HEALTH HABITS

Habit: A thing that is done often and almost without thinking especially
something that is hard to stop doing or habit is defined as a tendency to behave in
a particular way or to do particular things regularly and repeatedly over a long
period .Healthy habit is any behavior that benefits your physical, mental, and
emotional health.These habits improve your overall well-being and make you feel
good. Healthy habits are hard to develop and often require changing your mindset.

Some Health Habits that affect girls and women

1. Use of tobacoo
2. Drinking Alcohol
3. Substance Abuse/ Drug Abuse
4. Sexual Behaviour
5. Malnutition/Over Eating

A)Tobacco use
The World Health Organization’s (WHO) STEP wise approach to non
communicable disease risk factor surveillance (STEPS) was carried out in Nepal in
2007. The survey revealed that 35.5% of men and 15% of women smoked tobacco
products and 31.2% of men and 4.6% of women used smokeless tobacco. The
prevalence of smoking among adult females in Nepal is one of the highest in the
WHO South-East Asia Region.

The National Demographic Health Survey conducted in 2006 reveals that nearly
one third of males (32.5%) in Nepal and while 15.2% of females smoke cigarettes.
Nearly four in ten (38.2%) males use tobacco products other than cigarettes.
Use of tobacco products other than cigarettes was reportedly low among females
(5%).
Like many other countries, tobacco use is a major public health problem in Nepal.
Though 52% male and 13.3% female use tobacco products (NDHS 2011), the
prevalence of tobacco use has been declining over the years with prevalence being
53.4% among men and 19.6% among women aged 15-49 in 2006. 
Youth have been major users of tobacco and second hand smoking. Various
surveys conducted reveal a high percentage of tobacco users among youth and
health professional students. 
Nearly 5 in 10 school students are exposed to second-hand smoke in public places
and the tobacco industry continues to target the youth through widespread
advertisement, promotion and sponsorship.
Types of tobacco products used in Nepal
Different varieties of tobacco products are used in Nepal in both smoking and
smokeless forms. The smoking forms are cigarette, bidi, hookah, sulfa and chillum
or kankad. The smokeless tobacco products include surti leaves, khaini, gutkha and
paan with tobacco ingredients. The major chewing form of tobacco is paan with
tobacco and is most popular in the Terai region. Dry tobacco-areca nut
preparations such as gutkha and paan masala are popular in Nepal.

Use of tobacco among women

 More common among older women
 Living in rural areas and hilly region
 Women with lower education
 1 in 10 pregnant women (Demographic and Health Survey Nepal 2006 )
SMOKING
Smoking is the inhalation of the smoke of burning tobacco encased in cigarettes,
pipes, and cigars. Casual smoking is the act of smoking only occasionally,
usually in a social situation or to relieve stress. A smoking habit is a physical
addiction to tobacco products. Many health experts now regard habitual
smoking as a psychological addiction, too, and one with serious health
consequences.
According to survey , the habit has increased from 62.4 % to 85 .4 %in 4 to 5 years
in Nepal .Practically all youth in the hills smoke cigratte and Bidis.Prevalence of
female smoking in Nepal is 28% (source 2010 WHO statitics report).

Health problems for women who smoke

1.Oral Contraceptives and Smoking
Women smokers who use oral contraceptives risk serious consequences including
increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases such as blood clots, heart
attacks, and strokes. This risk increases with age and women over 35 who smoke
should not use oral contraceptives.
2. Smoking during pregnancy
"Smoking during pregnancy is associated with preterm delivery, low birthweight,
premature rupture of membranes, placenta previa, miscarriage and neonatal death.
Newborns whose mothers smoked during pregnancy have the same nicotine levels
in their bloodstreams as adults who smoke, and they go through withdrawal during
their first days of life."Children born to mothers who smoke experience more
colds, earaches, respiratory problems, and illnesses requiring visits to the
pediatrician than children born to nonsmokers.
Smoking tobacco during pregnancy is estimated to have caused 1,015 infant deaths
per year from 2005 through 2009.(CDC, 2014,US)
3. Infertility and Smoking
Many women today delay childbirth until they are in their 30s or even 40s, which
can cause fertility problems even for nonsmoking women. But women who smoke
and delay childbirth are putting themselves at a substantially greater risk of future
infertility than nonsmokers.The fact is women smokers have around 72 percent of
the fertility of nonsmokers. When all other factors are equal, it is 3.4 times more
likely that smokers will require over one year conceiving.
Increasingly, studies are showing that decreased ovulatory response, as well as the
fertilization and implantation of the zygote, may be impaired in women who
smoke. Chemicals in tobacco may also alter the cervical fluid, making it toxic to
sperm causing pregnancy to be difficult to achieve. Some of the toxic chemicals
found in cigarettes may result in gene mutations that can cause miscarriage, birth
defects, cancer and other health problems in their children.
4. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) and Smoking
Pelvic inflammatory disease occurs with 33 percent more frequency in smokers
than in nonsmokers. PID is a painful disease that requires immediate medical
intervention and is often a contributing factor in ectopic pregnancies as well as
pelvic adhesions and other fertility problems
5. Premature Menopause, Menstruation, and Smoking
Beginning to smoke as a teenager increases a woman's risk of early menopause
three times. Smokers often notice symptoms of menopause two to three years
earlier than nonsmokers.Menstrual problems such as abnormal bleeding,
amenorrhea (absence of periods) and vaginal discharges/infections are common
complaints among women who smoke.
Menstrual abnormalities and early menopause may be caused by a toxic effect on
the ovaries or by the significantly lower levels of estrogens noted in many studies
of women smokers.
6. Hormones and Smoking
Estrogen replacement therapy provides beneficial protection, to post-menopausal
women against the risk of osteoporosis. But these benefits are many times negated
by the increased cardiovascular and other health risks associated with smoking
while taking hormones.Women who smoke face a serious increased risk of
developing cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack and stroke when using
estrogens.
7. Osteoporosis and Smoking
Smoking causes a significant increase in the risk of bone loss and osteoporosis.
Women who smoke, one pack of cigarettes a day, often experience a loss of bone
density equaling five to 10 percent more than nonsmokers by the time they reach
menopause.
Bone density scanning to determine the density of your bone structure is
recommended for all women beginning at age 40. Bone density scanning is
particularly crucial for women smokers so that changes can be noted and treatment
can ensue if osteoporosis is noted.
8.Heart Disease and Smoking
Approximately 34,000 deaths in women from ischemic heart disease are attributed
to smoking each year. Although most of these deaths are in women past
menopause, the risk of smoking-related heart disease is significantly higher in
young women smokers.Researchers in Denmark have found a 50 percent greater
risk of heart attack in women smokers over men smokers. This difference may be
due to the interaction of estrogen with the chemicals found in cigarettes.
9.Cervical Cancer and Smoking
All women should have regular pelvic exams that include pap smears and for
women who smoke the necessity is even greater. Studies show that smoking may
lead to the development of cervical cancer; one study found an 80 percent greater
risk of developing cervical cancer in smokers.
Cervical cancer patients who quit smoking or who cut down, by at least 75 percent,
may have a greater chance of remission and survival than patients who continue
smoking.Chemicals found in cervical tissue that are also found in cigarettes may
weaken the ability of cervical cells to fight off infection and may create a potential
breeding ground for abnormal cervical cells to multiply.
10.Breast Cancer and Smoking
The American Cancer Society published the results of a study in 1994 which
indicated that breast cancer patients who smoke may increase their risk of dying at
least 25 percent—a risk that increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per
day. The possible risk of fatal breast cancer rises up to 75 percent for women who
smoke two packs or more per day..
11.Vulvar Cancer and Smoking
Another type of cancer which may occur more frequently in smokers is vulvar
cancer. Smokers experience a 40 percent higher risk of developing this devastating
type of gynecological cancer.
Tobacco Control 
Nepal became a Party to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control on
February 5, 2007. The Tobacco Product (Control and Regulation) Act, 2010 is the
primary law governing tobacco control in Nepal.
 This act requires products to be licensed and companies selling tobacco to
be registered; ban on the sale of smokeless tobacco to under-18 age group,
 ban on tobacco consumption in all public and work places and prohibits
advertising. Pictorial health warnings were implemented in April 2014.
 The government has issued a directive increasing the size of the pack
warnings to 90 percent of the front and back of all tobacco products
packaging.

