VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELGAVI-590018, KARNATAKA

A SEMINAR REPORT ON

“PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL FROM ALGAE”

For the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree Bachelor of
Engineering in Biotechnology

Submitted by

VINAYASREE.S 4BD14BT027

GUIDE
Dr. B. E. Rangaswamy
Dean, R&D, Professor and Head,
Department of Biotechnology

2017-2018

Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Department of Biotechnology,

Davangere - 577004
 Production of Biodiesel from Algae

Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Department of Biotechnology,

Davangere – 577004

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. Vinayasree.S., bearing USN 4BD14BT027, has

satisfactorily completed seminar work entitled as “Production of Biodiesel
from Algae” and submitted the report for the academic year 2017-2018.

Seminar guide Head of the department

(Dr. B. E. Rangaswamy) (Dr. B. E. Rangaswamy)

Dean, R&D, Professor and Head, Dean, R&D, Professor and Head,
Department of Biotechnology Department of Biotechnology

Date: 3 - 04 - 2018

Place: Davangere

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 Production of Biodiesel from Algae

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible, whose constant guidance
and encouragement crowned the efforts with success.

I would like to thank our beloved Principal, Dr. S. Subrahmanya Swamy, and the Director of
this Institute, Prof. Y. Vrushabhendrappa, for giving me the opportunity and guidance to
work for the seminar.

I sincerely express my profound gratitude and appreciation to my seminar guide

Dr. B. E. Rangaswamy, Prof. and Head, Department of Biotechnology, for his constant
support and guidance throughout the Seminar work.

I would also like to thank the seminar coordinators Mrs. Shruthi S.R, Assistant professor,
and Mr. Vasudeva Nayaka K.B.L, Assistant professor, Department of Biotechnology,
B.I.E.T, for their encouragement, support and invaluable suggestions and help during the
course of the seminar.

I would like to thank the teaching and non-teaching staff of the department, my parents and
my friends for their support in completing the seminar.

Vinayasree.S

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CONTENTS AND INDEX

Sl. No. Title Page No.

1 Abstract 1

2 Introduction 2

3 History of algae as fuel 3

4 Algae 4

5 The process for biofuel production using algae 6-13

6 Characteristics of algae fuel 14

7 Advantages of biodiesel produced from algae 15

8 Disadvantages of biodiesel produced from algae 16

9 Conclusion 17

10 Bibliography 18

ABSTRACT

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The use of energy sources such as fossil fuels has reached at the level that whole world is
relying on it. The fear of diminishing the available sources thirst towards biofuel production
has increased during last decades. Production of algae biofuel from aquatic and terrestial
systems are global emerging strategies for the reduction of the overreliance on fossil fuel
based on its potentials to promote the green environment, which can be a panacea to the
global warming, climate change and other earthly challenges affecting global evolution.
Normally algae have 20% - 80% oil contents that could be converted into different types of
fuels such as kerosene oil and biodiesel. The diesel production from algae is economical and
easy. Gene technology can be used to enhance the production of oil, biodiesel and stability of
algae.

1. INTRODUCTION

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Algae fuel, algal biofuel, or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as
its source of energy-rich oils. Biodiesel has gained much attention in recent years due to its
eco-friendly nature, non-toxic characteristics, biodegradability and lower net carbon cycle
compared to conventional diesel fuels.

Energy crisis is among the biggest problems, leading the world to be unsafe and non-
peaceful. The demand is increasing day by day. The available resources are rapidly
decreasing and indication is soon will be vanished. In such situations, more attention is
needed to be given towards renewable energy sources. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from
the transport sector is contributing a major portion to the environmental pollution and global
warming. The cost of crude oil will continue to rise due to diminishing supply, so
production of fuels from alternate sources will be needed in the future decades. In this
scenario, biodiesel is the best alternative fuel due to its non-toxic nature.

