harmonic system called raga. The harmony and melody are accompanied
by Indian rhythmic patterns, called tala, which are played on Indian drums called tablas.

There are strong regional differences between the music of the North and the South of India. Music in the North is
called Hindustani and music in the South is called Carnatic. Instruments typically used in Hindustani music include
the sitar, sarod, surbahar, tanpura, bansuri, shehnai, sarangi, santoor, pakhavaj and tabla. Instruments typically used
in Carnatic music include venu, gottuvadyam, harmonium, veena, mridangam, kanjira, ghatam and violin.

 Outline the features of Indian Classical Music. (5)

Some examples of Indian Classical composers are:

 Ravi Shankar (one of the best known and world-renowned composer and performer of Indian music)
 Tyagaraja
 M. Dikshitar
 S. Sastri

Listening example: Indian classical music

Folk
Indian folk music is seen as the music of the common people. It is less complex than Indian classical music, and is
played more for entertainment, dancing, singing poetry and recreation. Today it is diminishing in popularity as Indian
popular music takes dominance amongst Indian people.

Popular
The biggest form of Indian popular music is Bollywood film music, which makes up the majority of the music sales in
India. This music is commonly Indian classical music fused with western orchestration and rhythms to support Indian
melodies.

Listening example: Indian Popular Music collection (2011)

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

In the sections which follow we will turn to styles of western art music. The history of western art music can be
divided into the following stylistic periods:

 Middle ages (450 – 1450)

 Renaissance (1450 – 1600)
 Baroque (1600 – 1750)
 Classical (1750 – 1820)
 Romantic (1829 – 1900)
 Twentieth century to 1950
 1950 – present

The Baroque Period

Definition
The Baroque Period is a musical period that occurred across in Western Europe roughly between 1600 – 1750. The
word "baroque" came from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning "a jagged pearl"; which was initially a negative
description for the way in which Baroque music was heavily decorated and ornamented. Later, however, the name
grew in popularity and usage, and came to be applied also to architecture, literature, sculpture and art. During this
period, composers and performers continued to build upon the flourish of new musical ideas experienced in the
Renaissance period.

Listen to these 10 samples of baroque music, and write down the surname of each composer you hear.

1. __________________________________________________________ 2. ___________________________________________________________

3. __________________________________________________________ 4. ___________________________________________________________

5. __________________________________________________________ 6. ___________________________________________________________

7. __________________________________________________________ 8. ___________________________________________________________

9. __________________________________________________________ 10. ___________________________________________________________

Style Characteristics

Unity of Mood
During the Baroque era composes often aimed to mould musical feeling to certain moods and emotions (e.g. anger,
happiness, sadness, serenity, etc.). Often this was in an attempt to mirror the theme of a passage of text. However,
in Baroque music there is often only one mood or musical feeling that endures throughout the entire piece. So, for
example, a piece will stay happy throughout the entire piece, and will not shift into other emotions or moods. If a
piece did shift moods, it would stay with this new mood for quite some time before changing again. Often some
specific rhythms and melodic patterns were used to define certain moods and expressions.

Rhythmic Continuity
In a similar vein to unity of mood, there is also often a unity of rhythm in Baroque music. Rhythmic patterns heard at
the beginning of a piece are reiterated many times throughout the piece, and create a strong sense of rhythmic

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

continuity. Often these rhythms were driving and caused a feeling of ‘pushing forward’ in the music. This forward
motion was hardly ever interrupted, and there is often a sense of continuous energy or motion in Baroque music.
The beat is also far more distinct in baroque music as compared to the previous Renaissance music.

Complex Melodies
Baroque melodies are complex and elaborate, often decorated with trills and other ornaments. They are not easy to
sing or play, and give an impression of dynamic expansion rather than balance and symmetry. Baroque melodies
often create a feeling of continuity, and an opening melody will be heard over and over again in the course of the
piece. Consequently Baroque melodies give a feeling of complexity, yet a prevailing theme is distinctly heard.

Terraced Dynamics
In Baroque music the dynamic of a piece (loud or soft) would stay constant
for some period of time before it shifted to another dynamic. When the
dynamic shifted, it was sudden and abrupt. This is called terraced
dynamics, and is a distinctive quality of baroque music. Gradual changes,
such as crescendos and decrescendos, are unheard of in Baroque music,
which was partly due to the fact that the manuals of the keyboard
instrument during this time were only able to provide either a loud or soft
sound. This sudden change in dynamics also highlights the focus on
musical contrast prevalent in the Baroque period.

A ‘double-manual’ harpsichord.
Musical Contrasts
A defining feature of Baroque music is a focus on contrasting different musical elements. This was achieved by
contrasts in:

 instrumentation – few instruments contrasted against many instruments

 instrumental timbres – polyphonic and harmonic textures
 dynamics – loud contrasted against soft dynamics
 mood, feel and emotion – a variety of musical emotions would be contrasted against each other, such as
feelings of happiness vs. sadness; or anger vs. serenity, etc.

Musical Developments

The Orchestra
It was during the Baroque period that the orchestra first began to take shape. At first, ‘orchestra’ tended to describe
a haphazard collection of whatever instruments were around. But as music in the early 1600s developed certain
string instruments began to be crafted almost to perfection – such as violins made by the Amati and Stradivari
families – and soon an established group of stringed instruments emerged. Because these stringed instruments
sounded so good they were often used for compositions and performances, and soon the string orchestra was
formed. The string orchestra commonly consisted of: 10 first violins; 10 second violins; 6 violas; 6 cellos; 4 double
basses. Other instruments were then occasionally added to this string section as needed – for example, flutes,
oboes, bassoons, recorders, and horns. One constant feature of the Baroque orchestra, however, was the
harpsichord or organ, which was used to fill out harmonies, add decoration and hold the orchestra together.
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Because Baroque music was strongly focused on musical contrast the orchestra was often used to juxtapose
different instrumental sounds. For example, a composer might:

 contrast different instrumental textures (such as the bright sound of two trumpets against the smooth sound
of the string section)
 alternate between different groups of instruments (such as the woodwinds, then the flutes, then the brass)
 abruptly change different dynamics (such as playing forte, then quickly changing to piano, then back to forte)