B)Drinking Alcohol
 It is defined as a chronic disease manifested by repeated drinking that
produce injury to the drinker’s health or to his social or economic
functioning .
 The stigma of being alcoholic is much for female than male.
Globally
Alcohol is a causal factor in 60 types of diseases and injuries and a component
cause in 200 others. Almost 4% of all deaths worldwide are attributed to alcohol,
greater than deaths caused by HIV/AIDS, violence or tuberculosis. Alcohol is also
associated with many serious social issues, including violence, child neglect and
abuse, and absenteeism in the workplace. (WHO 2011)
Globally, 6.2% of all male deaths are attributable to alcohol, compared to 1.1% of
female deaths. Men also have far greater rates of total burden attributed to alcohol
than women – 7.4% for men compared to 1.4% for women.(WHO,2011)

In context of Nepal
Most Nepalese men and women have the habit of consuming large quantities of
alcohol . Drinking is almost socially accepted though drunkenness is a big
problem. Alcohol are much used while celebrating festivals. Because of its cultural
acceptability Nepal has become the biggest medical and social problem. The
common beverages of Nepal are rice beer , jaad , tongba , raksi or alcohol .
Nepalese rural women also drink different forms of alcoholic drinks, especially
prepared by various ethnic groups . Terai of village people drink low quality of
liquor which is by fermenting the fruits of a tree bearing sweet flowers .
The rate of alcohol users was 51.7% males and 72.3% among females. (Nepalese
women 2007)
Causes
 Easy access and availability to all age group
 Traditional and cultural and initiating drinking:  Some people in Nepal
generally believe that alcohol is a medicine for cold, pain, tension, and
tiredness; some believe that the celebration, parties and festivals are success
if alcohol is served. Being a multicultural and multi-ethnic country, Nepal is
largely seen as an ambivalent society regarding alcohol use. But with the
 passage of time, traditional sanctions and caste-bound restraints have
disappeared. The use of alcohol and drugs affects all strata of society 
 Poor coping ability
 Unemployment
 Peer pressure
 Broken family
 Advertisement of alcohol
 Isolation
Benefits of Alcohol in Women
If you are a woman over the age of 55, one drink per day may lower your risk for
heart disease. Moderate drinking for a woman is defined as one alcoholic drink per
day. This translates to one 5-ounce glass of wine, a 12-ounce bottle of beer, or 1.5
ounces of hard liquor.On the other hand, women who drink beyond moderation
may increase their risk of heart disease. If you are younger than 55, there may be
no health benefits to alcohol consumption.
Risks of Alcohol in Women
Too much alcohol consumption clearly has risks for both men and women. Other
risks to women who drink alcohol include:
1. Cancer. Women who drink alcohol may increase their risk of breast
cancer and head and neck cancers. Cancer. Women who drink alcohol may
increase their risk of breast cancer and head and neck cancers. One recent
study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found
that consuming as few as three to six alcoholic drinks a week may be linked
to a 15 percent increased risk of breast cancer.

2. Brain damage. Alcohol kills brain cells and women are more susceptible to
this alcohol effect than men.
3. Pregnancy. Alcohol can affect a woman's ability to get pregnant. In
addition, alcohol use during pregnancy can have serious harmful
consequences on the unborn child. No amount of alcohol consumption is
safe during pregnancy.
4. Victimization. Women who have alcohol problems have a higher risk of
becoming victims of sexual assault or other acts of violence.
5. Depression and personal injury. In addition, alcohol consumption can
contribute to depression, sleeping problems, heart failure, falls, and poor
nutrition in women, especially older women.
“National Policy on Regulation and Control of Alcohol-2017”
The core features of the new law are:
 Total ban of alcohol advertisement, promotion and sponsorship.
 Decreasing availability: in the future alcohol will only be sold by especially
licensed shops for certain hours.
 All alcohol containers will have at least a 75% health warning. Nepal will be
first country in the world to introduce 75% pictorial warning.
 Alcohol will no longer be used in Government-sponsored programs and
events.
 Alcohol is no longer allowed to be sold in public places including heritage
sites, educational institutions, and sports complexes
C)Substance Abuse/ Drug Abuse
Drug abuse is defined as persistent or sporadic drug use with or unrelated to
accomplish medical practice or it is defined as self administration of drug for non
medial reasons , in quantities and frequencies which may impair an individual’s
ability to function effectively.Drug misuse refers to primarily to the inappropriate
use of legally purchased prescription or nonprescription drugs.
4.6 million women (or 3.8 percent) ages 18 and older have misused prescription
drugs in the past year.(SAMHSA, 2014)
Recently , it has been noted that as far as drugs are concerned the situation in
Nepal has become more and more alarming .According to WHO report 90% of
addicts are under 30 years of age . It has been reported that 50 % of teens are
exploring in drugs.
In Nepal drug addicts use both soft and hard drugs as cannabis , opium ,pethedine ,
aminophetamine , heroin ,barbiturates ,morphine.Other alcoholic drugs , minor
tranquilizers etc .
The drug user survey undertaken in Nepal in 2007 estimated that 7.2% of the drug
using population were women and  recognized that their issues differ from those of
male drug users.Efforts have been made in the past few years to address their needs
by setting up female specific drop in centres (DICs) and extending support for free
treatment of substance dependence.
The study carried out in 2007 shows that 3,355 of the 46,309 drug users are
women. According to the survey conducted in 2012, the number of female drug
users has risen to 6,330 out of 91,534.
The survey was conducted in 18 districts. As per the latest survey, there are 174
female drug users in Banke out of a total of 4,050.
Causes:
 Stress
 Isolation
 Social isolation
 Peer group influence
 Curiosity
 Pleasure
Effects of Substance Abuse
a) Substance Use While Pregnant and Breastfeeding
Substance use during pregnancy can be risky to the woman’s health and that of her
children in both the short and long term. Use of some substances can increase the
risk of miscarriage and can cause migraines, seizures, or high blood pressure in the
mother, which may affect the baby. In addition, the risk of stillbirth is two to three
times greater in women who smoke tobacco or marijuana, take prescription pain
relievers, or use illegal drugs during pregnancy.
When a woman uses substances regularly during pregnancy, the baby may go
through withdrawal after birth, a condition called neonatal abstinence syndrome
(NAS). Research has shown that NAS can occur with a pregnant woman's use of
opioids, alcohol, caffeine, and some prescription sedatives.
The type and severity of a baby’s withdrawal symptoms depend on the drug(s)
used, how long and how often the mother used, how her body breaks down the
drug, and if the baby was born full term or prematurely.  
Also, substance use by the pregnant mother can lead to long-term and even fatal
effects, including:
 low birth weight
 birth defects
 small head size
 premature birth
 sudden infant death syndrome
 developmental delays
 problems with learning, memory, and emotional control
b) Changes in the menstrual cycle — Drug and alcohol use may alter a
woman’s menstrual cycle and may result in lighter or heavier menstrual
periods and increased cramping . Heroin and methadone use may also lead
to amenorrhea (absence of a period) in some women.
c) Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and other infections —
Intravenous drug use puts women at risk of contracting infections and
diseases transmitted through the blood, including HIV/AIDS, which may
harm a woman’s fertility . Heavy alcohol use is also linked to higher rates of
 contracting STDs that may damage the reproductive system and/or hinder
the ability to get pregnant .
d) Cancer — Women who abuse alcohol and other drugs may put themselves
in risky situations where they are more likely to contract an STD, which,
depending on the infection, may contribute to cancer. For example, the
human papilloma virus (HPV) is linked to increased cervical cancer risk.
e) Fertility — Drugs and alcohol are also related to infertility in women. One
study found that females who are heavy alcohol users are more likely to
experience fertility problems compared to low and moderate alcohol users.
f) Sexual dysfunction — Substance use may impact sexual arousal, pleasure,
and desire in women . Specifically, heavy alcohol use can decrease vaginal
lubrication and the ability to achieve an orgasm . STDs resulting from risky
behaviors associated with substance use may also impact sexual desire.
Legislation
In Nepal, the Narcotics Drugs (Control) Act, 2033 (1976) is the legal framework
for drug control issues. Section 3(a) stipulates narcotic drugs:cannabis, medicinal
cannabis, opium, processed opium, plants and leaves of coca, any substance
prepared with mixing opium, coca extract which include mixtures or salts, any
natural or synthetic narcotic drug or psychotropic substance and their salts and
other substance as may be specified by the Nepal Gazette notification.
Any person violating this act shall be punished by up to 20 years of imprisonment
and a fine. While the non–physician prescribed consumption of narcotics drugs is a
criminal offence the Act has provision for the prevention and treatment of drug
users. Rules under this Act have, as yet, not been framed.

D) SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Sexual behavior means way of acting regarding sex .The term sexual abuse is often
used to abuse within the home or family covering both physical and contact and
non – contact.Studies on adolescent sexual behavior in different part of the world
shows that young people’s premarital sexual encounter are generally unplanned .
This could often lead to unwanted pregnancy with the possibility of resulting
unsafe abortion .(WHO 2003 )
Prostitution is the sale of sexual services, such as oral sex or sexual intercourse, for
money. Prostitution the word itself speaks about the plight of a women.
In 2012 it was estimated that there were between 40 and 42 million prostitutes in
the world.Every hour, four women and girls in India enter prostitution, three of
them against their will. (Legal service India 2014)
There was total 67000 Sex worker estimated in Nepal.(UNAID,2016).The
Traditional culture of Badi , Deuki, communities of western Nepal prepetues
prostitution .As a result , many Nepali badi women are becoming prostitutes
daughter following their mother’s foot step.

Causes of prostitution
 Ill treatment by parents.
 Bad company.
 Family prostitutes.
 Social customs.
 Inability to arrange marriage,
 Lack of sex education, media.
 Prior incest and rape.
 Early marriage and desertion.
 Lack of recreational facilities, ignorance, and acceptance of prostitution.
 Economic causes include poverty and economic distress.
 Psychological causes include desire for physical pleasure, greed, and
dejection.
Health problem related to sexual behavior
 STI and HIV infection
 Depression
 Psychological trauma
 Drug abuse
 Physical injury
 Suicide
 Unwanted pregnancy ,unsafe abortion, maternal morbidity and mortality
 Social disharmony , broken family
 Teenage pregnancy
Country where prostitution is legalized
1. New Zealand 9. Denmark
2. Australia 10. Ecuador
3. Austria 11. France
4. Bangladesh 12. Germany
5. Belgium 13. Greece
6. Brazil 14. Indonesia
7. Canada 15. Netherlands
8. Colombia
Prostitution in Nepal
Prostitution in Nepal is illegal. The Human Trafficking and Transportation
(Control) Act, 2064, Act Number 5 of the Year 2064 (2008),
criminalises prostitution and living of the earnings of prostitution by including it in
the definition of human trafficking.

E)MALNUTRITION/OVER EATING
Nutrition is the fundamental right of life . Nutritional status is an important
indicator of overall health and also a predictor among women of pregnancy
outcome for both mother and child .
Under nutrition during childhood means that girls cannot reach their full growth
potential, and are deprived later on in their lives not only in terms of health, but
also regarding their chances in education and in the labour market. Undernutrition
and its life course consequences in women are often handed over from one
generation to the next, creating vicious cycles of female deprivation. Empirical
research shows however that a pro-male bias in actual food intake is mainly
located in South Asia, and that the extent of gender bias in nutritional status varies
strongly within the region (Haddad et al. 1996).
As per capita incomes in developed countries have grown over the past three
decades, over-nutrition leading to obesity and elevated health risks for
cardiovascular disease, diabetes and some forms of cancer has occurred.
Poor nutritional status is an alarming public health problem in Nepal. Malnutrition,
iron deficiency anemia and other micronutrient deficiency disorders among the
children, adolescents and women are some major nutritional health problems
prevailing in Nepal (WHO, 2008).
Similarly, a woman’s nutritional status has important implications for her health as
well as for the health of her children. Malnutrition in women results in reduced
productivity, increased susceptibility to infections, slowed recovery from illness,
and a heightened risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes (Zerfu & Ayele, 2013).
According to Nepal Demographic Health Survey (2011), malnutrition is badly
impacting on growth and development of under-five children in Nepal. The
number of under-five stunting and underweight children are critically high.
The survey further revealed that neither the nutritional status of Nepalese women is
satisfactory.  About 18% women are malnourished and 35% of women of age 15-
49 years are anaemic. (NDHS,2011)
In comparison to women, the prevalence of anemia among children age 6-59
months is considerably high and critical in number (46%). Child mortality, which
is directly associated with nutritional status, is also very high in Nepal.
One in every 22 Nepalese children dies before reaching age 1 year, and one in
every 19 does not survive to his or her fifth birthday (MOHP, New ERA, & ICF,
2012).Nepali women suffer from inadequate food intake, both in terms of calories
and micronutrients.
This results in a low average body mass index(BMI) and micronutrient
deficiencies. Adult forms of malnutrition (low BMI and stunting) are the result of
malnutrition during fetal period, infancy and early childhood.
Low calories and micronutrient intake continues through adulthood, for many
women and frequent pregnancies and long period of lactation further deplete their
nutritional stores. Low BMI among women during lactation is related to poor
lactation and impaired growth.
Government actions in nutrition
a) Protein Energy Malnutrition
Growth monitoring and nutrition counseling at Primary Health Care Center
(PHCC), Health Posts (HPs), Sub-Health Posts (SHPs) and Outreach Clinics
(ORCs).
• Promotion of exclusive breastfeeding through mass media
• Implementation of Breast Milk Substitute Act 2049 and Regulation 2051.
• Promotion of complementary feeding after 6 months.
• Seven hospitals certified as Baby Friendly Hospital Initiatives (BFHI) in various
parts of country. (nutrition policy and strategy, 2004)
b) Iron Deficiency Anemia
Distribution of iron/folate tablets to pregnant women and lactating mothers through
hospitals, PHCC, HPs, SHPs and ORCs. Intensification program of maternal iron
supplementation through Female Community Health Volunteers (FCHVs) in 12
districts.
c) Iodine Deficiency Disorder
Universal salt iodization as sole strategy to address IDD.
Distribution of iodized salt in remote districts at subsidized rates.
Implementation of Iodized Salt Social marketing Campaign.
Monitoring of iodized salt at the entry points, regional and national levels.
Evaluation of IDD status through National Survey and integrated mini- surveys for
Vitamin A, iodized salt and deworming.
Iodized salt warehouse constructions in various parts of country.
Development of Iodized Salt Act in 1998.
d) Intestinal worms
Biannual deworming of children aged 1-5 years during vitamin A capsule
supplementation in all 77 districts. Deworming of all pregnant women after
completing the first trimester of pregnancy.
 e) Vitamin A Deficiency
Mass supplementation of high-dose VA capsules to children aged 6 and 59 months
of age in 75 districts.Nutrition education activities through Behavior Change
Communication (BCC) and mass media, community-level health workers and
agricultural extension workers.Initiation of VA capsules supplementation for
postpartum mothers through FCHVs and health facilities.Treatment of night-blind
pregnant women with low dose VA capsules in the selected districts. Case
treatment for measles, severe malnutrition, chronic diarrhea and eye problems
related to VAD.