Biodiesel form oil seeds/animals has higher raw material cost and has disadvantage of
poor performance in cold weather as their polyunsaturated fatty acids tends to decrease the
stability. Therefore microbial oils, produced by various micro organisms like bacillus, fungi,
yeast and algae considered as the potential feedstock for biodiesel production because of high
lipid content mainly as triglyceride (>80%), with a fatty acid profile rich in C16 and C18 and
algal oils have low melting point of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The biodiesel produced from
these organisms not only have environmental benefits over the fossil fuel, but also
economically competitive with the conventional petro diesel. Some challenges associated
with the production of biodiesel from algae are exploration of efficient techniques for
cultivation and searching for suitable algae strain with fast growth rate and high lipid content.

2. HISTORY OF ALGAE AS FUEL

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The idea of using algae as a source of food, feed and energy goes back more than half a
century. Production of methane gas from algae was proposed in the early 1950s, and received
a big impetus during the energy crisis of the 1970s, when projects were initiated to produce
gaseous fuels (hydrogen and methane). From 1980 to 1996 the US Department of Energy
supported the Aquatic Species Program (ASP), a relatively small effort (about $25 million
over almost 20 years) with the specific goal of producing oil from microalgae.

The ASP researchers worked primarily on growing algae in open ponds, making
significant contributions to our understanding of growing algae for fuel. Thousands of
different species were isolated and tested, the impacts of different nutrient and CO2
concentrations were documented, the engineering challenges of mass-producing algae
addressed, and a solid foundation of algae-fuel research built. But in 1995, faced with
financial constraints and cheap oil, the DOE made the decision to terminate the program.

In recent years, things have changed. Exploding global demand for transportation
fuels, concerns about “peak oil”, increasing impacts of atmospheric CO 2, the United States
increasing importation of fuel, and the energy security risks that come with that, has fueled a
rebirth in the interest of biofuels in general and algae-based biofuels in particular.

Advances in biotechnology, such as the ability to genetically engineer algae to

produce more oils and convert solar energy more efficiently, have unleashed new possibilities
not feasible during the ASP years. Most of the activity in algae research and commercial
production has been in the United States. With more than 100 start-ups and large
corporations, along with the US Government, investing billions in this new industry, the US
the leader in advancing algae-based fuels. However, now algae biofuels are also being
researched around the world in both developed and developing nations in Europe, Asia, and
elsewhere.

3. ALGAE

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Algae are microorganisms that grow in aquatic environments and use light and carbon
dioxide (CO2) to create biomass. There are two classifications of algae: macroalgae and
microalgae. Macroalgae, which are measured in inches, are the large, multi-cellular algae
often seen growing in ponds. These larger algae can grow in a variety of ways. The largest
multicellular algae are called seaweed; an example is the giant kelp plant, which can be more
than 100 feet long. Microalgae, on the other hand, are measured in micrometers and are tiny,
unicellular algae that normally grow in suspension within a body of water.

Microalgae have long been recognized as potentially good sources for biofuel
production because of their relatively high oil content and rapid biomass production.
Microalgae grow very quickly compared to terrestrial crops; the practice of algal mass culture
can be performed on non-arable lands using non-potable saline water and waste water. Thus,
use of microalgae as an alternative biodiesel feedstock is gaining interest from researchers,
entrepreneurs, and the general public.

3.1. Current Potential for Use as a Biofuel

Algal biomass contains three main components: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids/natural
oils. Because the bulk of the natural oil made by microalgae is in the form of triacylglycerol
(Figure 1), which is the right kind of oil for producing biodiesel, microalgae are the exclusive
focus in the algae-to-biodiesel arena. In addition to biodiesel, microalgae can also be used to
generate energy in several other ways. Some algal species can produce hydrogen gas under
specialized growth conditions. The biomass from algae can also be burned similar to wood or
anaerobically digested to produce methane biogas to generate heat and electricity. Algal
biomass can also be treated by pyrolysis to generate crude bio-oil.

Figure 1:  Molecular structure of triacylglycerols

3.2. Biology and Adaptation

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Microalgae grow quickly and contain high oil content compared with terrestrial crops, which
take a season to grow and only contain a maximum of about 5 percent dry weight of oil. They
commonly double in size every 24 hours. During the peak growth phase, some microalgae
can double every three and one-half hours. Oil content of microalgae is usually between 20
percent and 50 percent (dry weight, Table 1), while some strains can reach as high as 80
percent. This is why microalgae are the focus in the algae-to-biofuel arena.

