PLLT & TBP Summary

■Chapter 1 Language, Learning and Teaching

◎Schools of thought in second language learning

1. Structural linguistics and Behavioral psychology

- description
- publicly observable performance
- scientific method
- empiricism
- Associative chains/ Associative learning
- Skinner's operant conditioning Theory
- reinforcement

2. Generative linguistics and Cognitive psychology

- aquisition
- innateness, Predisposition, LAD
- biological time table

- interlanguage systematicity
- universal grammar

3. Constructivism
- Long's interaction hypothesis
- sociocultural learning theory
- cooperative learning
- discovery learning
- construction of meaning
- interlanguage variability
■Chapter 2 First Language Acquisition

1. Behavioral approaches
- Operant conditioning : the organism emits a response, or operant, the operant is
maintained by reinforcement(positive verbal and nonverbal response)
c.f. Mediation theory

2. The nativist approach

- Language acquisition device (LAD)
- Universal Grammar
- Systematic stages
- Pivot grammar
c.f. Connectionism, Emergentism, Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model

3. Functional approaches
- Forms, functions
- Cognition and language development
- Social interaction and language development, discourse
◎Issues in First Language Acquisition

1. competence and performance

⦁competence is one's underlying knowledge of a language
⦁performance is overly observable realization of competence

2. comprehension and production

3. nature and nurture

4. universals
⦁ principles : invariable characteristics of human language that apply to all languages
universally, such as verb, negation, and question formation
⦁ parameter : varies across language(SVO order vs SOV order)

5. systematicity and variability

6. language and thought

7. imitation
⦁surface-structure imitation -> meaningful semantic level

8. practice and frequency

9. input

10. discourse
■Methodology Summary

(1) Grammar-Translation Method

A popular method in the first half of the twentieth century which relied on
translation between the target language and the L1 together, usually, with drilling for
learning

(2) Direct method

A method for teaching language that avoids the use of the native tongue, and that
emphasizes listening/speaking over reading/writing.

(3) Reading approach (Reading method)

In foreign language teaching, a programme or method in which reading
comprehension is the main objective. In a reading approach 1) the foreign language
is generally introduced through short passages written with simple vocabulary and
structures 2) comprehension is taught through translation and grammatical analysis
3) if the spoken language is taught, it is generally used to reinforce reading and
limited to the oral reading of texts.

(4) Oral method

A method for teaching the deaf, based on lip-reading and carefully articulated
speech. This method is now less commonly used than the auditory/oral method.

(5) Situational method (situational syllabus)

These syllabuses take the real-life contexts of language uses as their basis: sections
would be headed by names of situations or locations such as "Eating a meal' or 'in
the street'.

(6) Audio-lingual method(approach)

This instructional approach emphasizes the formation of habits through the
repetition, practice, and memorization of sentence pattern in isolation from each
other and from contexts of meaningful use.

Learner mistakes are, in principle, avoided by the limiting of progress to very small,
controlled steps: hence there should be little need for correction. The latter is, in any
case, not useful for learning ; people learn by getting things right in the first place
and having their performance consolidated.
(7) Total-physical response
A language teaching method in which learners listen to instructions in the target
language, and carry out a sequence of physical actions.
Students should understand the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking.
Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicative information.
The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to
spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding
and producing the utterances.

(8) Cognitive method (cognitive code approach)

An approach to second and foreign language teaching which was proposed in the
1960s and which is based on the belief that language learning is a process which
involves active mental processes and not simply the forming of habits. It gives
importance to the learner's active part in the process of using and leaning language,
particulary in the learning of grammatical rules. Although it has not led to any
particular method of language teaching, the communicative approach makes some use
of cognitive code principles.

Cognitive-code learning
It is based on the belief that language learning is a process which involves active
mental processes and not simply the forming of habits. It gives importance to the
learner's active part in the process of using and learning language, particularly in the
learning of grammatical rules.

(9) Silent Way

A somewhat idiosyncratic language teaching method based on the notion that the
teacher should speak as little as possible, and that the learners should develop their
own interior criteria for judging the acceptability of their language.

Learning is facilitated
if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be
learned.
by accompanying physical objects.
by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
(10) CLT(communicative language teaching)
The term communicative language teaching covers a variety of approaches that all
focus on helping learners to communicate meaningfully in a target language. Early
approaches downplayed the importance of grammar, some even advocating the
abandonment of any focus on form. More recent approaches acknowledge the
centrality of grammar [and try and teach learners the relationship between
grammatical form and communicative meaning.

Communicative Approach
Not all mistakes need to be corrected : the main aim of language learning is to
receive and convey meaningful messages, and correction should be focussed on
mistakes that interfere with this aim, not on inaccuracies of usage.

(11) Natural approach (Natural Method)

A term for a number of language-teaching methods which were developed in the
nineteenth century as a reaction to the grammar translation method. NA emphasizes
the use of the spoken language
the use of objects and actions in teaching the meanings of words and structures
the need to make language teaching follow the natural principles of first language
learning.
Ÿ Emphasizes listening and reading as sources of second language acquisition.
Ÿ Encourages a silent period.
Ÿ Uses many means to offer comprehensible input.
Ÿ Allows students respond in any way that shows they are comprehended the input.
Ÿ Grammar is generally taught incidentally.
Ÿ Comprehension(silent period) à Early Speech ProductionàSpeech Emergence

The important principles :

a. as a reaction to the Grammar Translation Method
b. emphasize natural communication rather than formal grammar study
c. tolerant of learners' errors
d. the need to make language teaching follow the natural principles of first language
learning
(12) TBL(Task-Based Learning) An approach where students have to learn language to
complete tasks, rather than just learning language 'because it is there'.
task-based syllabus A syllabus in which the designer has taken a series of tasks
(rather than a set of linguistic items, such as structures and/or functions) as the
point of departure for the design process.

Characteristics:
1. All language teaching consists of tasks, whether these are translation tasks,
structure drill tasks or information gap tasks.
2. A task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on
meaning to attain a goal.
3. According to the definition, a task 'requires learners to use language' : students are
learning the language by using it, as assumed by the CLT.
4. While CLT organizes its tasks and activities around a language
point-teaching a function, a communicative strategy, and so on, TBL denies this : the
language come from the learners themselves, not from the teacher. It is solving the
requirements of the task itself that counts.

(13) CLL(Community Language Learning)

A language teaching method, developed by Charles Curran, based on techniques from
counseling.
Ÿ The goal is to develop the students' potential and to enable them to 'come alive' through L2
learning, not to help them directly to communicate with others outside the group.
Ÿ ____ subordinates language to the self-expression of emotions and ideas.

(14) Suggestopedia
An idiosyncratic method that claims that students can learn prodigious amounts of
language in a short time under the correct relaxation techniques.

(15) Whole-language education

An approach to first language reading and writing instruction that has been extended
to middle and secondary school levels and to the teaching of ESL and that views
language as a "whole" entity. Whole language emphasizes leaning to read and write
naturally with a focus on real communication and is opposed to the idea of teaching
the separate components of language in isolation.
(16) Learner-centered instruction
An approach to instruction that uses information about and from learners in
selecting learning content and procedures. The phrase is also used to describe a
classroom in which learners are required to learn activity, through doing, rather than
through focusing on the teacher.

Characteristics :
1. Focus on learner's needs, styles, and goals
2 Give some control to the students (e.g., groupwork, strategy training)
3. Include the consultation and input of student & don't presuppose objectives in
advance
4. Allow for student creativity and innovation
5. Enhance a student's competence and self-worth
6. Give students a sense of 'ownership' of their learning & add to their intrinsic
motivation

[보충설명]

✜ discovery learning

Discovery Learning, a popular educational trend of the 1960s, advocated less

learning "by being told" and more learning by discovering for oneself various facts
and principles. In this way, students constructed conceptual hierarchies of their own
that were a product of the time they invested. Ausubel's "subsumption" was
enhanced by discovery learning since the cognitive categories were created
meaningfully with less chance of rote learning taking place. Inductive processes were
also encouraged more in discovery-learning methods. The Silent Way capitalized on
such Discovery-Learning procedures. Gattegno believed that learners should develop
independence, autonomy, and responsibility. At the same time, learners in a Silent
Way classroom had to cooperate with each other in the process of solving language
problems. The teacher-a stimulator but not a hand-holder - was silent much of the
time, thus the name of the method. Teachers had to resist their instinct to spell
everything out in black and white, to come to the aid of students at the slightest
downfall; they had go "get out of the way" while students worked out solutions.
✜ Techniques of ALM