How to Be a Healthy Teen Girl

Being healthy means many different things for teen girls. Building good habits of
diet and exercise is important, and so is having good hygiene. Being healthy also
means having a positive mental attitude, and making safe decisions about your
body and behaviors.
1.Building Healthy Habits
 Choose healthy foods.
 Have good eating habits.
 Maintain a healthy weight.
 Drink at least 7 glasses of water every day.
 Sleep 8-10 hours every night. 
 Exercise at least three to five times per week. 
 Have good posture. 
 Protect your skin from sunburns
2. Keeping Clean, Hygienic, and Healthy
 Have a good hygiene routine.
 Treat your acne. 
 Remove body hair, if you want to. 
 Visit your healthcare provider regularly
 Deal with periods.
3. Staying Mentally Healthy
 Have a positive attitude
 Express yourself creatively.
 Know that you’re beautiful
 Develop management skill
 Manage weight.
 Have healthy ideas about weight. 
  Reach out for help if you need it:Many teens struggle with depression,
anxiety, abuse, and other troubling concerns. Family problems, physical
or sexual abuse, and mental health issues might make you think about self-
harm or suicide
4.Being a Socially Healthy Teen
 Don’t drink alcohol.
 Don’t use drugs.
 Don’t smoke
 Be cautious on the internet.: Today, everyone and everything is connected
on the internet. While this can be great for keeping in touch with friends and
learning about the world, it also comes with risks. Cyberbullying affects
many young people.
 Get educated about sex and have safe sex.

Sedentary lifestyle 
 The people who are engaged in less physical work and spends most of their leisure time
within self have sedentary life style.
 A sedentary lifestyle is a type of lifestyle with little or no physical activity. A person
living a sedentary lifestyle is often sitting or lying, while reading, socializing, watching
television, playing video games, or using a mobile phone/computer for much of the day.
• Effects of Sedentary Lifestyle
 Obesity
 Risk for breast cancer.
 Diabetes
 Musculoskeletal problems: Osteoporosis, Gout .
 Uterine prolapse.
 Cardiovascular problem.
 Risk of caesarian section.(Big baby, ineffective contraction,CPD)
HEALTHY HABITS
A behavior that is beneficial to one’s 
physical or mental health, often linked to a high level of discipline and self-control.
A healthy habit is any behavior that benefits your physical, mental, and emotional health. These
habits improve your overall well-being and make you feel good.
• Regular physical activity
• Whether it’s a walk, yoga, run, spin, dance, kickboxing, hiking, or swimming, exercise
has immense benefits including endorphin release, weight management, improved sleep,
increased memory, energy, and self-confidence.
• Hydrate
• Water is essential for proper circulation, digestion, healthy skin, and it also transports
other nutrients to the rest of your body.
• At least 1.5 liters of water is mandatory to drink by the women per day.
• It can be increased with increased exercise, dehydration and diarrhea.
Nutrient rich Food
• Nutrient-rich foods provide energy for women's busy lives and help to prevent disease. A
healthy daily diet includes:
• At least three 1-ounce servings of whole grains such as whole-grain bread, cereal, pasta,
brown rice or oats.
• Three servings of low-fat or fat-free dairy products including low-fat or fat-free milk,
yogurt or cheese.
• Five to 6 ounces of protein such as lean meat, chicken, turkey, fish, eggs, beans or peas
and nuts.
• Two cups of fruits — fresh, frozen or canned without added sugar.
• Two-and-a-half cups of colorful vegetables — fresh, frozen or canned without added salt.
• Iron-rich Foods
• Folic Acid During the Reproductive Years
• Daily Calcium Requirements: For growing girls to increase bone growth and
development and for menopausal women to prevent osteoporosis.
• Micronutrients rich food: eg. iodine
• Eat the rainbow: Eating the foods of different colors.
REST AND SLEEP
• Total 8 hours of sleep is necessary for the girl and women per day.
• In case of pregnancy total 10 hours of sleep is needed i.e 8 hours in a night and 2 hours in
a day.
• Scientists found that around 20 minutes more sleep was needed by women compared to
men - and said this was thought to be because the female brain works harder during the
day.
• Pregnancy, menopause, Stress, depression, fear, and other strong emotions can greatly
reduce the quality of her sleep.
Screening
• Screening test is necessary in order to screen for diseases; assess risk for future
problems; discuss lifestyle habits; and keep vaccinations up to date.
• Thyroid test: To identify an under- or overactive thyroid, both of which are very treatable
and either of which can lead to more serious conditions if left untreated.
• Mammogram: To identify possible early signs of breast cancer. Every 1-2 years starting 
between ages 40 and 50
• Clinical breast exam: About every 3 years for women in their 20s and 30s, and every year
for women 40 and over as good clinical breast exam may help identify breast cancer
relatively early.
 • Pap test and HPV test (human Papillomavirus): Pap tests screen for abnormalities that
could indicate pre- or early cervical cancer; HPV helps identify women at risk for
developing cervical cancer.
• HIV tests
• Hypertension screening
• Diabetes Screening
• Self care
• Self-care is the process of nurturing yourself. But in a fast-paced and often chaotic
society, many women tend to put their own needs on the back burner.
• So many women constantly put everyone else first, allowing their own needs to suffer.
Some women may even become resentful because their personal needs have been
neglected.
• Self-care for women is imperative.
• Maintaining personal hygiene, Meditation, aroma bath, walking, sexual pleasures,
“saying no”, Noting your menstrual cycle, noticing the moles and mass in your body,
immunization etc falls in self care.
QUIT SMOKING AND ALCHOHOL
• Smoking and other forms of tobacco use can cause a wide variety of diseases and can
lead to death.
BENEFITS OF HEALTHY HABITS
• Keeping stress at bay
• From weight gain to anxiety and mood swings, stress manifests itself in our bodies in
incredibly negative ways.
•  Find ways to calm your mind and relax or activities that help you distress.
• Benefits of healthy life habits
Healthy habits are hard to develop and often require changing your mindset.
But if willing to make sacrifices to better your health, the impact can be far-reaching,
regardless of your age, sex, or physical ability. Here are five benefits of a healthy lifestyle.
 Controls weight
Eating right and exercising regularly can help avoid excess weight gain and maintain a healthy
weight .
Even if not trying to lose weight, regular exercise can improve cardiovascular health, boost
immune system, and increase energy level.
 Improves mood
• Doing right by body pays off for mind as well.
• Endorphins are brain chemicals that leave feeling happier and more relaxed.
• Eating a healthy diet as well as exercising can lead to a better physique.
• Short-term benefits of exercise include decreased stress and improved cognitive function.
 Combats diseases
 • Healthy habits help prevent certain health conditions, such as heart disease, stroke, and
high blood pressure.
• This keeps blood flowing smoothly, decreasing your risk of cardiovascular diseases.
• Regular physical activity and proper diet can also prevent or help manage a wide range of
health problems, including: metabolic syndrome, diabetes, depression, certain types of
cancer
 Improves longevity 
• The American Council on Exercise reported on an eight-year study of 13,000 people. The
study showed that those who walked just 30 minutes each day significantly reduced their
chances of dying prematurely, compared with those who exercised infrequently.
• Looking forward to more time with loved ones is reason enough to keep walking. Start
with short five-minute walks and gradually increase the time until you’re up to 30
minutes.
 The takeaway
• Healthy habits reduce the risk of certain diseases, improve your physical appearance and
mental health, and give energy level a much needed boost.