Table 1:Algae species for alga oil and their typical oil content

Microalga Oil content (% dry weight)

Botryococcus braunii 29–75

Chlorella sp. 28-32

Crypthecodinium cohnii 20

Cylindrotheca sp. 16-37

Nitzschia sp. 45-47

Phaeodactylum tricornutum 20-30

Schizochytrium sp. 50-77

Tetraselmis suecia 15-23

4.THE PROCESS FOR BIOFUEL PRODUCTION USING

ALGAE
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Biodiesel is made through a chemical process called transesterification whereby the glycerin

is separated from the fat or vegetable oil. The process leaves behind two products — methyl
esters (the chemical name for biodiesel) and glycerin (a valuable byproduct usually sold to be
used in soaps and other products).

Algae have oil contents with different compositions depending on the specie types.
Some species were identified that they have good fatty acid values. In the same way, some
algae have more components of fatty acids by their dry masses. Micro algae can grow in
different conditions even in availability of fewer nutrients. They are best to be chosen for
cultivation. The collection of sample needs care so that the whole biofuel contents could be
obtained through careful handling of the instruments. The growth is also affected by different
environmental factors which are not specifically known for every region, so the process needs
careful attention accordingly. The simple method of fatty acids extraction and separation of
biodiesel is the blending method on small or experimental scale. This process consists of
several steps which have been shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: This figure illustrates the general process of biodiesel production from algae
on small scale and for experimental purpose.
It is also necessary to know about the cultivation unit of the algal cultivation, whether
it is good to choose the closed system or open system. The process either batch or continuous
is confirmed depending on the conditions and facilities, including pH, temperature, type of
algal specie and the amount of algal biomass. Harvesting techniques are finalized based on

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the location and conditions. Most favourable harvesting techniques suggested are based on
settling pond or sedimentation tank. Density and moisture adjustment is required during the
whole process of biodiesel production. The drying technique mostly used is spray drying,
drum drying was also suggested. The disruption process through mechanical handlings is
considered the most favourable. The other requirements are the use of solvents such as
hexane and ethanol are required for active process. Ultrasound and microwave-based
extraction methods can also be of benefit if other sources are not available.

4.1. Algae Cultivation

Algae are typically found growing in ponds, waterways, or other wetlands which receive
sunlight and CO2. Growth varies on many factors and can be enhanced for temperature,
sunlight utilization, pH control, fluidmechanics, and more. Man-made production of algae
tends to replicate the natural environments to achieve ideal growth conditions.

Algae production systems can be organized into two distinct categories: open ponds
and enclosed photo bioreactors. Open ponds are simple expanses of water sunken into the
ground with some mechanism to deliver CO2 and nutrients with paddle wheels to mix with
the algal broth. Closed photo bioreactors are a broad category referring to systems that are
bounded and which allow more precise control over growth conditions and resource
management.

4.1.1. Open ponds

Open ponds are the oldest and simplest systems for mass cultivation of microalgae. In this
system, the shallow pond is usually about 1 foot deep; algae are cultured under conditions
identical to their natural environment. The pond is designed in a raceway configuration, in

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which a paddlewheel provides circulation and mixing of the algal cells and nutrients (Figure
3). The raceways are typically made from poured concrete, or they are simply dug into the
earth and lined with plastic to prevent the ground from soaking up the liquid. Baffles in the
channel guide the flow around bends in order to minimize space. The system is often
operated in a continuous mode — that is, the fresh feed containing nutrients including
nitrogen phosphorus and inorganic salts is added in front of the paddle wheel. Algal broth is
harvested behind the paddle wheel after it has circulated through the loop (Figure 3).
Depending on the nutrients required by algal species, a variety of wastewater sources can be
used for the algal culture, such as dairy/swine lagoon effluent and municipal wastewater. For
some marine types of microalgae, seawater or water with high salinity can be used.

Although open ponds cost less to build and operate than enclosed photobioreactors,
this culture system has its intrinsic disadvantages. Since these are open-air systems, they
often experience a lot of water loss due to evaporation. Thus, microalgae growing in an open
pond do not uptake carbon dioxide efficiently, and algal biomass production is limited.
Biomass productivity is also limited by contamination with unwanted algal species as well as
other organisms from feed. In addition, optimal culture conditions are difficult to maintain in
open ponds, and recovering the biomass from such a dilute culture is expensive.