Dialogue memorization
Students memorize the dialogue through mimicry. After the dialogue has been
memorized, pairs of individual students might perform the dialogue for the rest of
the class.
Repetition drill
Students are asked to repeat the teacher's model as accurately and as quickly as
possible. This drill is often used to teach the line of the dialog
Chain drill
A chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the
room as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. A chain drill
allows some controlled communication, even though it is limited. A chain drill also
gives the teacher an opportunity to check each student's speech.
Single-slot substitution drill
The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher says a word or
phrase-called the cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them,
substituting the cue into the line its proper place. The major purpose of this drill is
to give the students practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.
Multiple-slot substitution drill
This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the
teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialog
lone.
Transformation drill
The teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern, an affirmative
sentence for example. Students are asked to transform this sentence into a negative
sentence. Other examples of transformations to ask of students are changing a
statement into a question, an active sentence into a passive one, or direct speech
into reported speech.
Use of minimal pairs
The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; for example,
'ship/sheep.' Students are first asked to perceive the difference between the two
words and later to be able to say the two words. The teacher selects the sounds to
work on after she has done a contrastive analysis, a comparison between the
students' native language and the language they are studying.
✜ CLT vs. ALM
Audiolingual Method
structure and form more than meaning.
Demands more memorization of structure-based
dialogs
Language items are not necessarily
contextualized.
learning structure, sounds, or words.
Mastery of "overbearing" is sought.
Drilling is a central technique.
Native-speaker-like pronunciation
Grammatical explanation is avoided.
Communicative activities only come after a
long process of rigid drills and exercise.
The use of the native language is forbidden.
Translation is forbidden at early levels.
Reading and writing are deferred till speech is
mastered.
The target linguistic system will be learned
through the overt teaching or the patterns of
the system.
Linguistic competence
Varieties of language are not emphasized.
The sequence of units is determined soley by
principles of linguistic complexity.
The teacher controls
"Language is habit" so error must be prevented
at all costs.
Accuracy
Students are expected to interact with the
language system, embodied in machines or
controlled materials.
Intrinsic motivation will spring form an interest
in the structure of language.
Communicative Language Teaching
Meaning is paramount.
Dialogs, if used, center around communicative
functions and are not normally memorized.
Contextualization is a basic premise.
Language learning is learning to communicate.
Effective communication is sought.
Drilling may occur, but peripherially.
Comphrehensible pronunciation
Any device which helps the learner is
accepted
Attempts to communicate may be encouraged
from the very beginning.
Judicious use of native language is accepted
Translation may be used
Reading and writing can start from the first
day, if desired.
The target linguistic system will be learned
best through the process of struggling to
communicate
Communicative competence
Linguistic variation is a central concept
Sequencing is determined by any consideration
of content function, or meaning which
maintains interest.
Teacher helps
Language is created by the individual often
through trial and error.
Fluency and acceptable language
Students are expected to interact with other
people, either in the flesh, through pair and
group work, or in their writing.
Intrinsic motivation will spring from an
interest in what is being communicated by the
language.
✱✱ Communicative Approaches

CLT
Ÿ Notional-Functional Syllabus
Ÿ The crucial goal : the ability to use the language appropriately
(rather than the grammatical knowledge or the 'habits')
Ÿ Error correction within conversational contexts.
Ÿ Emphasizes cultural appropriateness.
Ÿ Grammar is taught as needed for communication purposes.

CBI
Ÿ Integrates the learning of some specific subject-matter content with the learning of
a second language.
Ÿ Language is not presented directly, but is introduced via the content of other
subjects.
Ÿ The second language is simply the medium to convey informational content of
interest and relevance to the learner.

TBI
Ÿ There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities.
Ÿ Task completion has some priority.
Ÿ Meaning is primary through interaction in the target language.

A teaching approach based on the use of communicative and interactive tasks. Such
tasks are said to provide an effective basis for language learning since they:
- involve meaningful communicative and interaction
- involve negotiation
- enable the learners to acquire grammar as a result of engaging in authentic
language use

In using tasks in the classroom teachers often make use of a cycle of

activities involving a preparation for a tasks, tasks performance and follow-up
activities that may involve a focus on language form. Task-based language
teaching is an extension of the principles of communicative language teaching
and attempt by its proponents to apply principles of second language learning
to teaching.
WLA(Whole Language Approach)
Ÿ Authentic, personalized, self-directed, collaborative, pluralistic
Ÿ Create meaning / Learn by doing
Ÿ Integration of reading, writing, and other skills.
Ÿ The use of student-producted texts.
Ÿ A focus on real and natural events which relate to the students' experience.

LCI(Learner-Contered Instruction)
Ÿ focus on or account for learners' needs, styles, and goals.
Ÿ allow for student creativity and innovation
Ÿ enhance a student's sense of competence and self worth

Interactive Learning
Ÿ receiving authentic language input in real-world contexts
Ÿ producing language for genuine, meaningful communication
Ÿ practicing oral communication through the give and take and spontaneity of actual
conversations.

Lexical Approach
Ÿ Classroom procedures typically involve the use of activities that draw students'
attention to lexical collocations and seek to enhance their retention and use of
collocations.
Ÿ The building blocks of language learning and communication are not grammar,
functions, notions, or some other unit of planning and teaching but lexis, that is,
words and word combinations.

An approach to language teaching that is based on the view that the basic building
blocks of teaching and learning are words and lexical phrases, rather than grammar,
functions or other units of organization. The lexicon is seen as playing a much more
central role in language organization, language learning, and language teaching than,
for example, grammar, and occupies a more central role in syllabus design, course
content, and teaching activities.
✱✱ Syllabus

Grammatical Syllabus ✜
A list of grammatical structures, such as the present tense, comparison of adjectives,
relative clauses, usually divided into sections graded according to difficulty and/or
importance.

Grammatical (or Structural) syllabus is organized around grammatical items.

Traditionally, grammatical syllabuses have been used as the basis for planning
general courses, particularly for beginning-level learners.
Choice and sequencing of grammatical items in a grammar syllabus reflect not only
the intrinsic ease or difficulty of items but their relationship to other aspects of a
syllabus that may be being developed simultaneously. The syllabus planner is
typically mapping out grammar together with potential lesson content in the form of
topics, skills, and activities, and for this reason grammatical syllabuses often differ
from one course to the next even when targeting the same proficiency level.

Grammatical syllabuses have been criticized on the following grounds:

1. They represent only a partial dimension of language proficiency.

2. They do not reflect the acquisition sequences seen in naturalistic second

language acquisition.

3. They focus on the sentence rather than on longer units of discourse.

4. They focus on form rather than meaning.

5. They do not address communicative skills.

Lexical Syllabus
A list of lexical items with associated collocations and idioms, usually divided into
graded sections. One such syllabus, based on a corpus (a computerized collection of
samples of authentic language) is described in Willis, 1990.

Grammatical-lexical Syllabus
A very common kind of syllabus: both structures and lexis are specified: either
together, in sections that correspond to the units of a course, or in two separate
lists.
Situational Syllabus
These syllabuses take the real-life contexts of language uses as their basis: sections
would be headed by names of situations or locations such as "Eating a meal' or 'in
the street'.

Content-Based Syllabus
Topical or Content-based Syllabus is organized themes, topics, or other units of
content. With a topical syllabus, content rather than grammar, functions, or situations
is the starting point in syllabus design. Content may provide the sole criterion for
organizing the syllabus or a framework for linking a variety of different syllabus
stands together. "It is the teaching of content of information in the language being
learned with little or no direct effort to teach the language separately from the content
being taught." All language course, no matter what kind of syllabus they are based
on, must include some form of content. But with other approaches to syllabus design,
content is incidental and serves merely as the vehicle for practicing language
structures, functions, or skills. In a typical lesson in a grammar-based course, for
example, a structure is selected and then content is chosen to show how the item is
used and to provide a context for practicing the structure,. In a topic-based syllabus,
in contrast, content provides the vehicle for the presentation of language rather than
the other way around. Maximum use is made of content to provide links and
continuity across the skill areas.
Claims made for the advantage of courses based on content-based syllabuses are :
1. They facilitate comprehension.
2. Content makes linguistic form more meaningful.
3. Content serves as the best basis for teaching the skill areas.
4. They address students' needs.
5. They motivate learners.
6. They allow for integration of the four skills.
7. They allow for use of authentic materials.

Topic-Based Syllabus
This is rather like the situational syllabus, except that the headings are broadly
topic-based, including things like 'Food' or 'The family'; these usually indicate a fairly
clear set of vocabulary items, which may be specified.
Functional Syllabus
Functions are things you can do with language, as distinct from notions you can
express: examples are 'identifying', 'denying', 'promising'. Purely functional syllabuses
are rare: usually boh functions and notions are combined.

Task-Based Syllabus ✜
Task-based Syllabus is organized tasks that students will complete in the target
language. A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language such as
'finding a solution to a puzzle', 'reading a map and giving directions,' or 'reading a
set of instructions and assembling a toy.'
"Tasks are activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in task is
evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some
resemblance to real-life language use."
All teaching makes use of tasks of different kinds. A task-based syllabus, however, is
one based on tasks that have been specially designed to facilitate second language
learning and one in which tasks or activities are the basic units of syllabus design.
While carrying out these tasks, learners are said to receive comprehensible input and
modified output, processes believed central to second language acquisition. A number
of second language acquisition theories have proposed tasks as a basis for syllabus
planning.

Long and Crooks (1991) claim that tasks :

"provide a vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target language samples to
learners - input which they will inevitably reshape via application of general cognitive
processing capacities - and for the delivery of comprehension and production
opportunities of negotiable difficulty."

The basic claims made for a task-based syllabus are :

1. Tasks are activities that drive the second language acquisiton process.
2. Grammar teaching is not central with this approach because learners will acquire
grammar as a by-product of carrying out tasks.
3. Tasks are motivating for learners and engage them in meaningful communication.
 SLA Glossary

FLA
The process of learning a native language.
First language acquisition has been studied primarily by linguists, developmental
psychologists, and psycholinguistics. Most explanations of how children learn to speak
understand language involve the influence of both the linguistic input to which children
are exposed in social interaction with their parents and other caregivers and a natural
aptitude for grammar that is unique to humans. However, proponents of universal
grammar and the innatist position, proponents of cognitive psychology and emergentism,
and those who view language acquisition in terms of language socialization disagree
strongly on the relative importance of these factors.

