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Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse in

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DOI: 10.1504/IJGW.2019.098495

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Int. J. Global Warming, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2019 235

Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity

from sugarcane bagasse in a sugar and ethanol
industry

Monica Carvalho*
Department of Renewable Energy Engineering,
Centre of Alternative and Renewable Energy,
Federal University of Paraíba,
João Pessoa, Brazil
Email: monica@cear.ufpb.br
*Corresponding author

Valdir Bernardino da Silva Segundo

Graduate Program in Development and Environment,
Federal University of Paraíba,
João Pessoa, Brazil
Email: v_segundo@msn.com

Mariane Gama de Medeiros

Graduate Program in Renewable Energy,
Federal University of Paraíba,
João Pessoa, Brazil
Email: mariane.gama@cear.ufpb.br

Nataly Albuquerque dos Santos

Department of Technology and Production of Animal Products,
Centre of Regional Technology and Development,
Federal University of Paraíba,
João Pessoa, Brazil
Email: natalyjp@gmail.com

Luiz Moreira Coelho Junior

Department of Renewable Energy Engineering,
Centre of Alternative and Renewable Energy,
Federal University of Paraíba,
João Pessoa, Brazil
Email: luiz@cear.ufpb.br

Copyright © 2019 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

236 M. Carvalho et al.

Abstract: Brazil indicated a commitment of reducing greenhouse gas

emissions at the Paris Conference in 2015, which has led the Brazilian
government to incentivise the use of renewable energy sources. Biomass is a
renewable energy source that can be used to produce electricity, with its
availability mainly connected to the sugar and alcohol sector in Brazil. The
study presented herein applied the life cycle assessment methodology to the
generation of electricity from sugarcane bagasse and from diesel in
thermoelectric power plants, and verified the potential to mitigate climate
change. The production of electricity from sugarcane bagasse presented a low
carbon footprint (0.227 kg CO2-eq/kWh), much lower than the diesel
thermoelectric process (1.060 kg CO2-eq/kWh). Considering that diesel-based
electricity could be substituted by bioelectricity, the result would be overall
avoided emissions of –0.833 kg CO2-eq/kWh. The progressive use of sugarcane
bagasse as a source of electricity presents therefore the potential to help
mitigate climate change, being part of a wider scheme for the substitution of
fuels.

Keywords: sugarcane bagasse; electricity; bioenergy; life cycle assessment;

carbon footprint.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Carvalho, M.,

da Silva Segundo, V.B., de Medeiros, M.G., dos Santos, N.A. and Coelho Jr.,
L.M. (2019) ‘Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from
sugarcane bagasse in a sugar and ethanol industry’, Int. J. Global Warming,
Vol. 17, No. 3, pp.235–251.

Biographical notes: Monica Carvalho is a Professor at the Department of

Renewable Energy Engineering, at the Federal University of Paraíba, Brazil.
She holds a BEng in Electrical Engineering (UFCG, Brazil), an MSc in
Mechanical Engineering (UFPB, Brazil), a Diploma of Advanced Studies in
Climatisation and Energy Efficiency for Buildings (University of Zaragoza),
and PhD in Mechanical Engineering (University of Zaragoza). Her PhD thesis
received the European doctorate mention. She received a Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Industrial R&D Fellowship
Award. She is also an Adjunct Professor at the Mining Engineering Department
at the Laurentian University (Canada).

Valdir Bernardino da Silva Segundo holds a degree in Sugar and Alcohol

Production from the Federal University of Paraíba (2013). He has experience in
the area of supervision of the production stages of sugar production and quality
control of the same, applied thermoenergy balances to evaluate the efficiency in
the use of biomass of the process from the production of steam in the boilers.
He is currently a CAPES scholarship holder, working with rapid pyrolysis for
the production of biofuels.

Mariane Gama de Medeiros obtained her Master’s in Renewable Energies at

the UFPB (Federal University of Paraíba). She has a degree in Environmental
Engineering at the FPB (International School of Paraíba) and Interior Design
by the IFPB (Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of
Paraíba). She has experience in environmental projects and as a teacher in both
undergraduate areas.