Figure 3: Open pond

4.1.2. Enclosed photobioreactors

Enclosed photobioreactors have been employed to overcome the contamination and

evaporation problems encountered in open ponds. These systems are made of transparent
materials and generally placed outdoors for illumination by natural light. The cultivation
vessels have a large surface area-to-volume ratio.

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The most widely used photobioreactor is a tubular design, which has a number of
clear transparent tubes, usually aligned with the sun rays (Figure 4). The tubes are generally
less than 10 centimeters in diameter to maximize sunlight penetration. The medium broth is
circulated through a pump to the tubes, where it is exposed to light for photosynthesis, and
then back to a reservoir. The algal biomass is prevented from settling by maintaining a highly
turbulent flow within the reactor, using either a mechanical pump or an airlift pump. A
portion of the algae is usually harvested after the solar collection tubes. In this way,
continuous algal culture is possible. In some photobioreactors, the tubes are coiled spirals to
form what is known as a helical tubular photobioreactor, but these sometimes require
artificial illumination, which adds to the production cost. Therefore, this technology is only
used for high-value products, not biodiesel feedstock.

The photosynthesis process generates oxygen. In an open-raceway system, this is not

a problem as the oxygen is simply returned to the atmosphere. However, in the closed
photobioreactor, the oxygen levels will build up until they inhibit and poison the algae. The
culture must periodically be returned to a degassing zone, an area where the algal broth is
bubbled with air to remove the excess oxygen. Also, the algae use carbon dioxide, which can
cause carbon starvation and an increase in pH. Therefore, carbon dioxide must be fed into the
system in order to successfully cultivate the microalgae on a large scale. Photobioreactors
may require cooling during daylight hours, and the temperature must be regulated at night
hours as well. This may be done through heat exchangers, located either in the tubes
themselves or in the degassing column.

The advantages of the enclosed photobioreactors are obvious. They can overcome the
problems of contamination and evaporation encountered in open ponds . The biomass
productivity of photobioreactors can be 13 times greater than that of a traditional raceway
pond, on average. Harvesting of biomass from photobioreactors is less expensive than that
from a raceway pond, since the typical algal biomass is about 30 times as concentrated as the
biomass found in raceways. However, enclosed photobioreactors also have some
disadvantages. For example, the reactors are more expensive and difficult to scale up.
Moreover, light limitation cannot be entirely overcome since light penetration is inversely
proportional to the cell concentration. Attachment of cells to the tube walls may also prevent
light penetration. Although enclosed systems can enhance the biomass concentration, the
growth of microalgae is still suboptimal due to variations in temperature and light intensity.

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Figure 4: Enclosed photobioreactor

4.2. Algae Biofilm.

Biofilm formed by algae can be harvested easily using unit operations like filtering, scraping,
size reduction, and drying. Photoreactors are used to produce high quality algae in either
sessile from or mainly biofilm (attached form). Attached algae have produced more oil than
planktonic form. The reason for high lipid content is due to alteration in the lipid metabolic
pathway of attached algae resulting in change in the membrane fluidity of algae to make them
attached to a substratum. For small-scale as well as large-scale production, the photoreactors
are used wherein natural or synthetic light can be used to grow algae.

4.3. Algae Harvesting and oil extraction

 After growing in open ponds or photobioreactors, the microalgae biomass needs to be

harvested for further processing. The commonly used harvest method is through gravity
settlement, or centrifuge. The oil from the biomass will be removed through solvent
extraction and further processed into biodiesel.