Harmful practices for girls and women

Throughout the world, there are many different types of harmful traditional
practices that violate the human rights of women. Some practices are endemic to a
particular area of the world, while others are more widespread.
Below are a few of the most prevalent and harmful practices that constitute
violence against women and a violation of their personal dignity and human rights.
 
A) Female genital mutilation (FGM)
Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting and female
circumcision,is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the external female
genitalia. The practice is found in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and within
communities from countries in which FGM is common. UNICEF estimated in
2016 that 200 million women living today in 30 countries—27 African countries,
Indonesia, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen—have undergone the procedures.
Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade, FGM is conducted
from days after birth to puberty and beyond. In half the countries for which
national figures are available, most girls are cut before the age of five. Procedures
differ according to the country or ethnic group.
Since 2010 the United Nations has called upon healthcare providers to stop
performing all forms of the procedure, including reinfibulation after childbirth and
symbolic "nicking" of the clitoral hood. There have been international efforts since
the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon FGM, and it has been outlawed or
restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs, although the laws are poorly
enforced.
Methods
The procedures are generally performed by a traditional circumciser (cutter
or exciseuse) in the girls' homes, with or without anaesthesia. The cutter is usually
an older woman, but in communities where the male barber has assumed the role
of health worker he will perform FGM too.When traditional cutters are involved,
non-sterile devices are likely to be used, including knives, razors, scissors, glass,
sharpened rocks and fingernails.
According to a nurse in Uganda, quoted in 2007 in The Lancet, a cutter would use
one knife on up to 30 girls at a time.Health professionals are often involved in
Egypt, Kenya, Indonesia and Sudan. In Egypt 77 percent of FGM procedures, and
in Indonesia over 50 percent, were performed by medical professionals as of 2008
and 2016.Women in Egypt reported in 1995 that a local anaesthetic had been used
on their daughters in 60 percent of cases, a general anaesthetic in 13 percent, and
neither in 25 percent (two percent were missing/don't know).
Types
A)Type I is "partial or total removal of the clitoris and/or the prepuce".
Type IA involves removal of the clitoral hood only. This is rarely performed
alone.
Type IB (clitoridectomy), the complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans (the
visible tip of the clitoris) and clitoral hood.The circumciser pulls the clitoral glans
with her thumb and index finger and cuts it off.
B)Type II (excision) is the complete or partial removal of the inner labia, with or
without removal of the clitoral glans and outer labia.
Type IIA is removal of the inner labia.
Type IIB, removal of the clitoral glans and inner labia; and
Type IIC, removal of the clitoral glans, inner and outer labia. Excision in French
can refer to any form of FGM.
C) Type III (infibulation or pharaonic circumcision), the "sewn closed" category,
involves the removal of the external genitalia and fusion of the wound. The inner
and/or outer labia are cut away, with or without removal of the clitoral glans.
Type III is found largely in northeast Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan (although not in South Sudan).
According to one 2008 estimate, over eight million women in Africa are living
with Type III FGM. According to UNFPA in 2010, 20 percent of women with
FGM have been infibulated.
D) Type IV is “all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-
medical purposes", including pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and
cauterization.It includes nicking of the clitoris (symbolic circumcision), burning or
scarring the genitals, and introducing substances into the vagina to tighten it.
Labia stretching is also categorized as Type IV. Common in southern and eastern
Africa, the practice is supposed to enhance sexual pleasure for the man and add to
the sense of a woman as a closed space. From the age of eight, girls are encouraged
to stretch their inner labia using sticks and massage. Girls in Uganda are told they
may have difficulty giving birth without stretched labia.

Effects on Health
An immediate physical effect of FGM might be bleeding and injury to nearby
genital tissue. Since FGM is usually conducted under unhygienic circumstances, it
may also result in tetanus or sepsis (bacterial infection) developing very soon.
In the long term, FGM can cause repeated recurrent urinary tract infections,
increased risk of childbirth complications and newborn deaths and the need for
later surgery. For example, the FGM procedure that seals or narrows a vaginal
opening needs to be cut open later in life to allow for sexual intercourse and
childbirth. Sometimes it is stitched again several times, e.g. after childbirth, hence
the woman goes through repeated opening and closing procedures
Neonatal mortality is increased. The WHO estimated in 2006 that an additional
10–20 babies die per 1,000 deliveries as a result of FGM.
The estimate was based on a study conducted on 28,393 women attending delivery
wards at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal and
Sudan.
In those settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to
the baby: 15 percent higher for Type I, 32 percent for Type II, and 55 percent for
Type III
The reasons for this were unclear, but may be connected to genital and urinary tract
infections and the presence of scar tissue.
According to the study, FGM was associated with an increased risk to the mother
of damage to the perineum and excessive blood loss, as well as a need
to resuscitate the baby, and stillbirth, perhaps because of a long second stage of
labour.

Psychosocial consequences
Mutilation is an occasion marked by fear, and the suppression of feelings. More
often the bad memory never leaves the victims.
Some women report that they suffer pain during sexual intercourse and
menstruation.
The experience is associated with sleeplessness, nightmares, loss of appetite,
weight loss or excessive weight gain.
As they grow older, women may develop feelings of incompleteness, loss of self-
esteem/confidence, and depression/sadness

B) Female Infanticide/Sex-Selective Abortions

Female infanticide is the deliberate killing of newborn female children. In
countries with a history of female infanticide, the modern practice of sex-selective
abortion is often discussed as a closely related issue.
Female infanticide is a major cause of concern in several nations such
as China, India and Pakistan. It has been argued that the "low status" in which
women are viewed in patriarchal societies creates a bias against females.
In seventh-century Arabia, before Islamic culture became established, female
infanticide was widely practiced.
This is attributed by scholars to the fact that women were deemed "property"
within those societies. Others have speculated that to prevent their daughters from
a life of misery, the mothers would kill the child. With the arrival of Islamic rule
the practice was made illegal.
In a first ever global study on female infanticide by Asian Centre for Human
Rights, a Delhi-based NGO dedicated to protection of human rights, it has been
revealed that preference of son over daughter is a major reason for female
infanticide in many countries around the world.
Dowry system in South Asia, which makes daughters “an unaffordable economic
burden”, also contributes to female infanticide.
Female Infanticide Worldwide: The case for action by the UN Human Rights
Council”
The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has acknowledged that illegal
abortions still outnumber legal abortions and thousands of women die every year
due to complications resulting from unsafe abortions.
According to the Population Research Institute, at least 12,771,043 sex-selective
abortions had taken place in India between 2000 and 2014. It takes the daily
average of sex-selective abortion to 2,332