Nataly Albuquerque dos Santos holds a PhD in Chemistry from the UFPB
(2012). She is currently an Assistant Professor I of the Food Technology course
at UFPB and a Researcher at the UFPB Development Institute of Paraíba
(IDEP-UFPB) and coordinator of the Biofuels Processing and Technology
Laboratory. She participates in the Graduate Program in Chemistry and the
 Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse 237

Development and Environment Program (PRODEMA). She has experience in

the field of chemistry, working mainly on the following topics: antioxidants for
food and biofuels, aviation bio-kerosene, biodiesel, bioethanol, fuel quality
control, petroleum refining, environmental impacts of oil industry, air quality
monitoring, chemical kinetics, rheology, thermal analysis and quality
management (ISO/IEC 17.025).

Luiz Moreira Coelho Junior holds a degree in Economics (2001) from the Vila
Velha University, a Master’s degree (2004) and a PhD (2010) in Forestry
Engineering from the Universidade Federal de Lavras. He has experience in
economics, with emphasis in applied economics, working mainly in the
following subjects: economics and forestry planning, production systems for
family agriculture and sustainable development. He is currently an Associate
Professor of the Department of Renewable Energy Engineering at the Centre
for Alternative and Renewable Energies at the Federal University of Paraíba
(UFPB).

1 Introduction

In 2016, 43.5% of the domestic Brazilian supply of energy was provided from renewable
sources, while the world average was only 14.2% (Brazilian Ministry of Mines and
Energy, 2017). The average global share of renewable energy sources in electricity
generation was 23.6%, while in Brazil renewables accounted for 81.7% of the electricity
consumed in 2016 (Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2017). Although the overall
national scenario is favourable, including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that are much
lower than the world average (Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2017;
International Energy Agency, 2017), some Brazilian states present different realities.
In the state of Paraíba (Northeast Brazil), a large share of electricity is produced by
thermoelectric fossil-fuel power plants that were installed to compensate for energy
deficits (Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2017; Delgado, 2015). Paraíba counts
with a thermoelectric fossil-fuel power plant that, in 2010 (at the end of its construction),
was considered the largest in the world (diesel engines); at the time of writing, the power
plant is the third largest in installed capacity (Ebrasil Energy, 2018).
The Brazilian Thermoelectricity Priority Program, established by Decree No.
3.371/2000 (Brazil Decree. No 3.371, 2000), aimed at introducing fossil fuel-based
thermoelectricity into the Brazilian electricity matrix. However, this has not occurred in
an organised manner, with several issues that persist until now (Soares et al., 2016).
There are high indices of atmospheric pollution associated with thermoelectric fossil-fuel
power plants, and in Brazil, the electricity generated is expensive due to the fuels utilised
(Guttikunda and Jawahar, 2014). The ‘gas for growth’ program launched by the Brazilian
government is trying to benefit from the pre-salt1 production by operating some
thermoelectric power stations without interruptions, which is also a consequence of the
progressive increase in the number of wind farms and run-of-the-river hydropower plants
(intermittent)2 (Brazilian Petroleum, Natural gas and Biofuels Institute, 2017).
Although not mandatory, Brazil indicated a commitment of reducing GHG emissions
at the Paris Conference in 2015, which along with the aforementioned fossil fuel-related
increased generation costs, has led the Brazilian government to incentivise the use of
238 M. Carvalho et al.