Listening example: Orchestral Suite No.3 – J.S. Bach

Major and Minor key system

The baroque period saw the development of functional tonality (i.e. the major and minor key system commonly
used today). During the Medieval and Renaissance periods composers used a system of seven modes to compose.
However, by the end of the Renaissance period composers seemed to be utilising two modes in particular; namely,
the Ionian and Aeolian modes. As these two modes gained dominance a new system of harmony developed, and the
major scale (derived from the Ionian mode) and minor scale (derived from the Aeolian mode) was established. This
new major and minor harmonic system then continued to dominate Western classical harmony from the early 1600s
until the early 1900s.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Basso Continuo
Baroque music was often a melody with a bass line at the bottom (for
example, a singer and an organ). The bass line also contained chords in
between. Often the composer did not bother to write out all the chords
but just showed some of the chords by figures, leaving it to the
performer to decide exactly which notes to play. This is called “figured
bass” or “basso continuo”. The soloist, who played or sang the melody
above this bass line, included a lot of ornamental notes (e.g. trills and
turns). Again, the composer did not write this all down but left it to the
performer to improvise parts of the melody around what the composer
had written.
Genres - Vocal

Opera
Opera developed at the beginning of the Baroque era when singing was used to revive old theatrical plays and make
them more entertaining. Slowly this method became so popular that entire plays would be set to singing and music.
The earliest composition considered an opera was by Jacopo Peri from a Greek play called Dafne performed in 1597.
A later work by Peri dating from 1600 is the first opera score to have survived to the present day. These early operas
were very basic and included brief choruses, dances and instrumental pieces, played by only a small group of
haphazard instruments. It wasn’t until composers like Claudio Monteverdi composed elaborate operas in the late
1600s that opera reached its maturity.

Listening example: Orfeo (1607) [Dal mi permesso; Rosa del ciel; Choro ninfe e ritornellos] – Monteverdi

Oratorio
As opera developed another important form of vocal music also developed alongside it, called oratorio. These were
vocal pieces which had a religious theme and often acted out a sacred story usually taken from the Bible. In time,
however, oratorios ceased from acting out the story, and included only singing. Handel composed the greatest
oratorios of the Baroque period during the first half of the 18th century, with words in English. His finest are Israel in
Egypt, Samson and - the most popular of all - Messiah. Handel uses recitative to move along the story, and arias for
the more thoughtful, reflective moments. In some oratorios, he gives great weight and importance to choruses,
which vividly describe the more dramatic events in the story.

Chorale
The chorale developed at the end of the Renaissance period as the Protestant church, led my Martin Luther, wrote
hymns in the vernacular (and not in Latin) as a way of bringing people into a more direct contact with God. The
hymns had simple melodies and were easy to sing, which helped people to remember them and enabled the whole
congregation to sing. Some songs were adapted from existing folk songs or plaincharts, while others were newly
composed.

Listening example: A Mighty Fortress is Our God (1527-1529) – Martin Luther

Cantata
The word ‘cantata’ means “sung”. A cantata is a vocal work in several movements based on a religious or secular text
with instrumental accompaniment. They were in great demand during the Baroque period by the Luthuran church

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

(J.S. Bach, for example, wrote over 200 cantatas), and typically open with a weighty chorus, continue with
recitatives, arias and duets for the soloists, and then close with a chorale. Due to their popularity, many composers
were also commissioned to write cantatas for other events of the nobility.

Mass
The Mass is a sacred choral composition that sets parts of a church service (usually the liturgy) to music. The Mass
began during the Renaissance period in Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran Churches, and was initially a cappella
(meaning “for the chapel”). During the Baroque era the Mass developed to include instrumentation and many were
performed outside of an actual church service. Most masses are either sung in Latin, or in the vernacular in non-
Catholic churches (e.g. in English for the Church of England). Typically a Mass has six section: I. Kyrie, II. Gloria, III.
Credo, IV. Sanctus, V. Benedictus, VI. Agnus Dei.

Genres - Instrumental

Suite
A suite is a group of pieces, for one or more instruments, that have been linked together. The idea of linking pieces
began during the Renaissance era when composers began to link dances together. This tradition continued into the
Baroque era where composers typically linked four dances; the allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue. Other
dances could be added to this list (for example the minuet, bourree, gavotte, or prelude). The pieces in a suite were
usually in the same key, and in repeated binary form (A B A B).

Sonata
The term ‘sonata’ properly means “sounded together”, and refers to a group of instruments playing together. The
word implies a serious type of music, of some length and with an intellectual as well as an emotional appeal. It is not
mere amusement music; it needs to be listened to intently. Normally a Sonata is in several movements - like a Suite,
but the Sonata's movements are usually not in dance style, as they were in the older suites. It may be said that
"Sonata' denotes a general style rather than a series of forms. The baroque sonata normally consists of four
movements: slow, fast, slow, fast.

Concerto Grosso
In a Concerto Grosso a group of soloists are combined with an orchestra to form two contrasting groups; a small solo
group, and a large orchestra. The solo group is usually used to show off the skill of the soloists and the orchestra is
used as musical support. Thus, a dramatic effect is created by juxtaposing the skill of the small solo groups with the
large powerful sound of the orchestra. The idea of the Concerto Grosso comes from the Renaissance whereby strong
polychoral pieces by Giovanni Gabrieli often lead to moments of intense and dramatic contrast between different
parts. This idea was then continued by Baroque composers Corelli, Handel and Bach, who initially began contrasting
a small group of soloists (e.g. two violins and a cello) with an orchestra.

From the Concerto Grosso also grew the Solo Concerto, whereby the small group of soloist was reduced to only a
single soloist, thus contrasting the one soloist against the weight of the string orchestra. Solo Concertos where often
in three movements: quick – slow – quick; and often grew in intensity and power.