Prevailing laws
Apart from the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Maternal and Infant
Health Care of 1994, Beijing also has the Population and Family Planning Law of
the People’s Republic of China of 2002 that prohibits sex identification of foetus
and sex-selective abortions.
Similarly, the Population Ordinance (2006) and Prime Minister Decree (2006) of
Vietnam prohibit all practices of antenatal foetal sex diagnosis and sex selection.
Nepal, in 2002, amended the Country Code, Muluki Ain, to allow abortion on
medical grounds and prohibit sex-selective abortions..
The causes
1.Anti-female bias
 Societies that practice female infanticide always show many other signs of
bias against females.
 Women are perceived as subservient because of their role as carrers and
homemakers, whilst men predominantly ensure the family's social and
economic stability.
2.Family economics
 Girl babies are often killed for financial reasons
3.Earning power: 
Men are usually the main income-earners, either because they are more
employable or earn higher wages for the same work, or because they are able to do
more agricultural work in subsistence economies. Since male babies have a greater
income potential, they are less likely to be killed.
4. Potential pensions: 
 In many societies, parents depend on their children to look after them in old
age.
 But in many of these cultures a girl leaves her parental family and joins her
husband's family when she marries.
 The result is that parents with sons gain extra resources for their old age,
when their sons marry, while parents with daughters lose their 'potential
pensions' when they marry and move away. This gives parents a strong
reason to prefer male children.
 Some parents (particularly poor ones) who can't afford to support a large
family, will kill female babies.
 Girls are considered a drain on family resources during their childhood
without bringing economic benefits later on.
5. Dowry: 
 Some girl babies are killed so that the family doesn't have to pay a dowry
when they get married.
 In Indian society it is tradition for the parents of the bride to give a dowry to
the groom and his family.
 The dowry consists of large amounts of money and valuable goods. For
families with several daughters this can be a serious financial burden.
6.Government policy
  Governmental policies have also increased female infanticide as an
unpredicted side-effect.
 For example, when the Chinese Government introduced a One Child per
Family Policy there was a surge in female infanticide.
 Families needed to have a son because of their higher earning potential, so a
girl baby was an economic disaster for them, and there was a strong motive
to ensure that girl babies did not survive.
7.Caste
 Some female infants are killed because they are regarded as being lower in
the caste hierarchy than males
C) Forced and Early Marriages
Girls being forced into marriage, sometimes at very young ages, are prevalent in
many areas throughout the world. Forced or early marriages may be an expectation
within the social or religious culture in which a girl or woman lives. 
In certain cultures within India, the Middle East, and Africa, the practice of forcing
girls ages 11, 12, and 13 to marry and begin producing children is prevalent. 
In such marriages, girls have little to no power and sense of self-determination.
Those who marry early cannot stay in school and often have little motivation or
family planning ability.
They are deprived of their sexual reproductive health and rights.
A child bride is at increased risk of serious or fatal complications for both herself
and her children arising from giving birth before having fully developed

In Nepal
Thirty-seven percent of girls in Nepal marry before age 18 and 10 percent are
married by age 15, in spite of the fact that the minimum age of marriage under
Nepali law is 20 years of age. Boys also often marry young in Nepal, though in
lower numbers than girls.
UNICEF data indicates that Nepal has the third highest rate of child marriage in
Asia, after Bangladesh and India.

D) Preference for sons

 Preference for sons is still a powerful tradition that results in neglect, deprivation,
and discriminatory treatment of daughters to the damage of their physical and
mental health as well as female infanticide and prenatal sex selection.
 Son preference adversely affects girls through inequitable allocation of food,
education, and health care.
Male preference begins early in life. Parents with fewer resources may feel that it
is more important for male children to survive and be educated as they will carry
the family name.
Girls in such settings are often fed after boys and receive food of lower nutritional
value.
Despite significant increases in the number of women who have attained at least
seven years of education, there are far fewer females than males enrolled in
secondary schools in many countries.
This disparity between males’ and females’ access to education leaves women in
lifelong positions of economic and social disadvantage.

E) Witch Burning/Beheading 
Witch-hunting and burning is a practice that has been going on in many parts of the
world for centuries. 
People in such communities often attribute unexplained illnesses and deaths to
sorcery, and evidence shows that women are disproportionately suspected and
accused of the practice.
It has been estimated that tens of thousands of people were executed for witchcraft
in Europe and the American colonies over several hundred years. Although it is not
possible to ascertain the exact number, modern scholars estimate around 40,000–
50,000.
Common methods of execution for convicted witches
were hanging, drowning and burning.
Burning was often favoured, particularly in Europe, as it was considered a more
painful way to die.
Prosecutors in the American colonies generally preferred hanging in cases of
witchcraft.
In Nepal
Sometimes innocent people are blamed to be witches and they are treated very
badly by the whole society . Mostly women are baselessly doubted as the witches.
The witches are called ‘Boksi” in Nepali language.
There is also existence of some male magicians called ‘Jhankris’ in the society
who are regarded as witch-doctors and they point out the witches.
Jhnkris can blame any woman as being a witch. If once blamed, it is very difficult
to get rid of this charge. Rest of the women in the village also equally participate in
blaming the witch after indication by the Jhankri.
Even children start to tease the blamed women when they meet her and frighten to
go near her. Therefore, this tradition is really a big tragedy to women.
A case, (The Kathmandu Post, Nov. 04, 2000), a nursing mother was killed by her
own family members because she was accused for being a witch.
She was killed in such a manner that nobody can imagine. She was pierced through
her private part and the stomach. All the teeth were also pulled out and gums were
cut out.
The family members made the decision to kill her because they were afraid of the
warning of the faith healer that there will be fatal consequences to all their family
members if she remains alive.
By studying this news, we can imagine the strength of the belief on witchcraft.

F) Virginity Tests
To varying degrees, the virginity of a bride is still considered a virtue in
communities throughout the world. 
Virginity testing, the examination of the genitals as a way to determine sexual
chastity, remains popular in communities that place a high premium on virginity
for social, economic, and religious reasons
G) Breast Ironing
Breast ironing is a practice, often performed by a mother, in which the breasts of
pubescent girls are pounded using tools such as spatulas, grinding stones, hot
stones, and hammers, as a means of delaying their development and protecting
girls from rape and other types of unwanted male attention. 
 