SLA
The psychological and social processes underlying the development of proficiency in a
second language.

Behaviorism
A psychological theory that views all human behavior, including language acquisition, in
terms of the development of sets of habits through processes of stimulus and response.

stimulus The first stage in the conditioning cycle where the subjects is
encouraged/prompted to do something specific in order to get a reward if they give the
correct response.

drill
A technique where the teacher asks students to repeat words and phrases, either in
chorus or individually, and then gets them to practise substituted (but similar) phrases,
still under the teacher's direction.

PPP
A teaching procedure which grew out of structural-situational teaching in which the
teacher presents a situation and the language; the students then practise the new
language (often through drilling) before they go on to produce the language for
themselves, making their own original sentences, etc.

empiricism
The philosophical doctrine that all knowledge comes from experience. This can be
contrasted with rationalism, which holds that knowledge comes from basic concepts
known intuitively through reason, such as innate ideas (➪ innatist hypothesis)
Structural linguistics
An approach to linguistics which stresses the importane of language as a system and
which investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, sentences
have within this system. Structural linguistics, for example, studied the distribution of
sounds within the words of a language; that is, whether certain sounds appear only at
the beginning of wors or also in the middle or at the end. They defined some sounds in
a language as distinctive and used in the identification of words, and some as variants.
Similar studies of distribution and classification were carried out in Morphology and
Syntax.

performance
The way we use language in listening, speaking, reading, writing. Performance is
usually contrasted with competence, which is the knowledge that underlies our ability
to use language. Performance is subject to variations due to inattention or fatigue
whereas competence, at least for the mature native speaker, is more stable.

Nativism
The view that the ability of humans to learn language builds upon an innate faculty of
language which includes innate ideas. Two types of nativism can be identified: special
nativism, which posits that linguistic concepts are part of innate knowledge, and
general nativism, the view that linguistic categories and principles of language are
constructed from biologically determined structured and principles that are not
specifically linguistic in character.

innateness
A theory that human beings are born with mental structures that are designed
specifically for the acquisition of language.

innateness hypothesis
The innateness hypothesis suggests that the ability to acquire language is a facility
unique to the human species.

interlanguage
Refers to uses of English made by learners of English that do not conform to Standard
English patterns and represent learners' unsuccessful attempts to acquire the standard
forms.
acquisition
(1) The mental processes through which individuals develop the ability to understand
and use languages as well as a description of the stages through which they pass in
acquiring a language. (2) Picking up a language subconsciously by using it to
communicate, e.g. immigrants mostly acquire their new language through daily use.

LAD
(Language Acquisition Device, Language Faculry) In generative theory, the view is widely
that humans are innately endowed with a specific faculty or mental module which
provides them with a set of procedures for developong the grammar of their native
language. The term is seldom used nowadays, having been replaced by the concept of
Universal Grammar.

UG(Universal Grammar)
Innate linguistic knowledge which, it is hypothesized, consist of a set of principles
common to all languages. This term is associated with Chomsky's theory of language
acquisition.

Natural Order Hypothesis

A hypothesis that grammatical items will be acquired in a predetermined order that
cannot be changed by formal instruction.

Cognitivist
A research approach that emphasizes how the human mind receives, processes, stores,
and retrieves information in learning and retrieving information. The focus is on internal
learning mechanisms that are believed to be used for learning in general, not just
language learning alone.

competence
Linguist Noam Chomsky used this term to refer to knowledge of language. This is
contrasted with performance, which is the way a person actually uses language -
whether for speaking, listening, reading, or writing. Because we cannot observe
competence directly, we have to infer its nature from performance.

Functional Linguistics
An approach to linguistics which is concerned with language as an instrument of social
interaction rather than as a system of formal rules that is viewed in isolation from their
uses in communication. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates
the way in which he or she acquires language and uses it in order to communicate
with others in his or her social environment.
Constructivism
A philosophical approach to knowledge that argues that knowledge is socially
constructed rather than having its own independent existence.

Social Constructivism
The theory that knowledge is constructed through social interaction with others and
reflects the learner's culture, customs, beliefs as well as the historical, political, social
and other dimensions of the learning context. This theory is sometimes used as a basis
for teaching composition or rhetoric and is an important dimension of critical pedagogy.

ZPD
This term is used in sociocultural theory to explain how participants in a task interact
in order to enable learners to perform functions that they would be incapable of
performing independently. It refers to the learners' potential as opposed to actual level
of development.

scaffolding
The language that an interlocutor uses to support the communicative success of
another speaker. It may include the provision of missing vocabulary or the expansion of
the speaker's incomplete sentence.

discovery activities
They are those where students are shown language and asked to try work out how it
works for themselves rather than being told by the teacher.

comprehensible input
Refers to language that a learner can understand. It may be comprehensible in part
because of gestures, situations, or prior information.

comprehension-based instruction
A general term to describe a variety of second language programmes in which the focus
of instruction is on comprehension rather than production (for example, Total Physical
Response)

intake
Intake is that portion of the input that learners notice and therefore take into
temporary memory. Intake may subsequently be accommodated in the learner's
interlanguage system (ie. become part of long-term memory). However, not all intake is
so accommodated.
input
The targe language that is made available to learners.

Input Hypothesis ✜
The idea that exposure to comprehensible input which contains structures that are
slightly in advance of a learner's current level of competence is the necessary and
sufficient cause of second language acquisition.

output
Language produced by a language learner, either in speech or writing

comprehensible output
A hypothesis developed by Swain in reaction to the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis.
Swain argues that comprehensible input is necessary but not sufficient for language
acquisition. Learners also need opportunities to produce comprehensible messages in
the language.

pushed output
Output that reflects what learners can produce when they are pushed to use the target
language accurately and concisely. Pushed output may or may not contain modified
output.

Output Hypothesis
The hypothesis that successful language acquisition requires not only comprehensible
input, but also comprehensible output, language produced by the learner that can be
understood by other speakers of the language. It has been argues that when leaners
have to make efforts to ensure that their messages are communicated (pushed output)
this puts them in a better position to notice the gap between their productions and
those of proficient speakers, fostering acquisition

Attention-Processing Model ✜

information processing
A psychological theory that uses a computer metaphor for the human brain. It includes
the idea that the brain has a very large capacity to store information for the long term,
but a more limited capacity for information that requires our attention. With repeated
experience and practice, things which at first required attention become automatic,
leaving more attention available for focus on something else.
controlled processing
controlled processing
This occurs when learners utilize conscious effort and attention in L2 performance. It is
demanding of their information-processing capacity. Controlled processing involves the
use of declarative knowledge. (automatic processing)

automatization
This refers to the process by which declarative knowledge become proceduralized
through practice. Automatization results in the development of automatic processes
which allow for L2 knowledge to be accessed easily and rapidly with minimal demands
on the learner's information-processing capacity. (implicit learning)

restructuring
This refers to the qualitative changes that occur in a learner's interlanguage as a result
of learning. For example, learners may first represent past-tense forms as separate
items and then shift to representing them by means of a general rule for past-tense
formation.

Implicit & Explicit Model ✜

implicit learning
Learning that takes place without awareness.

implicit linguistic knowledge

This is the intuitive knowledge of language that underlies the ability to communicate
fluently in the L1. It manifests itself in actual language performance and is only
verbalizable if it is converted into explicit linguistic knowledge.

implicit methodological techniques

Feedback techniques that teachers use to draw attention indirectly to linguistic form in
the context of task-based interaction without interrupting the flow of communication

explicit learning
Language learning items by means of overt strategies, such as techiniques of
memorization.

explicit linguistic knowledge

This consists of knowledge about language, e.g. knowledge about the rule for making
nouns plural in English, and is potentially verbalizable.
restructuring
FFI(form-focused instruction)
Instruction that draws attention to the forms and structures of the language within the
context of communicative interaction. This may be done by giving metalinguistic
information, simply highlighting the form in question, or by providing corrective
feedback.

connectionist theories of language learning

A connectionist theory claims that language learning results from the operation of
general cognitive mechanisms that are sensitive to the frequency with which linguistic
sequences occur in a language and that store implicit information about these
sequences.

Interactional Hypothesis ✜
The hypothesis that language acquisition is based both on learners' innate abilities and
on opportunities to engage in conversations, often those in which other speakers modify
their speech and their interaction patterns to match the learners' communication
requirements. The innate abilities are not seen as being specific to language or
language acquisition.

modification
A type of communication strategy in which a speaker simplifies or elaborates a normal
discourse pattern in order to make a message more accessible to a listener.

modified input
Adapted speech that adults use to address children and native speakers use to address
language learners so that they will be able to understand. Examples of interactional
modifications include comprehension checks, clarification requests, and self-repetitions.

modified output
Output is modified when a participant in a task changes something initially said or
written as a result of feedback from another participant. Output modification can result
in more grammatical language production.

modified interaction Adapted conversation patterns that proficient speakers use in

addressing language learners so that the learner will be able to understand. Examples
of interactional modifications include comprehension checks, clarification requests, and
self-repetitions.
TBI/TBL(Task-Based Learning)
An approach where students have to learn language to complete tasks, rather than just
learning language 'because it is there'.