renewable energy sources (Mendes and Sthel, 2017). Although the cost reductions
associated with fuel substitution in thermoelectric power plants are site-dependent (Eser
et al., 2016), the utilisation of renewable resources is clearly beneficial from an
environmental viewpoint (Alizadeh et al., 2016).
The availability of biomass resource in Brazil is mainly connected to the sugar and
alcohol sector, and sugarcane bagasse presents the greatest potential for use in the short
and medium terms (Delgado et al., 2018). Sugarcane bagasse is the third largest source of
electricity generated in Brazil and was responsible for the generation of 35.2 TWh in
20163 (Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy, 2017). Among the benefits associated
with electricity generated from sugarcane bagasse (bioelectricity), low environmental
impacts can be mentioned, along with the possibilities of obtaining carbon credits, and
the fact that it is complementary to hydroelectricity (the sugarcane harvesting period,
when most biomass is available, coincides with the dry season).
Paraíba is one of the most traditional states for sugarcane culture, which is of great
social and economic importance as a source of income for the population (Arias and
Caballero, 2015). Due to the presence of eight sugar and ethanol production plants in
Paraíba, there is a considerable production of bagasse, which could be utilised to improve
electricity production in the state, replicating the successful experience of Mauritius to
other sugarcane producing countries (Deepchand, 2015).
Sugarcane bagasse cogeneration technology could attract funds from international
agencies (e.g., Global Environment Fund, Prototype Carbon Fund, activities implemented
under the Kyoto Protocol, Deepchand, 2015). The generation of bioelectricity presents
strategic potential in the expansion of the Brazilian electrical power system (Sousa and
Macedo, 2010). Bioelectricity is highly complementary to hydroelectricity (providing
electricity during the driest months and avoiding the need to use fossil fuel thermoelectric
power plants as a backup), can be distributed close to the consumer centres, and offers
significant socio-economic and environmental benefits (Sousa and Macedo, 2010).
The generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse is fully automated and can be
easily inserted into the production lines of sugarcane mills (Silva Segundo and Jaguaribe,
2015; Dias et al., 2009; Cardona et al., 2010). Sugarcane, after being harvested,
repeatedly passes through mills that extract syrup until only the bagasse is left. The
bagasse can be fed to boilers, producing high-pressures team, which is utilised to drive
generators, producing electricity. The water used in the steam-generating process is
mostly originated from evaporation and cooking processes, where steam is required and a
high amount of condensed water is obtained (Silva Segundo and Jaguaribe, 2015).
The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology has been developed and improved to
promote tangible assessments of environmental performance (Carvalho et al., 2011, 2012,
2016b; Lozano et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2017; Abrahão et al., 2017). Specific studies have
been carried out to evaluate the generation of electricity from sugarcane bagasse: Maués
(2008) evaluated the maximisation of electricity generation from bagasse and straw in a
sugar and ethanol mill, and Mandaloufas (2010) evaluated the use of sugarcane bagasse
as an energy source according to the guidelines of clean development. Mayer et al. (2016)
carried out an environmental analysis of a small-scale bioethanol production, and Silva
et al. (2014) identified and quantified the main potential environmental impacts of the
sugarcane bagasse electricity generation in Brazil, also presenting an overview of LCA
studies of sugarcane products – ethanol, sugar and electricity – published between 2009
and 2013.
 Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse 239

The objectives of the work presented herein are to:

1 determine the carbon footprints associated with the generation of electricity from
sugarcane bagasse and from diesel in thermoelectric power plants
2 verify and quantify the potential to mitigate climate change.