Listening example: The Four Seasons; Autumn (third movement)– Antonio Vivaldi

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Fugue
A fugue is based upon the idea of imitation, and developed from the imitative style of most Renaissance vocal music.
Fugues are usually written in three or four parts, which are referred to as soprano, alto, tenor and bass. Each of
these parts are called ‘voices’, although a fugue may be written for voices or instruments. The structure of a fugue
may be quite complicated; however the idea is quite simple: The entire piece grows mainly from a brief tune, which
is usually very simple and recognisable. This tune is called the ‘subject’ (much like a ‘subject for discussion’). The
subject is first heard in one voice only. Then it is imitated by the other voices in turn, each at its different pitch.

As the subject is repeated it often enters new keys and is changed slightly, however it still retains its recognisable
character. These repeated sections are separated by sections of different musical character called ‘episodes’, which
act as a break or contrast against the themes. A composer may base an episode on an idea taken from the subject
itself, or he may use other musical material.

Fugue means “flight” – giving the idea that the subject keeps flying back and forth, or that the voices are chasing
each other with the subject. Sometimes a composer may write in a ‘fugal style’, rather than writing a complete
fugue.

Often fugues were preceded by a prelude. Such preludes may be in differing forms and style, the only conditions to
be met being that they shall be in the same key and form a suitable preparation for the listener's ear and mind of
what is to follow.

Listening: Fugue in C minor – J.S. Bach

 Write short notes for a parents evening concert of Baroque music where you will be the Master of Ceremonies.
You should be able to give background information on any FOUR of the following: (21)
o Baroque
o Concerto Grosso
o Suite
o Prelude and Fugue
o Sonata
o Cantata
o Oratorio

Forms
There were four musical forms which were used extensively during the Baroque period; these include binary,
ternary, rondo, and theme & variation form. See earlier notes in this module for more information on these forms.

Composers
A comprehensive list of composers of the baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel,
Alessandro Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi, Georg Philipp Telemann, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Arcangelo Corelli, Claudio
Monteverdi, Jean-Philippe Rameau and Henry Purcell. However, we will be focussing on two Baroque composers
below along with some of their most important works.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Antonio Vivaldi

Antonio Lucio Vivaldi (1678 –1741), nicknamed il Prete Rosso

("The Red Priest") because of his red hair, was an Italian
Baroque composer, priest, and virtuoso violinist, born in
Venice. Vivaldi is recognized as one of the greatest Baroque
composers, and his influence during his lifetime was
widespread over Europe. Vivaldi is known mainly for
composing instrumental concertos, especially for the violin,
as well as sacred choral works and over 40 operas. His best
known work is a series of violin concertos known as The Four
Seasons.

Many of his compositions were written for the female music

ensemble of the Ospedale della Pietà, a home for abandoned
children where Vivaldi worked from 1703 to 1715 and from
1723 to 1740. Vivaldi also had some success with
performances of his operas in Venice, Mantua and Vienna.
After meeting the Emperor Charles VI, Vivaldi moved to
Vienna hoping for promotion. However, the Emperor died
soon after Vivaldi's arrival, and the composer died a pauper,
without a steady source of income.

Though Vivaldi's music was well received during his lifetime, it later declined in popularity until its vigorous revival in
the first half of the 20th century. Today, Vivaldi ranks among the most popular and widely recorded Baroque
composers.

George Frideric Handel

George Frideric Handel (1685 – 1759) was born in Germany,

but moved to England in his early adulthood where he
eventually became an English citizen and lived there until his
George Frideric Handel
death. Handel was born into a family indifferent to music,
however at the age of 10 he began receiving musical training in
organ and violin in Hamburg, Germany, at a nearby cathedral.
Later he moved to Italy to continue his music studies, before
then settling in London. Within fifteen years in London,
Handel, a dramatic genius, started three commercial opera
companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera.
Handel soon became London's leading composer and director
of Italian operas, composing and performing over 40 operas.
However, Handel is best known for his English oratorios
(particularly the Messiah), of which he composed 17.

Mostly based on Old Testament stories, Handel's oratorios are three-act dramatic works, somewhat like operas but
performed in concert, without staging or action. Also prolific in many other genres, Handel was probably the most
well-known musician during his time. He died a rich man while working for the English nobility, and was regarded by
later musicians such as Mozart and Beethoven as one of the greatest musicians of all time.
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Johann Sebastian Bach

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 – 1750) was a German composer,

organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist whose sacred and
secular works for choir, orchestra, and solo instruments drew
together the strands of the Baroque period and brought it to its
ultimate maturity. Although Bach did not introduce new forms, he
established the existing Baroque form by enriching it with greater
harmonic and melodic organisation.

Bach is revered for the intellectual depth, technical command and

artistic beauty of his works; including the Brandenburg Concertos,
The Well-Tempered Clavier, the Mass in B minor, the St Matthew
Passion, the St John Passion, the Magnificat, the English and French
Suites, the Cello Suites, more than 200 surviving cantatas, and 200
organ works, including the famous Toccata and Fugue in D minor
and Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor.

Bach's abilities as an organist were highly respected throughout Europe during his lifetime. Although he was not
widely recognised as a great composer until a revival of interest in his music in the first half of the 1800s. He is now
generally regarded as one of the main composers of the Baroque era, and is credited as establishing and developing
Baroque music to its maturity.

Representative Works

Vivaldi – The Four Seasons (Primavera)

The Four Seasons is a set of four violin concertos by Antonio Vivaldi. Composed in 1723. It is Vivaldi's best-known
work, and is among the most popular pieces of Baroque music. The texture of each concerto is varied, each
resembling its respective season. For example, "Winter" is peppered with silvery pizzicato notes from the high
strings, calling to mind icy rain, whereas "Summer" evokes a thunderstorm in its final movement, which is why the
movement is often dubbed "Storm".