Discourse Analysis
The analysis of naturally occurring samples of written or spoken language with a focus
on the communicative functions performed in the course of the communication.
Discourse analysis is sometimes contrasted with text analysis, which analyzes the
formal, linguistic properties of a text.
✜ Attention-Processing Model [Mclaughlin]
➤ Some characteristics of the Information-Processing Approach
Ÿ Humans are viewed as autonomous and active
Ÿ The mind is a general-purpose, symbol-processing system
Ÿ Complex behavior is composed of simpler processes; these processes are modular
Ÿ Component processes can be isolated and studied independently of other processes
Ÿ Processes take time; therefore, predictions about reaction time can be mad
Ÿ The mind is a limited-capacity processor

Automatic Processes refers to processing in a more accomplished skill, where the

"hard drive" of your brain can manage hundreds and thousands of bits of
information simultaneously. Automatic processing is generally characterized as first,
relatively unstoppable, independent of the amount of information being processes,
effortless, and unconscious.

The automatizing of this multiplicity of data is accomplished by a process of

restructuring in which "the components of a task are coordinated, integrated, or
reorganized into new units, thereby allowing the .. old components to be replaced by
a more efficient procedure". Restructuring is conceptually synonymous with Ausubel's
construct of subsumption.

Both ends of this continuum of processing can occur with either focal or peripheral
attention to the task at hand, that is, focusing attention either centrally or simply on
the periphery. It is easy to fall into the temptation of thinking of focal attention as
"conscious" attention, but such a pitfall must be avioded. Both focal and peripheral
attention to some task may be quite conscious.

When appled to SLL, this approach can be summarized as follows:

Within this framework, second language learning is viewed as the acquisition of a

complex cognitive skill. To learn a second language is to learn a skill, because
various aspects of the task must be practised and integrated into fluent performance.
This requires the automatization of component subskills. Learning is a cognitive
process, because it is thought to involve internal representations that regulate and
guide performance... As performance improves, there is constant restructuring as
learners simplify, unify, and gain increasing control over their internal
representations. These two notions - automatization and restructuring - are central to
cognitive theory.
✜ Implicit & Explicit Model [Bialystok, 1978]
“Unanalyzed knowledge is the general form in which we know most things without
being aware of the structure of that knowledge"; on the other hand, learners are overtly
aware of the structure of analyzed knowledge. For example, at the unanalyzed extreme of
this knowledge dimension, learners have little awareness of language rules, but at the
analyzed end, learners can verbalized complex rules governing language.

These same model feature a distinction between automatic and nonautomatic

processing, building on MaLaughlin's conception of automaticity. Automaticity can refer
to the learners access to knowledge. Knowledge that can be retrieved easily and quickly
is automatic. Knowledge that takes time and effort to retrieved easily and quickly is
automatic. Knowledge that takes time and effort to retrieve is nonautomatic. As was
true for the McLaughlin mode, both forms of attention can be either analyzed or
unanalyzed. An important dimension of this distinction is "time". Processing time is a
significant factor in second language performance, one that has pedagogical salience in
the classroom. The length of time that a learner takes before oral production
performance, for example, can be indicative of the perceived complexity of certain
language forms in a task. Mehnert(1998) found that planning time had a significant
effect on the accuracy and fluency of second language learners' production.

✜ Interaction Hypothesis [Michael Long]

Interaction occurs when learner communicate with one another, or with their teacher, or
with other speakers of the target language. All three kinds of interaction have been
researched, with a view to finding out whether interaction promotes language learning,
and, if so, how. Learner-learner interaction, where learners engage with each other to
perform communicative activities such as tasks, is a defining feature of communicative
approach. Arguments for learner-learner interaction include the fact that it increases
opportunities for language practice, that it promotes good group dynamics, and that it is
a step towards learner autonomy.

Long claims that tasks that promote negotiation of meaning are beneficial. This is
because exchanges where learners jointly resolve a communication problem provide a
source of comprehensible input. Long subscribes to Krashen's view that comprehensible
input is necessary for language aqcquisition. But, unlike Krashen, Long argues for the
need for interaction, primarily because it is a site for negotiating meaning. The
interactional modifications that are involved in negotiating meaning are known as
discourse repair strategies. However, some researchers have found that learners are often
reluctant to regotiate meaning when confronted with a communication problem. Instead,
they prefer to adopt a 'wait and see' policy.
■Chapter 4 Human Learning

1. Pavlov's classical
⦁Classical conditioning
⦁ Unconditioned response, conditioned response
⦁ Law of Effect

2. Skinner's operant conditioning Skinner's operant conditioning

⦁Respondent conditioning
⦁Operant conditioning
⦁Reinforcer
⦁Emitted operants
⦁Punishment

3. Ausubel's subsumption theory

⦁rote learning vs. meaningful learning(subsumption)
⦁systematic forgetting, cognitive pruning
- proactive vs. retroactive inhibition
- language attrition
- subtractive bilingualism

4. Roger's Humanistic Psychology

a. fully functioning person
b. teachers as facilitators; "learner-centered classroom"
c. classroom activities and materials in language learning should utilize meaningful contexts
e. empowerment
⦁Ss take responsibility of their own learning -> more sense of autonomy ->. motivated

5. Gagne's types of leaning

a. Signal learning
b. Stimulus-response learning
c. Chaining
d. Verbal association
e. Multiple discrimination
f. Concept learning
g. Principle learning
h. Problem solving
 ◎Tranfer, Interference, and Overgeneralization
a. Positive transfer
⦁the prior knowledge benefits the learning task
⦁a prior item is correctly applied to present subject matter.
b. Negative transfer (Interference, L1->L2 or L2->L1)
⦁previously learned material interferes with subsequent material
⦁a previous item is incorrectly transferred or associated with an item to be learned
c. Overgeneralization(L1->L1 or L2->L2)

◎Inductive and Deductive reasoning

a. Inductive reasoning
⦁one stores a number of specific instances and induces a general law or rule or conclusion
⦁the evidence in communicative second language learning points to the superiority of an inductive
approach to rules and generalization
b. Deductive reasoning
⦁a generalization to specific examples are inferred or deduced from a general principle
⦁traditional methods have overemphasized the use of deductive reasoning in language teaching

◎Language aptitude
⦁context-reduced/ context-embeded

◎Intelligence and language learning

⦁IQ does not represent or ensure effective or successful learning
⦁Howard Gardner, MI (Multiple Intelligence)
⦁Robert Sternberg, triarchic view of intelligence
⦁Daniel Goleman, EQ attributes to communication by understanding other people's feeling
■Chapter 3 Age & Acquisition- Learner variables
■Chapter 6 Personality Factors

1. Neurological consideration
⦁hemispheric lateralization occurs around the puberty
⦁biological timetable (native"authentic/foreign accent) → The Critical Period Hypothesis
⦁right-hemispheric participation
⦁anthropological evidence

2. The significance of accent

⦁ Strong version of the CPH
⦁ Arnold Schwarzeneggar Effect

3. Cognitive consideration
⦁ Jean Piaget , David Ausubel
⦁ Implicit, explicit learning
⦁ Equilibration
⦁ Rote learning, meaningful learning

4. Linguistic consideration
⦁bilingualism - coordinate bilinguals : two meaning systems
- compound bilinguals : one meaning systems (more desirable)

⦁childhood bilingualism - simultaneous bilinguals : sequential bilinguals

- subtractive bilinguals : L1 subtracts L2 develops
- additive bilinguals : both L1 and L2 develop

⦁interference between L1 and L2

⦁order of acquisition
5. Affective Factors in Second Language Acquisition

1) egocentricity : children see the world as they perceive it

2) attitude : negative attitudes can affect success in learning a language

3) peer pressure : children have strong constraints upon them to conform

4) language ego a identity a person develops in reference to the language s/he speaks

5) self esteem(self confidence, self efficacy) : the extent to which individuals believe
themselves to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy

⦁ General or Global self-esteem

⦁ Situational or Specific self-esteem
⦁ Task self-esteem

Attribution theory and Self-Efficacy

➀Attribution theory
⦁focuses on how people explain the causes of their own sucesses and failures

ability internal
effort circumstances
perceived difficulty of a task external
luck circumstances

➁ Self-Efficacy
⦁if a learner feels he or she is capable of carrying out a given task, we
can say he or she has a high sense of self-efficacy
⦁students with high self-efficacy attribute their successes or failures to
"efforts", whereas students with low self-efficacy attribute theirs to
"ability" or other external circumstances
->Teachers' important role is to facilitate high levels of self-efficacy in
their students

6) inhibition : fearing to expose too much self-doubt

↳ closely related to and in some cases subsumed under the notion of self-esteem.
↳ mistakes occur in the process of learning language, but mistakes can be viewed as
threats to one's ego
7) risk- taking : Risk-takers show less hesitancy, are more willing to use complex language,
and are more tolerant of errors. Teachers have to create a climate of acceptance that will
stimulate self-confidence and encourage participants to experiment and to discover the target
language, allowing themselves to take risk without feeling embarrassed.
→ Fossilization: the relatively permanent incorporation of certain patterns of error