Prevalence of Breast Ironing
A pilot study showed that this practice is found in parts of Guinea Bissau, Chad,
Togo, and Benin, but appears to be most prevalent in Cameroon where it occurs in
the country’s 10 provinces with an estimated 24% of girls experiencing it. 
The study also showed that in the province of Littoral, 53% of the girls and women
reported having experienced breast ironing and approximately 60% of all breast
ironing cases were performed by the victim’s mother.
Effects of Breast Ironing
Contrary to the beliefs of its proponents, this practice has not stopped girls from
becoming sexually active or becoming the victims of sexual violence. 
Instead, the practice has led to an inability to produce breast milk, cysts, lesions,
and to the development of cancer in young women.
The practice is painful for those who experience it and often results in the
destruction of breast tissue, making girls vulnerable to breast infection, itching, and
abscesses.
H) Polygamy
Polygamy is a common practice in Ethiopia. It is a form of marriage in which a
person marries more than one spouse.
Polygyny (from Greek words: poly = many; gyny = woman) refers to a polygamy
in which a man has two or more wives.
About 12% of married women in Ethiopia are in polygynous unions. It is usual for
a young girl to be married to an older married man.That means the second or third
wife is usually younger than the first wife. The young woman usually has less
access to resources, little autonomy and no input into family decision making.
This exposes her to many health problems including malnutrition of herself and her
children. As her husband has multiple sexual partners (i.e. more than one wife), she
may be at risk of STIs, including HIV, and then developing AIDS
Polygamy in Nepal
Marriage of the General Code (Muluki Ain) states that ‘no male shall marry
another female or keep a woman as an additional wife during the life-time of his
wife or where the conjugal relation with his first wife is not dissolved unless his
wife has any incurable contagious venereal disease, is incurably insane, is infertile
and becomes blind of both eyes’.
According to the National Demographic Health Survey, 2011, majority of Nepali
women and men are in monogamous unions. Four per cent of married women and
two per cent of married men are in polygamous unions.
If any person concludes another marriage or keeps wife in contravention of the
law, he will be liable to imprisonment for a term from one to three years and to a
fine of Rs 5,000-Rs 25,000.
If a woman knowingly concludes such marriage or becomes wife, that woman
shall also be accordingly subject to punishment. However, the law does not
invalidate the second marriage itself.
I) Polyandry
Princess Draupadi prayed to Lord Shiva to send her a husband. And she prayed not
once, but five times. So he sent her five husbands at the same time.
This story from the ancient Indian epic "Mahabharata" is probably the first written
mention of polyandry – a form of marriage when a woman takes two or more
husbands at the same time. 28 centuries after the "Mahabharata", this form of
marriage is still practiced in the Himalayan villages of Tibet, India and Nepal.
In Nepal
Polyandry is officially banned in Nepal since 1963, but people in Humla, Dolpa
and Kosi regions care about their traditions much more than they do about the law.
Here one can find entire villages of polyandrous families.
This form of marriage is also common among tribes in the north and north-east of
Nepal, such as Bhote, Sherpa, Newbie, and other.
Usually two, three or more brothers marry one woman, and they all live under one
roof.
Ethnographers agree that polyandry has arisen for the purpose of birth control,
since living conditions in the mountains are harsh, especially during winters.
Polyandrous unions produce much less children then monogamous marriages.
Also, such families enjoy higher income, since they have not one but more men
who can work. Running a large household is also more sustainable.
After all, if every man had a separate wife, his parents would have to split their
land and cattle among all their sons. So, each would end up with a tiny plot, that is
not even profitable to work on.
J) Menstrual Taboo
A menstrual taboo is any social taboo concerned with menstruation. In some
societies it involves menstruation being perceived as unclean or embarrassing,
inhibiting even the mention of menstruation whether in public (in the media
and advertising) or in private (among friends, in the household, or with men).
Many traditional religions consider menstruation ritually unclean, although
anthropologists of religion point out that the concepts 'sacred' and 'unclean' may be
intimately connected.
Different cultures view menstruation in different ways.
Studies in the early 1980s showed that nearly all girls in the United States believed
that girls should not talk about menstruation with boys, while more than one-third
of girls did not believe it appropriate to discuss menstruation with their father.
The basis of many conduct norms and communication about menstruation in
western industrial societies is the belief that menstruation should remain hidden.
By contrast, in many hunter-gatherer societies, particularly in Africa, menstrual
observances are viewed in a positive light, without any connotation of uncleanness.
K) Dowry system
Dowry system is a practice of giving Money or property or some kinds of special
gifts at the marriage of a daughter by the girls side to the bridegroom’s family.
‘Dowry’ is known as ‘Daijo’ in Nepali and ‘Dahej’ in Hindi , Maithili , Bhojpuri
language. It is a social evil of our county Nepal.
The tradition of the dowry
The origins of the dowry system in India have been greatly debated. One theory is
that historically parents of the bride nominally provided gifts such as jewelry and
everyday household items to the bride which evolved over time to providing a sum
of money to the groom’s family.
Another, more patriarchal view, alleges that daughters were “given” away and that
grooms were offered gifts (and eventually money) as somewhat of a bribe to
ensure the fair treatment of the woman.
The exact sum of money was dictated by the groom’s education and social
standing, however its initial intention was to act as a safeguard should something
happen to the groom in his lifetime rendering him no longer able to provide for his
wife and eventual children.
The dowry today
While the dowry system still exists in India today, its function has changed
somewhat, becoming an unspoken mandate and being viewed these days as
something of a bargaining chip when arranging marriages.
The more educated a groom is, the more money his family can demand as a dowry.
Parents start saving for their daughters’ dowries from birth, placing a financial
burden on families of low socio-economic backgrounds.
The dark side of the dowry
The underbelly of the dowry system revolves around the treatment of brides.
Referred to as “bride-burning”, the act of maiming or even killing brides whose
family cannot or will not meet a groom’s dowry demands is a worrying practice in
India.
The National Crime Records Bureau reports that in 2010 alone, there were 8,391
dowry-related deaths in the country, representing a 0.1% increase from 2009 and
almost double the number of dowry-related deaths recorded two decades ago.
Only a third of all reported cases result in conviction of the offenders.
It is harmful for society because the bridegroom’s side openly demands the dowry
before arranging marriage.
People will give priority to give birth of baby boy due to the passion of dowry
which increases gender inequality .
Another flow on effect of the dowry system has been the practice of female
infanticide and feticide.
In Nepal
It is mainly common in Terai- Madesh region, southern part of Nepal but now it is
spreading over other parts of the country instead of being solved.
Many daughters in law and wives are physically and mentally tortured due to the
lack of dowry.
This system had made fun of equality of women. Nowadays, marriage is supposed
as lottery of making money.
Harmful Practice in Nepal
1. Chhaupadi Pratha
2. Kumari Partha
3. Badi Partha
4. Deuki Partha
5. Jhuma Partha
6. Other practices
1) Chhaupadi Partha
Chhaupadi (Nepali: छाउपडी ) is a social tradition associated with the menstrual
taboo in the western part of Nepal. The tradition prohibits Hindu women from
participating in normal family activities while menstruating, as they are considered
"impure".This system comes from the superstition of impurity during
the menstruation period.
In this superstitious logic, if a menstruating woman touches a tree, it will never
again bear fruit; if she consumes milk, the cow will not give any more milk; if she
reads a book, Saraswati, the goddess of education, will become angry; if she
touches a man, he will be ill.
The women are kept out of the house and have to live in a cattle shed or a
makeshift hut. This period of time lasts between ten and eleven days when an
adolescent girl has her first period; thereafter, the duration is between four and
seven days each month.
Childbirth also results in a ten to eleven-day confinement. During this time,
women are forbidden to touch men or even to enter the courtyard of their own
homes.They are barred from consuming milk, yogurt, butter, meat, and other
nutritious foods, for fear they will forever mar those goods.
The women must survive on a diet of dry foods, salt, and rice. They cannot use
warm blankets and are allowed only a small rug; most commonly, this is made
of jute (also known as burlap). They are also restricted from going to school or
performing daily functions like taking a bath.
Dangerous practice causing recurring deaths
 Women have died while performing the practice, including two young
women in late 2016 who died from smoke inhalation and "carbon monoxide
poisoning" from lighting fires to heat secluded makeshift shelters, huts and
sheds during cold weather, this was a common cause of death in poorly
ventilated huts.
  Furthermore, there is also a fear of sexual abuse and assault at night
alongside the attack of wild animals and snake bites.
 Most of the deaths due to wild animals are not revealed and neither are the
cases of rape, fearing for the future of the unmarried daughter.
 Chhaupadi also has an impact on psychosocial well-being of the women and
girls.
 Isolation from family and social exclusion results in depression, low self-
esteem, and disempowerment among girls.
Awareness Programme
The programme, which is supported by the UN Trust Fund to End Violence against
Women (UN Trust Fund), administered by UN Women on behalf of the UN
system, works with young people as peer educators and provides education and
support to community leaders, traditional healers, local governments and
organizations.
In just two years, it has trained 131 peer educators and its activities have reached
over 20,000 girls and women, and 15,000 boys and men.
Prior to the programme, almost 20 per cent of girls and women used to sleep in a
chhaupadi hut during menstruation; now the prevalence is down to 5 per cent. 
Illegality of the practice
 Chhaupadi was outlawed by the Supreme Court of Nepal in 2005, but the
tradition has been slow to change.
 In 2017, Nepal passed a law punishing people who force women into exile
during menstruating with up to three months in jail or a fine of 3,000
Nepalese rupees.

2) Kumari Partha
The Kumari or Kumari Devi comes from the Hindu faith however most of the
"traditional" Kumari in Kathmandu are Newari (original settlers of the Kathmandu
Valley). In Nepal the Kumari is a prepubescent girl selected by a council from the
Newari people that acts as a manifestation of divine female energy.
A Nepali Kumari is believed to be the living incarnation of the goddess Taleju 
also known as Durga. This continues until after menstruation when the goddess
Taleju vacates her body. Illness and loss of blood due to injury can also mean the
goddess leaves the girls body.