The four concertos were written to accompany four sonnets. Though it is not known who wrote these sonnets, there
is a theory that Vivaldi wrote them himself, given that each sonnet is broken down into three sections, neatly
corresponding to a movement in the concerto. Whoever wrote the sonnets, The Four Seasons may be classified as
program music, music that intends to evoke something extra-musical. Each concerto is in three movements, with a
slow movement between two faster ones.

 Concerto No. 1 in E major, Op. 8, RV 269, "La primavera" (Spring)

 Concerto No. 2 in G minor, Op. 8, RV 315, "L'estate" (Summer)
 Concerto No. 3 in F major, Op. 8, RV 293, "L'autunno" also known as the "Danza Pastorale" (Autumn)
 Concerto No. 4 in F minor, Op. 8, RV 297, "L'inverno" (Winter)

Below is detailed outline of the first concerto (La Primavera – Spring), with a focus on the first movement.

Listening example: Concerto No. 1 in E major, La primavera (Spring) - I. Allegro

Concerto No. 1 in E major, La primavera (Spring) - II. Largo
Concerto No. 1 in E major, La primavera (Spring) - III. Allegro pastorale

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First Movement – Allegro, in E major: The first movement includes a solo violin and orchestra. The solo violin is
pitted against a larger group of players called the tutti. The movement opens with an energetic orchestral ritornello
depicting the arrival of spring. A ritornello is a recurring passage that is played at different parts throughout a song
to bring unity to the piece. Often the tutti (orchestra) will play the ritornello (such as in this piece). Each of the
ritornello's two phrases is played loudly and then repeated softly, in the terraced dynamics typical of Baroque music.
After the ritornello, the movement alternates between extended solo sections containing musical tone painting and
brief tutti sections presenting part of the ritornello theme. In the first solo section, birdsongs are imitated by high
trills and repeated notes played by the violin soloist and two violins from the orchestra. The next solo section
contains string tremolos and rapid scales representing thunder and lightning. Following the storm, the ritornello
appears in a minor instead of in a major. All the pictorial passages in this movement provide contrasts of texture and
dynamics between returns of the ritornello theme. The allegro's tunefulness, rhythmic vitality, and light,
homophonic texture evoke the feeling of spring-time.

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 For which solo instrument is Vivaldi's Four Seasons scored?

 Give the term for instrumental music associated with a story.
 What is the form of the first movement of Spring?

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Handel – The Messiah

Messiah is an English-language oratorio composed in 1741 by George Frideric Handel. The oratorio is set to
scriptures from the King James Bible, and Psalms from the Book of Common Prayer. After an initially modest public
reception, the oratorio gained in popularity, eventually becoming one of the best-known and most frequently
performed choral works in Western music.

The piece is based on a New Testament subject but is without a plot. Handel ensures variety by skilfully both
contrasting movements and grouping them. He achieves profound effects through simple alternations of major and
minor. The piece is comprised of three parts: Part 1 (Christ’s birth and life), Part 2 (Christ’s crucifixion and
resurrection), and Part 3 (the promise of eternal life for each believer). Each part contains a number of scenes, which
themselves contain a number of songs; the shortest of which contains 1 song and the longest 9 songs, making over
50 movements in all (see the appendix for the full structure). Below are two songs that will be looked at in more
detail.

 Give the subject matter for Part 1, 2, and 3 of Handle’s Messiah. (6)

For Unto Us a Child is Born

Listening example: For Unto Us a Child is Born – Handel

For Unto Us a Child is Born occurs in Part 1, scene 3. The choir concludes the scene, telling the news of Christmas,
the birth of a son, "For unto us a Child is born", in Isaiah's words (Isaiah 9:6). The texture is light, often with only one
or two voices singing at a time. Handel uses a transparent polyphonic texture for the words For unto us a Child is
born, unto us a Son is given.Marked piano, the sopranos enter a fugue first, singing a delicate theme with many rests.
Their countersubject to the tenors' entry is a shimmering coloratura (an elaborate melody) for more than three
measures. Handel keeps the dynamics subdued until the striking chordal outburst on Wonderful,Counsellor. A
second and third round of the development from the tender "child is born" to the proclamation "Prince of Peace" is
crowned by the fourth round, with the theme in the bass and the countersubject in soprano and alto in parallel
thirds.

 Describe the texture of For Unto Us a Child is Born. (4)

Hallelujah Chorus
Listening example: Hallelujah – Handel

Part II closes with the chorus "Hallelujah", in the brilliant key of D major with trumpets and timpani. The text comes
from the book of Revelations. Handel offers sweeping variety by sudden changes among monophonic, polyphonic
and homophonic textures. When the texture is monophonic it is very full-sounding as all the voices and instruments
perform in unison. The choir introduces in homophony a characteristic simple motif on the word, playing with the
interval of a second, which re-appears throughout the piece. The line "for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth" is sung
by all voices, first in unison, then in imitation with Hallelujah-exclamations interspersed. The second line "The
kingdom of this world" is sung in a four part setting like a chorale. The third idea "and he shall reign forever and
ever" starts as a fugue on a theme with bold leaps. As a countersubject, the words "forever – and ever" assume the
rhythm of the Hallelujah-motif. The final acclamation "King of Kings ..." is sung on one note, energized by repeated
calls "Hallelujah" and "forever – and ever", raised higher and higher, up to a rest full of tension and a final solemn
"Hallelujah". Below is a full overview:

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Handel – The Messiah

Part I Part II Part III

Scene 1: Isaiah’s prophecy of salvation Scene 1: Christ's Passion Scene 1: The promise of eternal life
1. Sinfony (instrumental) 22. Behold the Lamb of God (chorus) 45. I know that my Redeemer liveth
2. Comfort ye my people (tenor) 23. He was despised (alto) (soprano)
3. Every valley shall be exalted (tenor) 24. Surely he has borne our griefs 46. Since by man came death (chorus)
4. And the glory of the Lord (chorus) (chorus) Scene 2: The Day of Judgment
Scene 2: The coming judgment 25. And with his stripes we are healed 47. Behold, I tell you a mystery (bass)
5. Thus saith the Lord (bass) (chorus) 48. The trumpet shall sound (bass)
6. But who may abide the day of his 26. All we like sheep have gone astray Scene 3: The final conquest of sin
coming (alto) (chorus) 49. Then shall be brought to pass (alto)
7. And he shall purify (chorus) 27. All they that see him laugh him to 50. O death, where is thy sting (alto
Scene 3: The prophecy of Christ’s birth scorn (tenor) and tenor)
8. Behold, a virgin shall conceive (alto) 28. He trusted in God (chorus) 51. But thanks be to God (chorus)
9. O thou that 33allest good tidings to 29. Thy rebuke hath broken his heart 52. If God be for us (soprano)
Zion (alto and chorus) (tenor or soprano) Scene 4: The acclamation of the
10. For behold, darkness shall cover 30. Behold and see if there be any Messiah
the earth (bass) sorrow (tenor or soprano) 53. Worthy is the Lamb (chorus)
11. The people that walked in darkness Scene 2: Christ's Death and Amen (chorus)
(bass) Resurrection
12. For unto us a child is born 31. He was cut off (tenor or soprano)
(chorus) 32. But thou didst not leave his soul in
Scene 4: The annunciation to the hell (tenor or soprano)
shepherds Scene 3: Christ's Ascension
13. Pifa (“pastoral symphony”: 33. Lift up your heads, O ye gates
instrumental) (chorus)
14a. There were shepherds abiding in Scene 4: Christ's reception in Heaven
the fields (soprano) 34. Unto which of the angels (tenor)
14b. And lo, the angel of the Lord 35. Let all the angels of God (chorus)
(soprano) Scene 5: The beginnings of Gospel
15. And the angel said unto them preaching
(soprano) 36. Thou art gone up on high
16. And suddenly there was with the (soprano)
angel (soprano) 37. The Lord gave the word (chorus)
17. Glory to God (chorus) 38. How beautiful are the feet
Scene 5: Christ’s healing and (soprano)
redemption 39. Their sound is gone out (chorus)
18. Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion Scene 6: The world's rejection of the
(soprano) Gospel
19. Then shall the eyes of the blind 40. Why do the nations so furiously
(soprano) rage together (bass)
20. He shall feed his flock (alto and 41. Let us break their bonds asunder
soprano) (chorus)
21. His yoke is easy (chorus) 42. He that dwelleth in heaven (tenor)
Scene 7: God's ultimate victory
43. Thou shalt break them (tenor)
44. Hallelujah Chorus

 Write a short essay on ONE of the Baroque works you have studied. (10)

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The Classical Period

Definition
The Classical period occurred between the Baroque and the Romantic periods, roughly between 1750 and 1810.
Although the Classical period lasted for only about 60 years, there was a substantial change in the music that was
being produced in Europe at the time. This was mainly because at the beginning of the 1700s Europe began a new
style in architecture, literature, and the arts, generally known as ‘Classicism’. This style sought to emulate (imitate)
the ideas and fashions of ancient Greece and Rome, which emphasised order, simplicity and clear structures. After a
while this classical style began to be heard in the music being composed, and the various complexities of the
Baroque era were abandoned for a clearer, structured and more ordered style.

Initially a musical style known as Rococo was developed just after the Baroque era, and before the Classical era,
which was a transition period from the Baroque to Classical periods. The Rococo period was developed in France and
initially began as a movement in painting, which used lighter and simpler colours. Soon this simple approach was
used in music, and the Rococo style was used to create a style that soon would lead into the Classical period.

Early Classical style is called style gallant – translated as ‘courtly style’ – which aimed chiefly to please the listener.
Much of this music is lacking in depth, but is polished, polite and extremely elegant. Examples of composers from
this early Classical period are Carl Philip Emanuel Bach and Johann Christian Bach (the sons of J.S. Bach), and the
early compositions of Haydn and Mozart. Later, as the Classical style matured, it increased in grace, beauty of
melody, balance in shape and form, moderation and control. In particular, Classical composers achieved a balance
between expressiveness and formal structure.

Style Characteristics
Some of the features and characteristics of Classical music are discussed below.

 Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music and is less complex. It is mainly homophonic
in texture – a main melody with chordal accompaniment.
 An emphasis on grace and beauty of melody and form, proportion and balance, moderation and control;
polished and elegant in character with expressiveness and formal structure held in perfect balance.
 Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before. Variety of keys, melodies,
rhythms and dynamics (using crescendo, diminuendo and sforzando), along with frequent changes of mood
and timbre were more commonplace in the Classical period than they had been in the Baroque.
 Melodies tended to be shorter than those of Baroque music, with clear-cut phrases and clearly marked
cadences.
 The orchestra increased in size and range; the harpsichord became outdated, and the woodwind section
became a self-contained unit.
 The harpsichord was replaced by the piano – early piano music was ‘thin’ in texture (often with just Alberti
Bass and melody), but later became richer and more sonorous and powerful.
 Importance was given to instrumental music – the main kinds being: sonata, trio, string quartet, symphony,
concerto, and serenade.

Sonata Form became the most important design, and was used to build-up the first movement of most large-scale
works.

Listening example: Mozart – Symphony No.41 in C major (his last symphony, nicknamed ‘The Jupiter’)

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Musical Developments

The Orchestra
The orchestra, which had begun to take shape during the Baroque period, now started to grow. Initially the
harpsichord was used to bind the orchestra together and add a needed unity of texture, however, as the woodwind
section grew and the piano became more prominent the harpsichord was not needed as much and declined in
popularity.