8) Anxiety
⦁trait anxiety : is a permanent predisposition to be anxious
⦁state anxiety : is experienced in relation to some particular event or act
-language anxiety
-communication apprehension
-fear of negative social evaluation
⦁test anxiety
- debilitative anxiety(harmful) / facilitative anxiety(helpful)
⦁Roger's humanistic theory of learning promote low anxiety among learners and a nondefensive
posture where learners do not feel they are in competition
<-> anxiety motivates students to study harder(facilitative anxiety)
- Linguistic Deficit Coding Hypothesis
⦁anxiety in a foreign language class could be the result of first language deficits, namely,
defficulties that students may have with language "codes"(phonological, syntactic, lexical,
semantic feature)

9) Willingness to Communicate: the intention to initiate communication

10) Empathy
⦁the process of putting yourself into someone else's shoe
⦁language is one of the primary means of empathizing
⦁sympathy

11) Extroversion / Introversion

➀ Extroversion
⦁the extent to which a person has a deep-seated need to receive ego enhancement,
self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from other people
➁ Introversion
⦁the extent to which a person derives a sense of wholenew and fullfillment apart from
a reflection of this self from other people
■Chapter 5 Styles and Strategies

◎Styles

1. Field Independence - Field Dependence

⦁ FD learners are thought to achieve more success in L2 acquisition via highly contexualized interactive
communicative experiences because that fits better with their holistic cognitive style. They have trouble
separating key details from a background and benefits inductive learning(face-to-face
communication)
⦁ FI learners profit more from de-contexualized analytic approaches and formal instruction. They easily
separate key details from a complex or confusing background and benefits deductive learning(drills,
exercises, tests)

2. Left brain dominance - Right brain dominance

⦁ Left brain dominance is associated with logical, analytical thought, with mathematical and
linear processing of information. Learners with left brain dominance prefers a deductive style of
teaching.
⦁ Learners with right brain dominance perceive and remember visual, tactile, and auditory
images; it is more efficient in processing holistic, integrative, and emotional information.

3. Ambiguity tolerance - Ambiguity intolerance

"Successful language leaning neccessitates tolerance of such ambiguity"
⦁ Ambiguity tolerance entails an ability to deal with ambiguous new stimuli without frustration and
without appeals to authority.
⦁ Excessive tolerance has the effect of hampering and preventing meaningful subsumption of ideas

4. Reflectivity - Impulsivity
⦁ Reflective people usually like to think quite a lot before making a decision. they need to
be certain of the right answer before trying it out. Consequently, they usually make fewer errors
⦁ Impulsive learners are faster thinkers. They usually enjoy making guesses.

5. Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic styles

6. Autonomy, Awareness, Action

⦁ Awareness-rasing
⦁ Consciousness raising
 [Learning Styles]

General
Main characteristics
Learning Style

Direct means of processing information; people-oriented; spontaneous;

1. Concrete-
imaginative; emotional; dislike routinized learning; prefers kinaesthetic
learning style
modality.

Focuses on specific problems and proceeds by means of

2. Analytical-
hypothetical-deductive reasoning; object-oriented; independent; dislikes
learning style
failure; prefers logical, didactic presentation.

3. Faily independent; highly adaptable and flexible; responsive to facts that do

Communicative- not fit; prefers social learning and a communicative approach; enjoys taking
learning style decisions.

4. Reliant on other people; needs teacher's directions and explanations; likes a

Authority-oriented structured learning environments; intolerant of facts that do not fit; prefers
learning style a sequential progression; dislikes discovery learning.
◎Strategies

a. Learning strategies

Metacognitive strategies: higher order thinking strategies that involve planning for
learning, thinking about the learning process

⦁Advance organizer making a general but comprehensive preview

⦁Directed attention deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore irrelevant
distractors.

⦁Selective attention deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of language input of situational
details that will cue the retention of language input.

⦁Self-management understanding the conditions that help one learn and arrange for the presence of
those conditions.

⦁Functional planning planning for and rehearsing linguistic components necessary to carry out an
upcoming task.

⦁Self-monitoring correcting one's speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, or for
appropriateness related to the setting or the the people who are present

⦁Delayed production consciously deciding to postpone speaking in order to learn initially through
listening comprehension

⦁Self-evaluation checking the outcomes of one's own language learning against an internal measure
of completeness and accuracy

Socioaffective strategies: social-mediating activity and interacting with others

⦁Cooperation working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool information, or model a
language activity

⦁Question for asking a teacher or other native speaker for repetition paraphrasing, explanation, or
clarification examples
Cognitive strategies: direct manipulation of the learning material itself

⦁Repetition imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent reherasal

⦁Resourcing using target language reference materials

⦁Translation using the first language as a base for understanding and producing the second
language

⦁Grouping reordering or reclassifying and perhaps labeling, the material to be learned based on
common attributes

⦁Note taking wrting down the main idea, importatnt points, outline, or summary of information
presented orally or in writing

⦁Deduction consciously applying rules to produce or understand the secodn language

⦁Recombination constructing a meaningful sentence or larger language sequence by combining

known elements in a new way

⦁Imagery relating new information to visual concepts in memory via familiar, easily retrievable
visualizations, phrases, or locations

⦁Auditory retention of the sound or a similar sound for a word, phrase, or longer langauge
representation sequence

⦁Keyword remembering a new word in the secodn language in the second language by
identifying a familiar word or relationship between the new word and the familiar
word

⦁Contextualization placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence

⦁Elaboration relating new information to other concepts in memory

⦁Transfer using previously acquired linguistic and conceptual knowledge to facilitate a new
language learning task

⦁Inferencing using available information to guess meanings of new items

b. Communicative strategies
⦁ Avoidance strategies : syntactic, lexical, phonological, and topic avoidance
⦁ Compensatory strategies
➀ prefabricated patterns
➁ code-switching
➂ appeal to authority
➃ circumlocution
➄ approximation
➅ word coinage
➆ nonlinguistic signals
➇ literal translation
➈ stalling or time-gaining strategies
➉ use of all purpose word
◎Strategies-based instruction (SBI)
- Independent, autonomous learners
- Styles of successful language learning

1. Developing student self-awareness of styles

① Informal self-checklists
② Formal personality and cognitive style tests
③ Readings, lectures, and discussions
④ Encouraging good language learner behavior

2. How to teach strategies in the classroom

<Oxford’s taxonomy>

1) direct strategies
- Remembering more effectively,
- Using all your cognitive processes,
- Compensating for missing knowledge

2) indirect strategies
- Organizing and evaluating your learning
- Managing your emotions
- Learning with others
① Teach strategies through interactive techniques
② Use compensatory techniques
③ Administer a strategy inventory: strategy inventory for language learning (SILL)
④ Make use of impromptu teacher-initiated advice

3. Packaged models of SBI

① Textbook-embedded instruction
② Adjunct self-help guides
③ Learning centers
◎Incorporating SBI into the Language Classroom

a. To lower inhibitions
⦁Play guessing games and communication games; do role plays and skits; sing songs;
use plenty of group work; laugh with your students; have them share their fears in
small groups.
b. To encourage risk taking
⦁Praise students for making sincere efforts to try out language; use fluency exercises
where errors are not corrected at that time; give outside-of-class assignments to
speak or write or otherwise try out the language
c. To build students' self-confidence
⦁Tell students explicitly(verbally and nonverbally) that you do indeed believe in them;
have them make lists of their strengths, of what they know or have accomplish so
far in the course
d. To help students develop intrinsic motivation
⦁Remind them explicitly about the rewards for learning English; describe (or have
students look up) jobs that require English; play down the final examination in favor
of helping students to see rewards for themselves beyond the final exam.
e. To encourage students to use right-brain processing
⦁Use movies and tapes in class; have students read passages rapidly; do skimming
exercises; do rapid "free writes"; do oral fluency exercises where the object is to get
students to talk (or write) a lot without being corrected
f. To promote ambiguity tolerance
⦁Encourage students to ask you, and each other, questions when they don't
understand something; keep your theoretical explanations very simple and brief;
deal with just few rules at a time; occasionally resort to translation into a native
language to clarify a word or meaning
g. To help students use their intuition
⦁Praise students for good guesses; do not always give explanations of errors - let a correction
suffice; correct only selected errors, preferably just those that interfere with learning
h. To get students to make their mistakes work for them
⦁Tape-record students' oral production and get them to identify errors; let students
catch and correct each others' errors - do not always give them the correct form;
encourage students to make lists of their common errors and to work on them on
their own
I. To het students to set their own goals
⦁Explicitly encourage or direct students to go beyond the classroom goals; have
them make lists of what they will accomplish on their own in a particular week;
het students to make specific time commitments at home to study the language;
give "extra credit" work
Glossary

communication strategy
A strategy used by a second language learner to get his or her meaning across with a
limited amount of vocabulary and grammar.

CPH(Critical Period Hypothesis)

The proposal that there is a limited period during which language acquisition can occur.
The strong version of the CPH is that there are biological mechanisms specifically
designed for language acquisition and that these cease to be available at or even before
puberty. Thus an order learner has to use general learning mechanisms that are not
designed for- and thus not as effective for-language acquisition. The weak version
(sometimes called the 'sensitive period hypothesis') is that, even though the same learning
mechanisms are involved, second language learning will be more difficult for older
learners.

motivation
The degree to which students, perceiving some goal, have a desire to do something.

extrinsic motivation
Motivation that comes from outside the classroom and the learning experience. Extrinsic
motivation might be the result of a student's desire to get a new job or to be able to use
English for travel, for example.

instrumental motivation
Motivation that is essentially practical, such as the need to learn the language in order
to get a better job.

integrative motivation
Motivation for second language learning that is based on a desire to know about the
culture and community of the target language group and even a desire to be more like
members of that group.

learning strategy
The mental and communicative processes that learners deploy to learn a second
language. For example, memorizing, inductive learning, deductive learning.
learning style
A student's orientation toward learning. They are the ways that different people approach
learning, for example, whether they are prepared to try for learner autonomy or not, or
which of their multiple intelligences they will use or how they respond to different stimuli.

metacognitive strategies
Learning strategies that encourage learners to focus on the mental processes underlying
their learning.