2 Methodology

2.1 Life cycle assessment

LCA is an internationally recognised methodology for the quantification of potential
environmental impacts associated with a product, process or service. LCA is also referred
to as cradle-to-grave analysis, as it can encompass the extraction of raw materials,
manufacturing, processing, use, maintenance/repair, and final disposal scenario.
Changing the boundaries of the analysis can generate, for example, cradle-to-gate4 or
gate-to-gate5 analysis. The development of a LCA focuses on four interconnected steps
(Guinée, 2001, 2002; International Organization for Standardization, 2006a, 2006b):
Step 1 Definition of objectives and scope: defines and describes the product, process or
activity. This step establishes the context in which the assessment occurs and
identifies the environmental limits and effects to be reviewed during the
evaluation.
Step 2 Inventory analysis: identifies and quantifies the energy, water and materials
used and environmental discharges involved (e.g., emissions to air, deposition of
solid waste, and discharges of liquid effluents).
Step 3 Impact analysis: analyses the human and ecological effects of the use of energy,
water, and materials and of the environmental discharges identified during the
inventory analysis.
Step 4 Interpretation: evaluates the results of the inventory analysis and impact
analysis to select the preferred product, process, or service to be used with a
clear understanding of the uncertainties and assumptions used to generate the
results.
This study evaluated electricity generation processes using sugarcane bagasse and diesel
fuel in thermoelectric power plants. The objective was to determine the carbon footprint
for each process, for posterior comparison. Also, potential avoided emissions were
quantified. The functional unit, to which all inputs and outputs relate to, was the
generation of 1 kWh of electricity (via sugarcane bagasse and then diesel, in
thermoelectric power plants). Subsequently, emissions were extrapolated for the surplus
(18,500 t) sugarcane bagasse produced during crop year 2013/2014 in the Paraíba state.
SimaPro® software 8.4.0.0 (PréConsultants, 2015) was utilised herein for the LCA,
as the software includes numerous databases, with thousands of inventories for different
processes and types of energy sources. SimaPro follows the recommendations of the
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) (International Organization for
Standardization, 2006a, 2006b), which in Brazil correspond to Brazilian Association of
Technical Standards (2014a, 2014b). The database used was Ecoinvent 3 (2015).
240 M. Carvalho et al.

According to Carvalho and Delgado (2017), the use of the carbon footprint has
become popular and is now widely disseminated in the media; as climate change is both a
political and corporate priority, carbon footprint calculations are required. Because the
carbon footprint is closely related to energy use and the public interest in climate change
is extreme compared to other environmental problems, this indicator is appropriate for
communicating the results of environmental studies and has received pronounced
visibility due to its popularity.
The carbon footprint is an internationally standardised indicator that groups GHG
emissions during the life cycle phases of a good, service, or activity according to the
Kyoto Protocol and the principles of life cycle thinking (Rugani et al., 2013). The carbon
footprint was calculated herein using the environmental impact assessment method
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change-IPCC Report Climate Change, 2013).

2.2 Electricity via sugarcane bagasse

A case study was carried out at a company of the sugar and ethanol sector, focused on the
production of granulated and very high polarisation6 sugar in the municipality of Santa
Rita, Paraíba (Northeast Brazil). The company has 400 employees, with an average
sugarcane milling rate of 170 tonnes per hour. This represents more than 700,000 t of
sugarcane crushed at the end of harvest (production of approximately 1,000,000 50 kg
bags of sugar).
The chemical and physical characteristics of the sugarcane bagasse considered herein
are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The chemical composition is utilised to determine the
amount of fibre in the bagasse, while the chemical composition enables the energy
evaluation of bagasse as a fuel, providing the heating value.
In the electricity generation process that utilised sugarcane bagasse, an adaptation was
implemented regarding the moisture content of the bagasse7, in accordance to Tables 1
and 2. Calculations involving the thermoelectric power plant did not require adaptations.
Table 1 Properties and physical composition of the sugarcane bagasse

Moisture content (w) 50%

Impurities and dissolved solids (D) 2%
Sugar content (s) 3%
Residual purity of syrup (φ) 75.18%
B (Percentage of obtained bagasse) 13%
Bagasse temperature at boiler inlet 32ºC
Specific heat capacity of air cp (kJ∕kg °C) 1,795

The process for electricity generation from sugarcane bagasse includes the infrastructure,
the bagasse input, the emissions to air and the disposal of the ashes, as well as substances
required for operation: lubricating oil, ammonia, organic chemicals, sodium chloride,
chlorine and decarbonised water. Emissions of CO2 and CO are based on carbon content
of bagasse. Electricity and heat generation are based on lower heating value of bagasse
(15.4 MJ/kg dry matter) and efficiency of the cogeneration unit8 (8%).
 Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse 241