At the beginning of the Classical period orchestras were still small and varied – usually consisting of a string section
and an ad hoc wind section of two horns and one or two flutes or a pair of oboes. Soon, however, composers were
including an increasing number of woodwind instruments in their compositions, which lead ultimately to the
formation of the woodwind section. By the end of the Classical period the orchestra had become an established
group of instruments, which included:

 2 flutes
 2 oboes
 2 clarinets
 2 bassoons
 2 horns
 2 trumpets
 2 kettle drums
 String section

Music for the Piano

The piano was invented in 1698 by Bartolomeo Cristofori in Italy, and was initially named the gravicembalo col piano
e forte (“a harpsichord with soft and loud”). Whereas in a harpsichord the strings were plucked, in Cristofori’s
instrument they were struck by hammers – lightly, or more forcefully, according to the amount of pressure made by
the player’s fingers upon the keys. This gave the piano a lot more power of expression, as not only could a player
control the amount of volume produced, but also the types of tone produced – e.g. legato (smooth and sustained),
staccato (short and detached), cantabile (in a singing style).

A popular kind of accompaniment pattern often used by Classical composers became known as the ‘Alberti bass’
(named after Dominico Alberti). This consisted of simple broken chords repeated in the left hand, keeping the
rhythm moving, while playing harmonies to support the melody.

Alberti Bass pattern in the lower treble part.

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Although at first the piano was slow to become popular (probably because earlier models were badly made), by the
1760s many composers considered it on equal ground as the harpsichord (most keyboard music had printed in the
heading: “for pianoforte or harpsichord”). Composers such as C.P.E. Bach and J.C. Bach did much to promote the
piano and by the end of the 1700s the piano had completely overtaken the harpsichord in popularity.

Listening exercise: Listen to the beginning of Mozart’s Sonata in F major. In what ways do you think is this music
more suited to the piano than to the harpsichord?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Genres – Vocal

Opera
Although opera had been established as a new musical genre in the late Renaissance and early Baroque periods, it
was during the Classical period that it reached its full maturity. Two composers where primarily responsible for this;
Gluck and Mozart.

Gluck was one of several composers who were concerned that opera was becoming too stilted and stereotyped.
Singers had become so important that the plays story was often changed to suit their singing, which resulted in the
action of the play often being paused to show off the virtuosity of the singer. Gluck believed rather that the music
should serve the story, while still reflecting its drama and emotion. Consequently he wrote operas that were more
united and flowed smoother and more naturally. He did this using the following techniques:

- less distinction was made between arias (singing parts)and recitatives (talking parts)
- instruments were used to suit each situation in the story thereby uniting the music and the story
- the overture prepared the audience for the type of the story which was to follow therefore bringing greater
unity to the whole performance

Listening example: Gluck – Orfeo ed Euridice, ‘Che faro’

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Mozart is often credited as being the greatest opera writer of all time. It has been said that while Gluck reformed the
opera, Mozart transformed it, and brought it to its full potential. His three greatest operas are The Marriage of
Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute. These operas show Mozart’s keen observation of human nature which
enables him to bring life and warmth to his characters. Three techniques Mozart used to great effect are:

- Arias, which enabled him to bring understanding about certain characters to the audience, while moving the
story forward.
- Elaborate final scenes in which Mozart brings all of the characters together to sing all at once their own
reactions to certain events.
- An orchestra which mirrored the mood and drama of the story as it unfolded, therefore enhancing the story
to even greater effect.

Listening example: Mozart – Don Giovanni, Leporello’s Cataloque aria

Genres – Instrumental
During the Classical period, for the first time in musical history, music for instruments became more important than
music for voices. Although opera and vocal music (both sacred and secular) were still being written, instrumental
music was performed on a much broader basis. The main kinds of instrumental music were the sonata, trio, string
quartet, symphony, concerto and serenade.

Sonata, Trio and Quartet

Sonata was the name Classical composers gave to a work in several movements for either one or two instruments
only (e.g. piano, or violin and piano), or for a larger group of instruments (e.g.an orchestra). If three instruments
were used it was called a Trio, and if four instruments where used it was called a Quartet (five was Quintet, etc.).
Sonatas were typically in three movements, while Trios and Quartets were typically in four movements (in exactly
the same format as the symphony below).

Symphony
The Symphony (meaning ‘sounded together’) was a sonata for orchestra. It grew from the Italian overture (often
called sinfonia), which had three sections, contrasting in speed: quick – slow – quick. Over time a minuet and trio (a
dance from the Baroque era) was inserted between the slow movement and fast finale movement. A typical Classical
Symphony will usually follow the following format:

Outline of the Four Movements of the Classical Symphony

First movement: fairly fast speed built up in sonata form
Second movement: slower speed more songlike, often in
ternary form (ABA) or theme-
and-variation form
(sometimes in sonata form
again).
Third movement: Commonly a Minuet and Trio
(as written by Haydn and
Mozart). Later often became a
schertzo (as written by
Beethoven).
Fourth movement (Finale): fast speed Often light-hearted in mood;
in rondo form (ABACAD…), or
sonata form, or a mixture of
both with some variations.

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Listening example: Haydn – Symphony No.94 (‘The Surprise’). Note: listen to the change in mood and tempo of the
four different movements in each symphony.

Concerto
The Classical Concerto, which features a solo instrument contrasted against the orchestra, grew from the Baroque
concerto. Its three movements (fairly fast – slow – fast) are similar to that of the symphony, but without the minuet
and trio. The first movement is in sonata form, with some variations, as outlined below:

First Movement (in Sonata Form) of the Classical Concerto

Exposition (first time) Played only by the orchestra to introduce the
main musical themes.
Exposition (repeated) The exposition is repeated, but the soloist
joints the orchestra and makes an impressive
appearance. Often the composer will add more
musical themes to give some variety to the
repeated Exposition.
Development Played by the orchestra and soloist.
Recapitulation Played by the orchestra and soloist, but with a
cadenza added to the end during which time
the soloist will improvise a solo section to
show off their skills. A cadenza usually ends
with a trill to indicate to the orchestra to re-
enter to play the coda. In later times the
cadenza was often written out and not
improvised.

Listening example: Mozart – Piano Concerto No.23 in A, or Horn Concerto No.3 in E-flat.