Multiple Intelligences
A theory developed originally by Howard Gardner which says that rather than thinking of
people as 'intelligent' or 'unintelligent' as we should recognise that we have a number of
intelligences, and that different people function more or less efficiently in these different
spheres.

Strategy
(1) Learning Strategy : A device or procedure used by learners to develop their
interlanguages. It is one type of learner strategy. Learning strategies account for how
learners acquire and automatize L2 knowledge. They are also used to refer to how they
develop specific skills. It is possible, therefore, to talk of both 'language learning strategies'
and 'skill-learning strategies'.
(2) Communication Strategy : Communication strategies are employed when learners are
faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic
knowledge (for example, when they have to refer to some object without knowing the L2
word).

stimulus
The first stage in the conditioning cycle where the subjects is encouraged/prompted to do
something specific in order to get a reward if they give the correct response.

transfer
The influence of a learner's first language knowledge in the second language. Also called
'interference'. The term 'first language influence' is now preferred by many researchers. It
better reflects the complex ways in which knowledge of the first language may affect
learners' knowledge and use of a second language.
■Chapter 7 Sociocultural factors

◎ Second cultural acquisition

Stage 1- A period of excitement
Stage 2- Culture shock
Stage 3- Culture stress : anomie a feeling of homelessness, where one feels neither
bound firmy to one's native culture nor fully adapted to the
second culture.
Stage 4- Assimilation or adaption

◎ Social Distance
- Social distance refers to the cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that come
into contact within an individual.
① Dominance
② Integration
③ Cohesiveness
④ Congruence
⑤ Permanence
→ Good language learning situation
⦁nondominant, noth desire assimilation, low enclosure, congruent, L2 small and
noncohesive, positive attitude, permanence
→ Bad language learning situation

◎ Perceived Social Distance

- Acculturation process is a factor of how learners perceive their own culture in relation
to the culture of the target language.

◎ Optimal Distance Model (Culturally based critical-period hypothesis)

- Stage 3(cultural stress) may provide not only the optimal distance but the optimal
cognitive and affective tension to produce the necessary pressure to acquire the
language.

◎ Language, thought, and culture (The Whorfian hypothesis)

- Both thought and language are determined by culture.
- Language teaching itself is not sufficient -> teaching [language + cultural aspect]
◎ Culture in the language classroom

① Culture assimilators: The learner is not simply presented with information, but is
confronted with a culturally significant situation which may
present a problem to a foreigner visiting the country.

② Critical incidents: Descriptions of difficult or awkward situations in which cultural

norms or values cause communication to break down between
members of difficult cultures.

➂ culture capsules: Students hear a brief description that illustrates difference between Korean
culture and the target culture, discuss the difference, perform role plays
based on the ideas, and intergrate this information into activities that
incorporate other skills.

➃ Cultureal minidramas; Students listen to, watch, or read a series of episodes in which
miscommunication is taking place; each successive episode reveals
additional information, with the eact problem in understanding
revealed in the last part. Students are led in discussion in order
to understand how misunderstanding arise when wrong
solutions are reached about the target culture on the basis of
one's cultural understanding.
◎ Seelye (1976)이 제시한 문화교육의 7가지 목적

1. The student should demonstrate an understanding that people act the way they do
because they are using options the society allows for satisfying basic physical and
psychological needs.

2. The student should demonstrate an understanding that such social variables as age, sex,
social class, and place of residence affect the way people speak and behave.

3. The student should indicate an ability to demonstrate how people conventionally act in
the most common mundane and crisis situations in the target culture.

4. The student should indicate an awareness that culturally conditioned images are
associated with even the most common target words and phrases.

5. The student should demonstrate an ability to evaluate the relative strength of a

generality concerning the target culture in terms of the amount of evidence substantiating
the statement.

6. The student should show that he has developed the skills needed to locate and organize
information about the target culture from the library, the mass media, and personal
observation.

7. The student should demonstrate intellectual curiosity about the target culture and
empathy toward its people.
■Chapter 8 Communicative Competence

- Linguistic competence & communicative competence (Hymes)

- Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency -context-reduced
& Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills -context-embeded

◎ Communicative Competence (Canale and Swain)

a. Grammatical competence - concerned with mastery of the language code itself
(words and rules)
b. Discourse competence - concerns mastery of how to combine grammatical forms
and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text
in different genres
c. Sociolinguistic competence - addresses the extent to which utterances are
produced and understood appropriately in
different sociolinguistic contexts depending on
contextual factors (appropriateness)
d. Strategic competence - mastery of verbal and nonverbal communication strategies
for two reasons
ⓐ to compensate for breakdowns in communication due
to limiting conditions in actual communication of
insufficient competence
ⓑ to enhance the effectiveness of communication

Sociopragmatics and Pragmalinguistics

Second language acquisition becomes in exceedingly difficult task when socio-pragmatic

(the interface between pragmatics and social organization) and pragma-linguistic (the
intersection of pragmatics and linguistic forms) features are brought to bear.

Pragmalinguistics

The interface between linguistics and pragmatics, focusing on the linguistic means used to
accomplish pragmatic ends. This can be contrasted with sociopragmatics and sociopragmatic
knowledge, which concern the relationship between social factors and pragmatics. For
example, a learner might need to know in what circumstances it is appropriate to make a
compliment in the target language and which form would be most appropriate given the
social relationship between speaker and hearer.
◎ Language functions
- Halliday's seven functions of language
a. Instrumental function - bring about a particular condition
b. Regulatory function - is the control of event
c. Representational function - make statements facts and knowledge
d. Interactional function - serves to ensure social maintenance
e. Personal function - express feelings, emotions, personality, gut-level reaction
f. Heuristic function - language used to acquire knowledge
h. Imaginative function - create imaginary systems or ideas
◎ Discourse Analysis- cohesion, coherence
-conversation analysis
(attention getting, topic nomination, topic development, turn-taking, topic clarification, repair,
topic shifting and avoidance, interruptions, topic termination)

◎ *H. P. Grice’s maxims (quantity, quality, relevance, manner)

-corpus linguistics
(genres, word frequencies, co-occurences, grammatical patterns, concordancing)
-contrastive rhetoric

◎ Discourse styles (Martin Joos)

- oratorical style
- deliberative style
- consultative style
- casual style
- intimate style

◎ register/ jargon

◎ Nonverbal communication
① kinesics(body language)
② eye contact
③ proxemics(physical proximity)
④ artifacts(clothing and ornamentation)
⑤ kinesthetics(touching)
➅ olfactory dimensions(modality
Glossary
sociocultural theory
An explanation for knowledge and learning that is based on the assumption that all
learning is first social then individual. Learning is viewed as a process that is socially
mediated, that is, it is dependent on dialogue in face-to-face interaction. The claim is that
during communication, learners jointly construct knowledge which is internalized by the
individual.

cultural appropriacy
When a topic, exercise or methodology suits the culture or cultural background of the
students and/or teacher.

discourse
A term used to describe any stretch of text bigger than a sentence or, paragraph or
utterance.

discourse analysis
The analysis of naturally occurring samples of written or spoken language with a focus on
the communicative functions performed in the course of the communication. Discourse
analysis is sometimes contrasted with text analysis, which analyzes the formal, linguistic
properties of a text.

discourse competence
The ability of a speaker or writer to develop a text that is cohesive and coherent.

discourse analytic method

A method for analysing the language a learner produces when performing a task. It
involves providing separate measures for different aspects of language use, e.g. for fluency,
accuracy, and complexity.

pragmatic competence
This term refers to the ability of a speaker to use language that is appropriate for a
specific context. This ability involves both knowing when a particular speech act like
complimenting or apologizing is appropriate (sometimes referred to as sociopragmatic
competence) and which linguistic form would be most appropriate to express this intention
(often referred to as pragmalinguistic competence).
pragmalinguistic device
A linguistic strategy used to realize an illocutionary meaning. For example, a request can be
realized by means of an interrogative, e.g. 'Could you close the window?', or a hint, e.g. 'It's
cold in here.'