Table 2 Chemical composition of the sugarcane bagasse

C 46%
H 6%
O 44%
Ashes (ε) 4%

Brazilian sugarcane production includes country-specific average land use change

emissions according to the direct land use change assessment tool (Blonk consultants,
2016). Emissions depended on the relative crop expansion in Brazil during the last 20
years and the corresponding Brazilian land transformations. The results utilised were
based on the average FAOSTAT data (harvested area) of 2009–2011 and 1989–1991
(Ecoinvent, 2015). The weighted average was used, which takes into account relative
difference in crop expansion into primary forest, secondary forest, grassland, perennial
and annual land. Sugarcane yield was considered 66,300 kg/ha at a moisture content at
storage of 71.4%. Sugarcane production was assumed at a plantation with a five-year
lifetime and represents the average operation expenditures of the production of 1 kg of
sugar cane averaged across the whole lifetime including establishment, operation and
clearing of the plantation. The inputs of seeds, mineral fertilisers, still age as a fertiliser
and pesticides were also considered. The dataset includes all machine operations and
corresponding machine infrastructure and sheds. 20% mechanical harvest and 80%
manual harvest was considered (Brazilian national averages). Machine operations include
soil cultivation, sowing, fertilisation, weed control, pest and pathogen control,
combine-harvest transport from field to farm (1 km). Further, direct field emissions are
included.

2.3 Electricity via diesel

This process represents the production of high voltage electricity at a Brazilian diesel
power plant with a capacity of 500 MW. Emissions were estimated based on the diesel
type S, European quality. Weighting was carried out for electricity production data in
Brazil based on IEA/OECD 2010 (Ecoinvent, 2015; IEA/OECD, 2010). The weighted
averages were taken as global values and then scaled with a factor derived from the
comparison of the global average efficiency and the efficiency valid for this dataset to
account for the corresponding fuel input for the production of 1 kWh.
The process for diesel included distribution to the power plant, including all
necessary transportation, operation of storage tanks and emissions from evaporation and
treatment of effluents. Includes also all processes on the refinery site, excluding the
emissions from combustion facilities, including wastewater treatment, process emissions
and direct discharges to rivers. The impacts of extraction and processing were allocated
to the different products of the refinery: petrol, unleaded, bitumen, diesel, light diesel,
heavy fuel oil, kerosene, naphtha, propane/butane, refinery gas, secondary sulphur and
electricity.
The electricity generation process includes CO2 emissions for combustion and flue
gas treatment. Sulphur content of the diesel was not adapted to local/average conditions.
This dataset includes all energy use, use of chemicals, emissions to air and water
242 M. Carvalho et al.

including treatment of flue gasses and effluents. In a diesel power plant, water is needed
for cooling, feed water for the steam circuit, for the flue gas treatment, or other cleaning.
This dataset only considers water use (evaporation) for cooling and steam circuit.
Boundaries of processes are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Boundaries of the processes for electricity generation, (a) via sugarcane bagasse and
(b) via diesel

3 Results and discussion

Due to the adaptations required for the sugarcane bagasse process (Tables 1 and 2), 5.03
kg of sugarcane was required to produce 1 kWh of electricity (the default amount was
3.10 kg). After all considerations were introduced into the SimaPro software
(Préconsultants, 2015), utilising the Ecoinvent database (2015) and Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change-IPCC Report Climate Change (2013), the result shown in
Figure 2 was obtained, corresponding to 0.227 kg CO2-eq/kWh for electricity generation
via sugarcane bagasse.
Figure 2 is a Sankey diagram, where the thickness of the connecting ribbons is
proportional to the environmental impact. Due to the complexity of these diagrams,
Figure 2 has a cut-off point at 2%. Although all processes were included in the
calculations, graphical representation (for the sake of clarity) only represents processes
that contribute with at least 2% to the final overall emissions.
A more detailed investigation of the process of electricity generation via sugarcane
bagasse revealed that the processes responsible for the majority of emissions were related
to the production of sugarcane itself (0.0889 kg CO2-eq + 0.105 kg CO2-eq, equivalent to
85.4% of overall emissions). Transportation with diesel powered vehicles only
contributed with 9.31% of the emissions, and the remainder was associated with the
electricity production process itself (infrastructure, operation).
 Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse 243

Figure 2 Carbon footprint of the electricity production process via sugarcane bagasse (see online
version for colours)