Forms

Sonata Form
The Sonata form was a music structure intended to build up a single movement of a music work. Baroque composers
tended to write long melodies which often resulted in their pieces often having the same mood, rhythms and
melodic ideas throughout the entire work. The melodies of Classical composers tend to be shorter, with clear-cut
outlines and short rhythmic ideas. As a result the composers would contrast these different music ideas against each
other to create a work that often changed moods, melodies and rhythmic ideas. Over time Classical composers
sought for a means of building up these varying elements into a balanced and coherent musical design; and
consequently the Sonata form was developed.

Initially Sonata form grew out of binary form into a work of three main sections. Sometimes there may have been a
short introduction before the work began. However, tradition Sonata form has the following three sections: (1)
Exposition, (2) Development and (3) Recapitulation. Each of these sections are examined in more detail below.

1. Exposition

In the exposition the composer states (or ‘exposes’) his/her musical ideas. There are normally two main musical
ideas, which are called subjects, however each of these subjects may contain a number of musical ideas (e.g. short
melodies, rhythmic ideas). These two subjects usually contrast in key and character.

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 Grade 10 SHS Music History

The first subject (or group of ideas) is in the tonic key, and is most often vigorous and rhythmic. This is followed by a
bridge passage which modulates to the second subject.

The second subject (or group of ideas) is in a different, but related, key (often the dominant, or relative major if the
first subject was in a minor). The second subject is often more tuneful, and less vigorous, than the first subject.

2. Development

In this section the composer ‘develops’ or explores the musical possibilities of ideas presented in the exposition. Any
aspect of the two subjects, or bridge passage, may be developed. The composer may develop a rhythmic or melodic
fragment and repeat it while taking the music through a variety of different keys (but avoiding the tonic key).
Fragments of different ideas may be combined or set in opposition one against another. A strong sense of tension, or
dramatic conflict, may be built up. This development will then lead back to the tonic key, and the beginning of the
recapitulation.

3. Recapitulation

In the recapitulation the composer recapitulates (repeats) the music of the exposition, but in a slightly different
form. The first subject is heard in the tonic key as before. The bridge passage is altered so that the second subject
also now appears in the tonic. The composer then rounds off the movement with a coda.

The diagram below shows a basic plan for a piece built up in sonata form.

Exposition (presentation) Development (discussion) Recapitulation (restatement) Coda

First Bridge Second Moving through new keys, First Bridge Second To
subject (changing subject developing/combining/opposing subject (stays in subject round
(tonic) key) (new musical ideas from the exposition. (tonic) same (tonic) off
key) key)

Listening example: Mozart – Eine Kleine Nachtmusiek (1st movement)

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

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Composers
The best known composers from this period are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van
Beethoven.

Joseph Haydn Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Ludwig van Beethoven

Joseph Haydn
Haydn (1732 – 1809) was an Austrian composer, who is often called the "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the
String Quartet" because of his important contributions to these forms. Haydn spent much of his career as a court
musician for the wealthy Esterházy family on their remote estate. Isolated from other composers and trends in music
until the later part of his long life, he was, as he put it, "forced to become original". At the time of his death, he was
one of the most celebrated composers in Europe.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Mozart (1756 – 1791) was an Austrian composer and pianist, whom many people regard as one of the best
composers of music of all time. During his short life he wrote over 600 pieces of music, the first of which was a
minuet (a dance) that he wrote when he was four, and his last piece was the Requiem, which he left unfinished.
Mozart could play the piano and violin when very young and from the age of five began performing in front of
royalty. At 17 he was employed as a professional musician, and thereafter continued to travel and compose. Many of
his works are regarded as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among
the most enduringly popular of classical composers; Joseph Haydn wrote about him that "posterity will not see such
a talent again in 100 years."

Ludwig van Beethoven

Beethoven (1770 – 1827) was a German composer and pianist who lived at the end of the Classical period and was
part of the transition from the Classical period into the Romantic period. He studied with Joseph Haydn and quickly
gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist. Beethoven was popular with the rich and important people in Vienna,
Austria, where he lived. In 1801, however, he began to lose his hearing. In 1817, he was completely deaf. Although
he could no longer play in concerts, he continued to compose. During this time he composed some of his greatest
works.

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Representative Works

Eine Kleiner Nachtmusik – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (chamber music)

Eine Kleine Nachtmusik is a serenade, in triple meter, in G major, composed by Mozart in 1787. The piece is light in
mood and was meant for evening entertainment. It is written for a small string orchestra or for a string quartet plus
a double bass. The double bass plays the cello part an octave lower.

It is not known why it was composed, however noting that most of Mozart's serenades were written on commission,
suggests that this serenade, too, was a commission, whose origin and first performance were not recorded. The
German title means "a little serenade," though it is often rendered more literally but less accurately as "a little night
music." The traditionally used name of the work comes from the entry Mozart made for it in his personal catalogue,
which begins, "Eine kleine Nacht-Musik." However, Mozart almost certainly was not giving the piece a special title,
but only entering in his records that he had completed a little serenade. Today the serenade is widely performed and
recorded, and it has been suggested to be Mozart’s most popular work.

The work has four movements:

- Allegro
- Romanze: Andante
- Menuetto: Allegretto
- Rondo: Allegro

1. Allegro

The first movement is in sonata form. The opening theme is in quadruple meter and features dotted rhythms. It is
played twice, each time ending with an incomplete cadence on the dominant that creates a feeling of expectance.
The second theme is more graceful and in D major, the dominant key of G major. The exposition closes in D major
and is repeated. The development section begins on D major and touches on D minor and C major before the work
returns to G major for the recapitulation – a repetition of the exposition with both subjects in the same key, as is
conventional. During the recapitulation, it is in G major with the primary themes from the exposition playing. The
movement ends in its tonic key, G major.

2. Romanze

The second movement, in C major, is a "Romanze", with the tempo marked Andante. A feeling of intimacy and
tenderness remains throughout this movement. It is in rondo form, taking the shape A–B–A–C–A plus a final coda.
The keys of the sections are C major for A and B, C minor for C. The middle appearance of A is shortened, consisting
of only the first half of the theme. The melody in section A starts out with rests, then immediately becomes smooth
and moves a little faster than section A. Section C is in the tonic minor – C minor. It also sounds dramatic and
hurried. Section A returns with a coda to round out the movement in the key of G major.