pragmalinguistic failure
Occurs when a learner tries to perform the right speech act but uses the wrong linguistic
means (ie. deviates with regard to appropriateness of form)

sociolinguistic competence
The extent to which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different
sociolinguistic contexts

sociopragmatic failure Takes place when a learner fails to perform the illocutionary act
required by the situation (ie. deviates with regard to appropriateness of meaning)

communicative competence
The ability to apply grammatical, discourse and cultural knowledge to communicate
effectively in particular contexts for particular purposes. (1) The ability to use language in a
variety of settings, taking into account relationships between speakers and differences in
situations. The term has sometimes been interpreted as the ability to convey messages in
spite of a lack of grammatical accuracy. (2) Communicative competence consists of the
knowledge that users of a language have internalized to enable them to understand and
produce messages in the language. Various models of communicative competence have been
proposed, but most of them recognize that it entails both linguistic competence (for
example, knowledge of grammatical rules) and pragmatic competence (for example,
knowledge of what constitutes appropriate linguistic behavior in a particular situation).
(1) Linguistic competence : Linguistic competence refers to the knowledge of the items and
rules that comprise the formal systems of a language.
(2) Pragmatic competence : Pragmatic competence consists of the knowledge that
speaker-hearers use in order to engage in communication, including how speech acts are
successfully performed. The ability of a speaker to use language that is appropriate for a
specific context. This ability involves both knowing when a particular speech act like
complimenting or apologizing is appropriate (sometimes referred to as socio-pragmatic
competence) and which linguistic form would be most appropriate to express this intention
(often referred to as pragma-linguistic competence)
■Chapter 9 Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner language

◎ Contrastive Analysis
⦁L2 learning difficulties can be predicted by comparing the difference between L1 and L2
-> the more difference between L1 and L2 has, the more difficulty learners feel
⦁Hierarchy of difficulty

L1 L2
Level 0 Transfer ㅇ ㅇ
Level 1 Coalescence ㅇㅇㅇ ㅇ
Level 2 Underdifferentiation ㅇ X
Level 3 Reinterpretation ㅇ ㅁ
Level 4 Overdifferentiation X ㅇ
Level 5 Split ㅇ ㅇㅇㅇ

◎ Two Versions of Contrasive Analysis

⒜ the strong version
⦁claims that all L2 errors can be predicted by identifying the differences between L1
and L2
⒝ the weak version
⦁only diagnostic, a contrastive analysis can be used to identify which errors are the
result of interference
-> implication is that not all error are the result of interference (interlingual)

◎ Markedness and Universal Grammar

- accounts for relative degrees of difficulty by means of principles of universal
grammar
⒜ marked - features that are less common -> more difficult to acquire
⒝ unmarked - common feature in language - universal grammar
- Competition Model
⦁the meaning of language is interpreted by comparing a number of linguistic cues
within a sentence, and that language is learned through the competition of basic
cognitive mechanisms.
◎ Error Analysis
⒜ Mistakes and error
⦁mistakes : a performance error, can be self-corrected, temporary
⦁errors : systematic, result of linguistic competence, consistence

⒝ Too much attention to errors can be..

① the classroom language teacher can become so preoccupied with noticing errors.
② hinderance to the attainment of communicative fluency
③ overemphasis on production date -> comprehension is as important as production
④ fails to account for the strategy of avoidance
⑤ keeps us too much focused on specific languages than universal aspects

⒞ Procedures for error analysis

① identifying errors - overt errors : ungrammatical at the sentence level
- covert errors : grammatically well-formed but are not interpretable within
the context of communication
② describing errors
a. addition, omission, substitution, ordering
b. global error : hinder communication
local error : minor violation of one segment
c. domain : the rank of linguistic unit that must be taken as context in
order for the error to be apparent
extent : the rank of linguistic unit that is used to repair a sentence

⒟ Source of errors
a. interlingual transfer(interference)
b. intralingual transfer(overgeneralization)
c. context of learning (induced errors by T or other context)
d. communication strategy
◎ Learner Language

⒜ Stages of learner language development

① Stage 1. A stage of random error (presystematic)
⦁no systematic occurrence in errors
⦁a stage of experimentation and inaccurate guessing
② Stage 2. An emergent stage
⦁growing in consistency in linguistic production
⦁backsliding (temporary regression to previous stage)
⦁unable to correct errors when they are pointed out by somebody else
③ Stage 3. A systematic stage
⦁learners are able to manifest more consistency in production
⦁learners are able to correct their error when they are pointed out
④ Stage 4. A stabilization (postsystematic stage)
⦁learners' ability to self-correct
⦁when minor error are not detected, fossilization might occur
- Possible cause of the fossilization
: conditioning, reinforcement, need, motivation, self-determination

⒝ Vigil & Oller's model

- implication a. positive affective response is imperative in continuing communication
and cognitive feedback determines the degree of internalization
b. fossilization might occur, deviant items are suggested, when those
errors receive positive affective feedback, then positive cognitive
feedback, which leads to reinforcing incorrect forms.
c. the task of teacher is to discern the optimal tension between
positive and negative cognitive feedback
◎ Form-Focused Instruction
- to draw learners' attention to language from either implicitly or explicitly
explicit : metalinguistic explanation
implicit : incidental references to form, noticing (grammar consciousness raising)

- Types of feedback
① recast : the teacher reformulates all or part of Ss' output in an unobstrusive way

② clarification request : teachers use phrases like "sorry?" , "pardon me?"

③ metalinguistic feedback : teachers provide comments, information, or questions

related to the student's utterance

④ elicitation : teachers ask for a reformulation or pausing to allow student to complete

teacher's utterance

⑤ explicit correction : a clear indication to the student that the form is incorrect and
provision of correct form

⑥ repetition : teachers repeat the ill-formed part, especially, with a change in

intonation

- Responses to feedback
① uptake : students' utterance that immediately follows the teacher's feedback
② repair : the process of learners' correcting error, either by themselves or with peers
③ repetition

- Effectiveness of FFI
① effective when incorporated into a communicative, learner-centered and least
effective when error treatment is only dominant
② learner's noticing of form and of the relationship of form to feedback determines
the effectiveness.
③ corrective feedback is immediately followed by communicative tasks; it is effective.
④ explicit instruction for easily stated grammar rules and implicit instruction for more
complex rules
⑤ certain learners "FI, left-brain-oriented, analytic" benefit more from explicit FFI then
"FD, rational, right-brain-dominant".
✔ Positive Feedback

Teachers provide positive feedback in acknowledging a learner's utterance for many reasons.

- To confirm a learners's utterance regarding features such as grammatical correctness, word

choice, or any particular content

- To praise learners for their performance

- To encourage them for their attempts in using language

Positive Evidence

Positive evidence refers to the input and basically comprises the set of well-formed sentences to
which learners are exposed. In some SLA literature, positive evidence is referred to as models.
These utterances are available from the spoken language and/or from the written language. This
is the most direct means that learners have available to them from which they can form
linguistic hypotheses.

✔ Negative Feedback

A teacher's negative or corrective feedback can be categorized as direct (explicit) or indirect

(implicit) strategies.

- Indirect strategies implicitly provide a correct model of the error without telling them overtly
what the mistake was.

- Explicit strategies point directly to a learner's error.

Negative Evidence

Negative evidence refers to the types of information that is provided to learners concerning the
incorrectness of an utterance. This might be in the form of explicit or implicit information.
Glossary

CAH(Contraistive Analysis Hypothesis)

The expectation that learners will have less difficulty acquiring target language patterns that
are similar to those of the first language than those that are different.

contrastive analysis
Procedures for comparing and identifying similarities and differences between the linguistic
systems of different languages. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis suggests that, when
language share certain features, learning will be facilitated, and that when features are not
shared, learning will be impeded.

transfer
The influence of a learner's first language knowledge in the second language. Also called
'interference'. The term 'first language influence' is now preferred by many researchers. It
better reflects the complex ways in which knowledge of the first language may affect
learners' knowledge and use of a second language.

error
A piece of speech or writing that is recognizably different in some way from native speaker
usage. Errors can occur at the level of discourse, grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation.

developmental errors
Errors that occur naturally as learners gain more insight into the language system (e.g.
saying 'I seed' instead of 'I saw' because they have learnt the '-ed' past tense rule)

overgeneralization error
This type of error is the result of trying to use a rule in a context where it does not
belong, for example, putting a regular -ed ending on an irregular verb, as in 'buyed'
instead of 'bought'.

interlanguage
Refers to uses of English made by learners of English that do not conform to Standard
English patterns and represent learners' unsuccessful attempts to acquire the standard
forms.
fossilization
Fixing of certain mistakes and errors in a leaner's English, especially intermediate and
advanced learners.

feedback
The provision of information to speakers about the message they have conveyed. Neutral
feedback simply informs the speaker that the message has been received. It may be verbal
or nonverbal. Evaluative feedback provides the speaker with information on whether the
message has been positively or negatively received. Once again, it may be verbal or
nonverbal. In language acquisition, the term 'FEEDBACK' refers to information given to
learners which they can use to revise their interlanguage. A distinction is often made
between 'positive' and 'negative' feedback (sometimes referred to as 'negative evidence');
positive feedback refers to information that indicates a hypothesis is incorrect. A distinction
is also made between 'on-record' and 'off-record' feedback depending on whether the
feedback is direct (ie. a correction) or indirect (for example, in the form of request for
confirmation). On-record feedback supplies 'direct negative evidence', while off-record
feedback supplies 'indirect negative feedback'.

uptake
This term is sometimes used generally to refer to what a learner notices and/or retains in
second language input or instruction. Lyster and Ranta's (1997) definition refers to a learner's
observable immediate response to corrective feedback on his/her utterances.

recast
To repeat a learner's incorrect utterance, making changes that convert it to a correct phrase
or sentence. 'Recast' is also used as a noun, that is, a recast is the modified/corrected form
of the leaner's utterance.

reformulation
A way of correcting where the teacher reformulates what a student has just said (incorrectly).
In other words, the teacher says it correctly, but does not then insist on the student
repeating the correct version.