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Production of oil from algae is a straightforward process that consisted of growing the
algae by providing necessary inputs for photosynthesis, harvesting, dewatering, and oil
extraction. Energy in the form of photons is absorbed by the algae cells, which convert the
inorganic compounds of CO2 and water into sugars and oxygen. The sugars are eventually
converted into complex carbohydrates, starches, proteins, and lipids within the algae cells. In
order to extract the valuable lipids, a series of steps must be undertaken to isolate the algae
cells and oil. A diagram of the overall growth and harvesting process is presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Algae growth and harvesting process

The traditional process begins by separating the algae biomass from the water broth in
the dewatering stage using centrifuges, filtration, or flocculation techniques. Centrifuges
collect biomass by spinning the algae-water broth so that water is flung away from the algae
cells. Flocculation involves precipitating algae cells out of solution so that they can be
concentrated and removed easily. Once the algae cells have been collected the oil must be
removed from the cells. The oil can then be processed into biodiesel, jet fuel, ethanol,
synthetic fuels, or other chemicals. Figure 6 explains the overall microalga biomass
transformation processes for biofuel production.

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Figure 6: Principal Microalga biomass transformation process for biofuel production

4.3.1 Liquefaction (Dewatering)

High content of water often exists in microalgae after harvesting which requires a great deal
of energy to remove moisture in the algal cells in the period of pretreatment. Liquefaction has
been developed to produce biofuel directly without the need of drying microalgae. Moreover,
wet microalgae can provide hydrogen for hydrogenolysis.

4.3.2 Transesterification

Biodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification of the vegetable oil, animal fat, or
algal feedstock. There are several methods for carrying out this transesterification reaction
including the collective batch process, supercritical processes, ultrasonic methods, and even
microwave methods.

Chemically, transesterified biodiesel comprises a mix of mono-alkyl esters of long

chain fatty acids.The most conjoint form uses methanol (converted to sodium methoxide) to
produce methyl esters (commonly referred to as fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)) as it is the
cheapest alcohol available; though ethanol can be used to form ethyl ester (commonly
referred to as fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE)), biodiesel and higher alcohols such as
isopropanol and butanol have also been used. Using alcohols of higher molecular weights

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improves the cold flow properties of the resulting ester, at the cost of a less efficient
transesterification reaction. A lipid transesterification production process converts the base
oil to the desired esters. Any free fatty acids (FFAs) in the base oil are either converted to
soap or removed from the process, or they are esterified (yielding more biodiesel) using an
acidic catalyst. After this processing, biodiesel has combustion properties very similar to
those of petroleum diesel and can replace it in most present uses. The methanol used in most
biodiesel production processes is made by fossil fuel inputs.However, there are sources of
renewable methanol synthesized using carbon dioxide or biomass as feedstock,making their
production processes free of fossil fuels.

4.4. Potential Yields

Depending on the culture systems used (opens ponds vs.enclosed photobioreactors),

microalgae production yield is expressed as the amount of biomass per unit of surface area
(for open ponds), or per unit of reactor volume (for enclosed photobioreactors). A typical
open pond can produce 5 to 10 grams of biomass (dry basis) per m 2 of surface area per day,
which translates to 7.4 to 14.8 tons (dry biomass) per acre per year. Some researchers
reported that biomass yield can be as high as 50 g/m2 per day, i.e., 74 ton biomass/m2 per year
in an open pond. For enclosed photobioreactors, the biomass yield can be approximately 2 to
3 gram/L per day, i.e., 0.73-1.05 ton (dry biomass)/m 3 per year. The oil content of the dry
biomass is a highly variable parameter (Table 1), while some strains can reach as high as 80
percent.

5. Characteristics of algae fuel

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1. Algae biodiesel has virtually no sulfur content and it is free of aromatics.

2. Biodiesel has superior lubricating properties, reducing fuel system wear, and increases
the life of fuel injection equipment.

3. Algae biodiesel has more aggressive solvent properties than petro diesel and will
dissolve leftover varnish residue.  Fuel filters should be changed shortly after
introducing biodiesel into systems formerly running on petrodiesel to avoid clogging.

4. Biodiesel has about 5-8 percent less energy density than petrodiesel, but with its
higher combustion efficiency and better lubricity to partially compensate, its overall
fuel efficiency decrease is only about 2 percent.

5. The cloud point, or temperature at which pure (B100) biodiesel starts to gel, is about  
32 0F. A blend of B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% petrodiesel) generally does not gel in cold
weather. Various additives will lower the gel point of B100.

6. Biodiesel's flash point (lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form an

ignitable mixture in air) is 2660F, significantly higher than petrodiesel's 1470F, or
gasoline's 520F.