3. Menuetto

The third movement is a courtly minuet and trio in A B A form. The A (minuet) section is stately, mostly loud and
staccato, with a clearly marked beat. The B (trio) section is intimate, soft, and legato. Its murmuring accompaniment
contributes to the smooth flow of the music. The rhythm marking is 3/4. The minuet is in the home key of G major. It
commences with an anacrusis which emphasizes the rhythm of 3/4. The opening theme is very strong with
ornaments used at the end of the first phrase. The following phrase is contrast, which means smooth and melodious.
The trio section is in the dominant key of D major. Balance is this section is achieved with two sections, each
repeated. The melody flows gently in trio before the Menuet returns as Menuetto Da Capo.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

4. Rondo

The fourth and last movement is in lively tempo, marked Allegro; the key is again G major. The movement is written
in sonata rondo form. Throughout this movement, Mozart utilized and alternated ideas from the first three
movements. The movement starts out with a theme from the first movement and the same G major chord as the
opening chord in the first movement. After the rocket theme, Mozart used repeated notes that were also used in the
first movement. During the second movement, Mozart employs the interesting modulation of the first theme to the
key of E-flat major. Mozart specifies repeats not just for the exposition section but also for the following
development and recapitulation section. The work ends with a long coda, which uses the material from the first
movement.

 Describe the third movement of Mozart’s Eine Kleine Nachtmusik. (4)

The Pathétique Sonata – Ludwig van Beethoven (Sonata)

Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor, Op. 13 was written in 1798 when the composer was 27 years
old. It is commonly known as Sonata Pathétique, a name given by its publisher and not by Beethoven. Prominent
musicologists debate whether or not the Pathétique may have been inspired by Mozart's piano sonata K. 457, since
both compositions are in C minor and have three very similar movements. The second movement, "Adagio
cantabile", especially, makes use of a theme remarkably similar to that of the spacious second movement of
Mozart's sonata. However, Beethoven's sonata uses a unique motif line throughout, a major difference from Haydn
or Mozart’s creation. In its entirety, encompassing all three movements, the work takes approximately 19 minutes to
perform.

The sonata has three movements:

- Grave (Slowly, with solemnity) – Allegro di molto e con brio (Quickly, with much vigour)
- Adagio cantabile (Slowly, in a singing style)
- Rondo: Allegro (Quickly)

Grave – Allegro di molto e con brio

The first movement is in sonata form. It begins with a slow introductory theme, marked Grave. The exposition,
marked Allegro di molto con brio, is in 2/2 time in the home key of C minor and features three themes. Theme 1
features an aggressive rocket theme covering two octaves, accompanied with constant tremolo octaves in the left
hand. Beethoven then makes use of unorthodox mode-mixture, as he presents the second theme in E-flat minor
rather than its customary parallel major. This theme is more lyrical and makes use of grace notes and crossed hands.
Theme 3 has modulated to the mediant, E-flat major, and features an Alberti-type figuration for the bass with
tremolo. A codetta, with ideas from the opening allegro, closes the section. Some performers of the sonata include
the introduction in the exposition repeat though others return to the beginning of the allegro section.

The development section begins in the key of G minor. In this section, Beethoven extends Haydn's compositional
practice by returning to the introductory section. After this reappearance of the Grave, the composer generates
suspense by emphasising the dominant.

The recapitulation brings back the themes of the exposition in different keys: themes 1 and 3 are played in the tonic
key of C minor, then theme 2 is played in the unexpected key of F minor but then returns to the tonic key. The coda
is very dramatic and includes a brief reminder of the Grave before ending with a swift cadence.

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Grade 10 SHS Music History

Grave, introduction: first four bars

Adagio cantabile

The Adagio movement opens with a famous cantabile melody. This theme is played three times, always in A-flat
major, separated by two modulating episodes, making it a five-part rondo (A B A C A). The first episode is set in F
minor (relative minor of A-flat major), further modulating to E-flat major before returning to the main theme. The
second episode begins in A-flat minor and modulates to E major. With the final return of the main theme, the
accompaniment becomes richer and takes on the triplet rhythm of the second episode. There is a brief coda.

The famous Adagio cantabile: first eight bars

Rondo: Allegro

The last movement in c minor is a rapid and energetic rondo. It is outlined A B A C A B A- coda. The lively main theme
(A) is in a minor and contrasts with the other sections, which are in major. The B section includes several lyrical
themes. The C section is polyphonic and contains ideas that are shifted from one hand to the other. Section B and C
\both end with a sustained chord that creates expectancy for the return of the main theme and key. Toward the end
of the stormy coda, a sustained chord is followed unexpectedly by the opening notes of the main theme, in major
rather than minor. The consolation of major is brief, as a rapid downward scale brings the movement to a powerful
close in c minor. The movement then ends with a coda. The rondo can be outlined as:

A B A C A B A
C minor E-flat major C minor A-flat major C minor C major C minor

Rondo: Allegro
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Grade 10 SHS Music History

 Describe the third movement of Beethoven's Sonata in c minor, op.13, (Pathetique) (4)

 An internationally acclaimed pianist John UII is visiting your town/city to perform some of Beethoven's piano
works. Coincidently he will be performing the sonata you have been studying: Pathetique Sonata Op.13. Your
teacher has booked tickets for all the Grade 10 music learners to view the concert. He/she has assigned you all
to write a ONE page essay about your experience including the following: (12)
 Definition of a sonata.
 Brief background of the composer and the sonata's title.
 Descriptive information about each movement, especially the last one's structure.
 Personal comment on the performance

 Describe ONE of the Classical genres that you have studied. Refer to the composer and work. Provide some
historical context and comment on the use of form. (10)

 You are entering an Essay Competition to visit Europe for a series of Classical concerts by world renowned
performers. You are required to write an essay describing TWO compositions. Give details of the musical content
of the Classical compositions. (8 x 2 = 16)

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