Further inspection of Figure 2 shows that the main contributors to the carbon footprint
associated with the production of sugarcane were nitrogen fertilisation and irrigation. The
irrigation process utilised herein was modelled for Brazilian settings, and includes the
processes of water extraction from the environment – pumping, machine infrastructure
and a shed for machine sheltering. The activity ends when the water is being redistributed
as irrigation on the field. García et al. (2016) also verified that the carbon footprint value
of sugarcane was particularly sensitive to nitrogen fertilisation, nitrous oxide emissions
from the soil and sugarcane yields.
For the electricity production via diesel, Figure 3 shows the Sankey diagram for its
carbon emissions, with a 1.15% cut-off (for visual purposes only), showing that 1.06 kg
CO2-eq are emitted per kWh generated. When generating electricity via diesel, the
combustion of diesel (and its significant consequent atmospheric emissions) was
associated with the majority of the carbon footprint. The operation of oil refineries
contributes with only 0.124 kg CO2-eq. which is equivalent to approximately 11.7% of
the overall carbon emissions.
Considering that the available bagasse at the studied sugarcane mill was 18,500 t per
harvest, therefore 3,678 MWh electricity could be produced annually. According to
Fedrigo et al. (2009), the mean Brazilian electricity consumption per household (middle
class income) is 152.2 kWh/month. Thus, two thousand households could be supplied
with the bioelectricity produced with sugarcane bagasse surplus, considering only the
annual bagasse surplus of one power plant.
244 M. Carvalho et al.

Figure 3 Carbon footprint of the electricity production process via diesel (see online version
for colours)

A comprehensive review on the sustainability of sugarcane production in Brazil was

presented by Bordonal et al. (2018), who mention that the reality of rapidly expanding
sugarcane crops across south-central Brazil raises concerns regarding land use change, in
which the agricultural land use type converted into sugarcane plantation is displaced
elsewhere. Regarding the land requirements for growing sugarcane, an estimation of
marginal agricultural land for biofuel production in Africa, China, Europe, India, South
America, and the continental USA was presented by Cai et al. (2010). More specific data
were found in Bordonal et al. (2018), where the low national Brazilian average yield of
72 t/ha was compared against the attainable yield of 148 t/ ha presented by
Carvalho-Netto et al. (2014). Considering the average Brazilian yield (72 t/ha) and that
herein 5.03 kg of sugarcane were required to produce the bagasse that generated 1 kWh
of electricity, then one hectare of cultivated sugarcane can produce approximately 14
MWh of electricity, considering that all bagasse is dedicated to the production of
electricity. Bordonal et al. (2018) conclude that there is considerable potential for
improvement of the efficiency of agricultural management in sugarcane production (e.g.,
closing the yield gaps and decreasing inputs of synthetic fertilisers).
The concept of avoided carbon footprint emerges when part of the electricity
generated in a thermoelectric fossil-fuel power plant was replaced by electricity from
sugarcane bagasse. Considering that bioelectricity would be used as a substitute for
electricity produced by diesel thermoelectric power plants in Paraíba, 0.833 kg
CO2-eq/kWh would therefore be avoided. If all excess bagasse of the sugarcane mill was
directed to the production of electricity by cogeneration, approximately 3,137 t
 Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse 245

CO2-eqwould not be released into the atmosphere, resulting in great environmental