7. Biodiesel reduces particulate matter by about 47 percent as compared to petroleum

diesel. Biodiesel has less dangerous particulate matter because it reduces the solid
carbon fraction on the particulate matter while increasing the amount of oxygen.

6. Advantages of biodiesel produced from algae

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1. Higher yield and hence hopefully lower cost.

2. The most significant benefit is however in the yield of algal oil, and hence biodiesel.
According to some estimates, the yield (per acre say) of oil, and hence is over 200
times the yield from the best performing plant/vegetable oils. While soybean typically
produces less than 50 gallon of oil per acre and rapeseed generates less than 130
gallon per acre, algae can yield up to 10,000 gallons per acre.

3. Algae can grow practically in every place where there is enough sunshine.

4. Waste water which normally hinders plant growth is very effective in growing algae.
The growth rate of algae is 20-30 times faster than other conventional crops like
Jatropha.

5. The biodiesel production from algae also has the beneficial by-product of
reducing  carbon and NOx emissions from power plants, if the algae are grown using
exhausts from the power plants.

6. Algae produce a lot of polyunsaturates, which may present a stability problem since
higher levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids tend to decrease the stability of biodiesel.
But polyunsaturates also have much lower melting points than monounsaturates or
saturates, thus algal biodiesel should have much better cold weather properties than
many other bio-feedstock. Since one of the disadvantages of biodiesel is their
relatively poor performance in cold temperatures, it appears that algal biodiesel might
score well on this point.

7. Disadvatages of biodiesel produced from algae

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1. The production process of algae biodiesel is expensive.The main reason for the higher
cost is the relatively high upfront capital costs.

2. Need to be grown under controlled temperature conditions. Unlike corn or soybean,

algae can’t just be left to itself, otherwise, the algae will get contaminated and won’t
grow as quickly.

3. Cold flow issues with algae biofuel.

4. Some researcheres using genetic engineering to develop optimal algae strains.

5. Requires phosphorus as fertilizer which is becoming scarce.

6. Fertilizer production is carbon dependent.

7. Not clear yet what the ultimate cost per gallon will be, presently too high.

8. Conclusion

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Microalgae are an ideal biodiesel feedstock, which eventually could replace petroleum-based
fuel due to several advantages, such as high oil content, high rates of production, less land,
etc. Currently, algal biodiesel production is still too expensive to be commercialized. Due to
the static costs associated with oil extraction and biodiesel processing and the variability of
algal biomass production, cost-saving efforts for algal oil production should focus on the
production method of the oil-rich algae itself. This needs to be approached through enhancing
both algal biology (in terms of biomass yield and oil content) and culture-system engineering.
In addition, using all aspects of the microalgae for producing various value-added products
besides the algal fuel, via an integrated biorefinery, is an appealing way to lower the cost of
algal biofuel production. Indeed, microalgae contain a large percentage of oil, with the
remaining parts consisting of large quantities of proteins, carbohydrates, and other nutrien.
This makes the post-oil extraction residue attractive for use as animal feed or in other value-
added products.

10. Bibliography

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1) Ihsanullah, Sumaira Shah, Muhammad Ayaz, Iftikhar Ahmed, Murad Ali,

Naveed Ahmad, Irshad Ahmad. (2014, April 3). Production of Biodiesel
from Algae. JOURNAL OF PURE AND APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY .

2) Michael Hannon, Javier Gimpel, Miller Tran, Beth Rasala, and Stephen
Mayfield. (2010). Biofuels from algae: challenges and potential.

3) Monford Paul Abishek, Jay Patel, and Anand Prem Rajan. (2014, May 5).
Algae Oil: A Sustainable Renewable Fuel of Future.

4) Suliman Khan, Rabeea Siddique, Wasim Sajjad, Ghulam Nabi, Khizar Mian
Hayat. (2017, November 22). Biodiesel Production From Algae to Overcome
the Energy Crisis. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences .

5) Zhiyou Wen, B. S. (2014, January 31). Algae for Biofuel Production.

6) Retrieved from https://algaebiofuel2367.weebly.com/

7) Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_fuel

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