Life after the goddess leaves a Kumari

The girl is immediately regarded as a normal child and given back to her parents.
A small token pension is awarded to her.
In the past such abrupt changes were said to psychologically damage a child.
Going from goddess with everything provided for you to simply being an everyday
child.
There is also a legend about of how a Kumari's spouse will die early leading to the
now normal girl never getting married. Several modern day Kumari's have come
out and disregarded many harsh aspects the life of a Kumari.
3) Jhuma system
Introduction
The Jhuma system is similar to the Deuki system. It prevails in the Sherpa
community in the eastern region.
In this system, the second daughter is offered to the Gumba to carry out the
services to the god there. The Jhuma has to live an unmarried life. She has an illicit
sexual relationship. The son thus born has to live in the Gumba. He becomes the
lama of the Gumba.
This process violates the child right and family right and encourages the illicit
sexual relationship.This is similar to Deuki Pratha of Hinduism. However it is a bit
different than Deuki Pratha.
For instances, only second child is offered in Jhuma Pratha.
Both Deuki and Jhuma Pratha are similar to Devadashi System of India.
In Nepal, Hindus and Buddhists are exchanging culture from ages.  

4)Badi pratha
The Badi sub-caste is comparatively high on the order of twenty-two Dalit sub-
castes, however over the years they need fallen within the esteem of Nepalese.
The Badi historically provided music and diversion for the Royal families before
they step by step drifted into whoredom.
The Badi ladies let customers understand they're prepared for work – that is
whoredom (“pesha”) – by sporting thick, crimson lipstick.
Badi ladies are forever able to leave the whoredom profession if they get facilitate
and begin one thing of their own.
Government has declared to assist badi ladies and finish whoredom however the
assistance isn't enough as secure by the government and that they are obligated to
travel back within the profession.
Each girl services as several as twelve purchasers every day, at rates of between
fifty and two hundred rupees per client.
One strange factor is that  the Badi men of this community don't work.
In 2005, the Supreme Court of Nepal ordered the government to extend formal
citizenship to the Badis, establish retraining and alternative employment programs,
and extend grants to poor families.
The government stalled until in 2007, Badi activists threatened embarrass the
government by undressing publicly in the capital Katmandu.
Despite the legislation, discrimination against the Badis continues. Badi activists
blame tradition, corruption, and Nepal's polarized government for the lack of
change.

5)DEUKI PRATHA
Now this geographics lies in so much western region of Nepal. Currently “Deuki
pratha” remains finding in Dadeldhura, Baitadi, Darchula and a few another places
It is Associate in Nursing ancient custom practiced within the so much western
regions of Nepal during which a missy is obtainable to the native Hindu temple to
achieve spiritual benefit.
Girls become deukis either as a result of their folks provide them in hopes of
gaining protection and smart favor from the Gods or as a result of their folks sell
them to wealthier couples seeking a similar holy approval.
Poor families who worship their daughters gain standing and approval from their
communities from the perceived sacrifice they need created. They’re additionally
mitigated of the burden of finding husbands for his or her daughters.
Due to the law stating that Nepalese citizenship falls on the father’s line, daughters
born to deukis, referred to as devis.
The lady is meant to supply service to the god or divinity of the temple however
due to their age and lack of skills, usually find yourself as prostitutes for the
temples. During this respect, it's like India’s devadasi tradition.
Effect of Deuki Partha
Today, deukis are frequently raped by a priest immediately after dedication- still
when they are between five and seven years old.
Abandoned by their parents and all other support systems, these girls grow up
largely on their own with no education or learned skills.
In recent scholarship, some authors have asserted that the sex trafficking problem
in Nepal has roots in traditions like deuki, which created the precedent of women
being viewed more like objects and symbols than like people.
 Others assert that the presence of deuki in communities simply leaves their
populations predisposed to accept such practices.
Deuki today
The Nepal Constitution of 1990 deemed the practice to be human trafficking and
exploitation in the name of religion and culture, and several pieces of legislation
have passed that should have curtailed the number of Deukis.
According to a UN report, however, the number of deukis increased between 1992
and 2010.The actual number of deukis today is contestable, as the exact statistics
are unavailable. Estimates range between under 2,000 and over 30,000, leaving a
great deal of uncertainty.
NGOs such as Jandesh have worked to successfully rehabilitate many Deukis by
teaching them “skills in the sewing, stitching, cattle farming, cottage and beauty
industries, as well as [providing] literacy classes” and getting their children into
schools.
For older deukis, however, change is more difficult. Government programs and
NGOs are less invested in their rehabilitation, so they receive less assistance. Such
women also find it harder to transition into a different lifestyle after an entire
lifetime of being a deuki
6.CULTURAL PRACTICE DURING POSTNATAL PERIOD
In Tamang
When the pregnant woman gives birth to the child, the family members serve best
quality of aerak ( Alcohol) or chhyang (Fermented liquor) to her. If the economic
status is good, they serve warm alcohol mixed with one teaspoon of ghee.
They believe it helps to restore the energy and as the drink makes her intoxicated it
relives her from exhaustion. In postnatal period, usually they use millet alcohol
which reduces pain due to contraction of uterus and it is very good for health.
POLLUTED RESTRICTION FOR TOUCH
The birth-polluted woman is not allowed to do work or to touch utensil or any
person or go anywhere except toilet for 3 days.
At that time even, if anything goes wrong to postnatal mother’s health they do not
go to health post or hospital for treatment because of fear that evil eye sights as
well as wrong activities makes family God angry.
SOME GOOD PRACTICES IN NEPAL
A)BABY SHOWER
A baby shower is a way to celebrate the expected or delivered birth of a child by
presenting gifts to the mother at a party, whereas other cultures host a baby shower
to celebrate the transformation of a woman into a mother. The event has different
names in different cultures.Traditionally, baby showers are given only for the
family's first child, and only women are invited, though this has changed in recent
years, now allowing showers being split up for different audiences: workplace,
mixed-sex, and feminist.
Gifts
Guests bring small gifts for the expectant mother. Mothers are usually given
pampering treats. Typical gifts related to babies include diapers, blankets, baby
bottles, clothes, and toys. It is common to open the gifts during the party;
sometimes the host will make a game of opening gifts.
Family bonding
The baby shower is a family's first opportunity to gather people together to help
play a part in their child's life. The new parents may wish to call on people to assist
in the upbringing of their child, and help educate the child over time.
People around the family, who care for them, want to be involved in the child's
life, and a baby shower presents an opportunity for them to give gifts and be of
help, showing their love for the family.
If it happens before the birth, it allows the new family to thank everyone before the
stress of a new baby and lack of sleep begins.
In Nepal a baby shower is known as "dahi chiura khuwaune". The mother-to-be is
given gifts from her elders and a meal is cooked for her according to her
preferences.
The pregnant mother is often invited by her relatives to eat meals with them.
In northern India it is known as godbharaai, in western India,
especially Maharashtra, the celebration is known as dohaaljewan, and in West
Bengal and Odisha it is called saadhroshi.
B)Rice Feeding Ceremony
Annaprashan is a Sanskrit term, which literally means “grain initiation”. 
Pasni, the Weaning Ceremony is a celebration in Nepal in which a child is first fed
rice. Although centuries old tradition, modern science has established the fact that
child’s digestive system is capable of processing solid food when they are
approximately 6 months old.
This is why Pasni is held when baby is 6-month-old but it is different in daughters
and sons.
This ceremony is held at five months for daughters, and six months for sons. An
auspicious date and time is chosen by an astrologer, usually a Hindu, and all the
closest relatives are invited to witness and to celebrate.
At first rice is introduce, which is easily digestable for infant.
Male baby get chance to get exclusive breast feeding for 6 month where as female
baby , for 5 month.
Which may effect the health of the female baby such as indigestion, diarrhea etc.
References
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