benefits.
As aforementioned, the state of Paraíba counts with eight sugar and ethanol mills. For
the 2016/2017 harvest, the sugarcane mill studied herein processed 722 Mt of sugarcane.
The other seven mills processed, combined, approximately 3,900 Mt during the same
period. Considering that the sugarcane mill herein analysed presented 18,500 t surplus
bagasse per harvest, the overall surplus bagasse for the entire state could be as high as
100 Mt, which could, in turn, be converted into 20 GWh of bioelectricity (able to power
10,000 average households in Brazil).
Regarding energy efficiency and the management of bagasse and straw from
sugarcane, Maués (2008) analysed the energy balance of a sugar and ethanol plant and
observed that a large amount of bagasse could be used for energy generation, with
positive economic and environmental benefits. The biomass used in the boilers presented
the same moisture content as the bagasse considered herein (50%); thus, if the surplus
bagasse (99,000 t) at the plant studied by Maués (2008) was directed to the production of
electricity, 19,682 MWh would be obtained (cogeneration using the same processes
established herein).
The most recent publication of the sugar and ethanol sector profile in Brazil
(2012/2013 crop edition) (CONAB, 2017) indicated a total production of sugarcane
bagasse of approximately 165 Mtin Brazil, confirming the potential for electricity
generation and, more importantly, climate change mitigation. More than 31 TWh of
bioelectricity could be generated, leading to avoided emissions of approximately 27 Mt
CO2-eq.
Brazil could increase biomass electricity generation by 100%, to 10%–15% of its
overall energy mix, by better leveraging its sugarcane bagasse resources (CONAB,
2017). Although the increase in bioelectricity generation by sugar and ethanol companies
was not impressive in 2015, with 6.8% cumulative growth in comparison with 2014, the
sector is progressively more important in the realisation of economic benefits (Renewable
Energy World Editors. 2013). Estimates indicate that cogeneration with sugarcane
bagasse could represent 8%–10% of the total income of companies, offering better profit
margins than sugar or ethanol (Renewable Energy World Editors, 2013).
In the light of the projections made herein, other sectors and applications have also
benefited from LCA studies. Regarding transportation, the study of Lechon et al. (2009)
assessed GHG emissions in the production and use of biofuels in Spain considering
different crop production alternatives, but only considered the transportation sector. The
transportation sector was also the focus of McKellar et al. (2009), who established the life
cycle GHG gas emissions associated with the production and use of transportation fuels
from conventional and unconventional fossil fuel sources in Canada and the USA
(reformulated gasoline and low sulphur diesel produced from oil sands, oil shale, coal
and natural gas, as well as reference pathways from conventional crude oil). Still in the
transportation sector, mitigation of climate change through oil palm cultivation was the
focus of Foong-Kheong et al. (2010). These authors concluded that, as a biofuel, the use
of palm biodiesel resulted in 62%–82% less GHG emissions throughout its life cycle,
when compared with fossil fuel. The life cycle GHG emissions from the production and
use of Palm Methyl Ester were found to be 79.5% less than diesel in Thailand (Pleanjai et
al., 2009). And finally, an evaluation of environmental impacts and gaseous emissions of
biodiesel fuels and blends of selected feed-stocks was presented by Igbum et al. (2014). It
246 M. Carvalho et al.

would be interesting to reproduce in Brazilian settings the study of Su and Tso (2011),
who discussed several aspects of overseas biofuel efforts, policy and strategies, and
analysed energy balances, GHG and production costs as references for Taiwan’s national
biofuel industry policy.
In the construction sector, Dossche et al. (2017) carried out a critical review on the
use of LCA in the construction sector, concluding that the importance of LCA in this
sector is ever-increasing, helping establish sustainability aspects for construction works.
In most industries worldwide there is an increasing focus on the environmental, social
and economic sustainability credentials of companies and products, which has led to an
increase in the application of life cycle thinking (economic, environmental and social
consequences of an activity throughout its entire life cycle) (Forest Products Association
of Canada, 2010; Carvalho et al., 2016a; Freire et al., 2016),
Minimisation of sugarcane production-related impacts would further decrease the
carbon footprint of the electricity generated by its bagasse. Strategies can include
(Bordonal et al., 2018): green mechanised harvesting and tillage practices, lower
dependency on synthetic N fertiliser, and vinasse fertirrigation.9 The optimisation of
power generation from bagasse and sugarcane waste in a Brazilian sugar and alcohol mill
was discussed by Maués (2008), where it was verified that improvements in power
production based on an installed upgrade of a thermo power bagasse plant in the South of
Brazil could almost double the final output electricity capacity.
As mentioned by García et al. (2016), more research on techniques for the
improvement of sugarcane yield, optimisation of fertiliser use, minimisation of sugarcane
burning and development of efficient cogeneration in sugar mills with bagasse is
scientifically relevant. Sugarcane bagasse can help Brazil overcome energy-related
issues, with several positive aspects, such as:
1 meeting the new energy demands for electricity with a renewable resource
2 bioelectricity generation that coincides with the sugarcane harvest (low
hydroelectricity production)
3 increased competitiveness, with the realisation of profit from the utilisation of a
residual product.
Adoption of the concepts herein explored, along with those provided by Maués (2008)
could add more GW power to the Brazilian power production capacity, at competitive
costs and low installation and operation risks, but also with lower associated
environmental loads.

4 Conclusions

International treaties and national targets (mandatory or not) aim at reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and mitigating climate change and its associated effects. The electricity
sector can help in meeting these (progressively) stringent limits.
As no electricity generation technology is carbon-free, it is important to quantify the
carbon footprint for different technologies/resources to analyse the current (and future)
carbon footprint, how do carbon footprints compare. Regarding biomass, transportation
and irrigation contributes significantly, as well as fertilisers and harvesting. Differences
in energy and density produce different carbon footprints. Fossil-fuelled electricity
 Carbon footprint of the generation of bioelectricity from sugarcane bagasse 247

generation has a high carbon footprint, with most emissions produced during plant
operation (combustion of fuel).
The production of electricity from sugarcane bagasse resulted in a low carbon
footprint, much lower than what was obtained from diesel. Considering that bioelectricity
would substitute diesel-based thermoelectricity, there was a high carbon footprint
avoided. It was demonstrated that even small contributions have the potential to produce
environmental improvements and contribute to sustainability.
Sugar and ethanol companies already generate surplus electricity, which in specific
cases is sold to electricity concessionaires. However, electricity generation at these plants
could be greatly improved by the use of more efficient energy conversion systems and by
recovering some of the waste produced during sugarcane processing (better usage of
straw and leaves). This would provide more biomass for boilers. However, the collection
of sugarcane waste requires improved agricultural procedures; some Sugar and ethanol
companies already follow this practice and thereby are examples for the industry.
Future carbon footprints associated with electricity generation can be reduced if
carbon-intensive life cycle phases are fuelled by low carbon energy sources.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the National Council for Scientific and Technological
Development (Brazil), Productivity grant nº 303199/2015-6.

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Notes
1 Brazil’s ‘pre-salt’ reservoir is a layer of oil-bearing rock of carbonate composition, positioned
under a thick layer of salt, and its development holds great potential for the petroleum industry
and for Brazil (Estrella, 2011). Until 2006, Brazil was not self-sufficient in oil, but now
foresees the possibility of becoming an exporter of oil and oil products. In 2007, the discovery
of oil and natural gas in the so-called ‘pre-salt layer’ (extending from the coast of Espírito
Santo to Santa Catarina), revealed the immense potential reserves (Magalhães and Domingues,
2014). According to Magalhães and Domingues (2014), the pre-salt could put the country at
the level of reserves in Iraq.
2 In recent years of unfavourable hydrology, approximately 100 × 106 Nm3 of gas (half of the
national consumption) has already been directed to thermoelectric power generation.
3 Of which 21.1 TWh were exported to the market and 14.1 TWh were consumed by the sugar
and ethanol industry itself.
4 Raw materials to finished good (no use or end life considerations).
5 Receiving to shipping gate.
6 VHP sugar has high sucrose content and its light brown sugar crystals are more easily refined
into white sugar, in comparison with other raw sugars (S & P Global Platts, 2017).
7 Originally 21.3%.
8 Lifetime considered was 80 years, with capacity utilisation rate 0.85.
9 The application of vinasse in sugarcane fields is the least expensive and the simplest solution
with several benefits: increase in sugarcane yields, improvement in soil quality, increase in
soil inputs of carbon and nitrogen reduction of fresh water used in full and salvage irrigation,
and decrease in synthetic fertilisers use.

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