repetition
When students are asked to repeat a sound, word or phrase, either individually or in chorus.
corrective feedback
An indication to a learner that his or her use of the target language is incorrect. Corrective
feedback can be explicit (for example, in response to the learner error 'He go' - 'No, you
should say "goes", not "go"') or implicit (for example, 'Yes, he goes to school every day').
and may or may not include metalinguistic information (for example, 'Don't forget to make
the verb agree with the subject').

clarification
A part of a lesson in which students become clearer about language system items,
especially concerning how they are formed, what they mean, how they are pronounced and
how they are used.

clarification request
A strategy used by the listener for a more explicit formulation of the speaker's last
utterance.

gentle correction
A term used to describe situations where the teacher indicates that something has gone
wrong with a hint or a nod but does not press students to correct it immediately.
Reformulation is often used in this way.

negotiation of meaning
The interactional work done by speakers and listeners to ensure that they have a common
understanding of the ongoing meanings in a discourse. Commonly used conversational
strategies include comprehension checks, confirmation checks, clarification requests.
(1) Interaction between speakers who make adjustments to their speech and use other
techniques to repairs a breakdown in communication
(2) Communication involving L2 learners often leads to problems in understanding and
breakdown. Frequently, one or more of the participants - the learner of the interlocutor -
attempts to remedy this by engaging in interactional work to secure mutual understanding.
This work is often called 'negotiation of meaning'. It is characterized by interactional
modifications such as comprehension checks and requests for clarification. Interactionally
modified discourse also occurs when there is 'negotiation of content', defined by Rulon and
McCreary (1986) as the process by which previously encountered content is clarified.
■Chapter 10 Toward a theory of second language acquisition

① Explicit/ Implicit learning

Intentional/incidental learning
Focal/peripheral attention

② Awareness
- Conscious/subconscious learning
- Noticing hypothesis (Schmidt)

③ Input and Output

④ Frequency, saliency ☞noticing

◎ An Innatist Model: Krashen’s input hypothesis
<Five Hypothesis>
① Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
② Monitor Hypothesis
③ Natural Order Hypothesis-zero option
④ Input Hypothesis-comprehensible input
⑤ Affective Filter Hypothesis

◎ The Output Hypothesis

-input vs. intake
<Seliger>
-High Input Generators (HIGs)
-Low Input Generators (LIGs)

<Merrill Swain>
Output Hypothesis
(comprehensible output, modified output)

◎ Cognitive Models
① McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model
- information processing (controlled, automatic)
- attention to formal properties of language (focal-form, peripheral-meaning)
- reconstructuring (Ausubel’s construct of subsumption)
- peripheral, automatic attention-processing of the bits and pieces of language (fluency)

② Implicit and Explicit Models (Bialystok)

- unanalyzed, analyzed knowledge
- spontaneous, automatic/time-delayed, non-automatic
■ Sociocultural, political, and institutional contexts

1. Second and foreign language contexts

- English as a second language (ESL)
- English as a foreign language (EFL)
- English as an international language (EIL)
- Nonnative English-speaking teachers (NNESTs)
- Native English-speaking teachers (NESTs)

2. Institutional contexts

1) Elementary and secondary schools(English Language Learner-ELL-program)

① Submersion (pull-out program)
② Immersion
③ Sheltered English
④ Mainstreaming
⑤ Transitional bilingual programs
⑥ Maintenance bilingual programs
⑦ Enrichment bilingual programs

2) Post-secondary and Adult Education

Language schools, adult education schools, community colleges, extended learning program
① Survival/social curricula
② Literacy programs
③ Vocational ESL (VESL): Technical schools, trade schools
④ Workplace ESL program

3) Institutions of Higher Education

① IEPs (Intensive English Programs)
② EAP (English for Academic Purposes)
③ ESP (English for Specific Purposes)
■ Tasks and Materials

1. benefits of using a textbook

➀ It assures a measure of structure, consistency and logical progression in a class. Textbook
writers have taken a considerable amount of time and effort to produce material that is
logically sequenced and is as comprehensive as possible.

➁ It minimized preparation time for teachers with heavy teaching loads

➂ It allows learners to review the material and preview other lesson
➃ It meets a learner need/expectation of having something concrete to work from and take
home for further study.
➄ It provides those new to teaching with guidance in course and activity design as well as
grammar and other aspects of English
➅ It may provide multiple recourses: tapes and videos, pre-and post- assessments

2. Potential drawbacks of using a textbook

➀ Not all of the content corresponds to the needs of learners and it may require a substantial
amount of supplementation and adaptation
➁ It may not allow for the degree of learner input desired by both the class and teacher.
➂ Inexperienced teachers may rely too heavily on a textbook, following it in lockstep sequence
regardless of learner strengths, wants. and needs
3. Adapting and supplementing textbook
Adapting and supplementing the texts we choose can bridge the gaps that exist between a
textbook and learner needs. this can be achieved by adding visuals, realia, and authentic
materials, by adjusting activities to promote more interaction, or by implementing activities in
ways that appeal to multiple intelligences and learning styles.

1) Adding
- Extending: the teacher supplies more of the same type of material, thus making a
quantative change in the material.
- Expanding: expanding adds something different to the materials; the change is qualitative.

2) Deleting
- Subtracting: refers to reducing the length of materials in quantitative way.
- Abridging: omitting materials qualitatively.

3) Modifying
- Rewriting: an internal change that can be applied to any aspect of content
- Restructuring: can be applied to classroom management

4) Simplifying : to make learning materials more accessible to learners or to make activities

more manageable for learners and teachers.

5) Reordering : sequencing activities in a different order.

considerations...
➀ 교과서에서 dialogue를 다루기 전에 교실에서 유사한 dialogue를 구성한다.
Learner-generated dialogues have a stronger connection to the learners' lives. The students can
compare their dialogue to the one in the text, which provides them with more than one
way to express themselves and communicate with others.

➁ evaluate a chapter ahead of time in terms of relevance to learners' lives and interest, and
prepare visuals and realia that will make the material more meaningful to your students.

➂ Brainstorm other words, forms, or phrases around the same theme that you want to present
and practice. If there are many words that will particularly difficult in the lesson, be
prepared to demonstrate those words though multiple means, both visual and aural/oral.

➃ Some texts may favor a particular learning style. Think of ways to enhance the lesson to
appeal to many learning style preferences.

➄ 다중지능 (multiple intelligences)를 고려한다.

■ Technology in the classroom

1. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)

1) Non-computer-based technology
- commercially produced audiotapes and CDs
- commercially produced videotapes and DVDs
- Self-made audiotapes and CDs
- self-made videotapes and DVDs
- overhead projection

2) Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)

3) Computer-mediated communication (CMC)

4) Technology-mediated language learning (TMLL)

5) Principles and benefits of CALL

① Support, assisted-technocentric approach ⒳
② Appropriateness
③ Affirmed
④ All learners
⑤ Effectively
⑥ Efficiently
⑦ Backup plan

6) Uses of CALL in the language classroom

① Collaborative projects
② Peer-editing of compositions
③ E-mail, Blogs, Web-based bulletin board communication
④ Web page design
⑤ Videoconferencing
⑥ Reinforcement of classroom material
⑦ Podcasting
⑧ Games and simulations
⑨ Computer-adaptive testing
⑩ Speech recognition software
⑪ Concordancing
■ Designing and implementing classroom lessons

1. Curriculum design
① Situation Analysis : educational setting, class characteristics, faculty characteristics,
governance of course content, assessment and evaluation requirements
② Need Analysis : needs, a needs assessment; goals, objective needs; subjective needs
③ Problematizing
④ Specifying Goals
⑤ Conceptualizing a course syllabus
⑥ Selecting textbooks, materials, resources
⑦ Assessment
⑧ Program Evaluation

2. Lesson planning

1) Format of a lesson plan

① Goal
② Objectives (terminal, enabling objectives)
③ Materials and equipment
④ Procedures
⑤ Assessment
⑥ Extra-class work

2) Guidelines for lesson planning

➀ how to begin planning
➁ variety, sequencing, pacing, and timing
➂ gauging difficulty
➃ individual differences
➄ student talk and teacher talk
➅ adapting to an established curriculum

3) Categorizing techniques
① From manipulation to communication
② Mechanical, meaningful, communicative drills(form-focused communicative practice)
③ Controlled to free techniques
■ Initiating interaction in the classroom

1. Interactive principles
① Automaticity
② Intrinsic motivation
③ Strategic investment
④ Willingness to communicate
⑤ The language-culture connection
⑥ Interlanguage
⑦ Communicative competence

2. Roles of the interactive teacher; as controller, director, manager, facilitator, resource

☞ in the lessons that you deliver, you should be able to assume all five of these roles on this
continuum of directive to nondirective teaching, depending on the purpose and context of an
activity.

3. Questioning strategies for interactive learning (Display questions/referential questions)

① Knowledge questions
② Comprehension questions
③ Application questions
④ Inference questions
⑤ Analysis questions
⑥ Synthesis questions
⑦ Evaluation questions
■ Sustaining interaction through group work

1. Advantages of group work

① Generates interactive language
② Offers an embracing affective climate
③ Promotes learner responsibility and autonomy
④ Is a step toward individualizing instruction

2. Implementing group work in your classroom

1) Evaluating classroom language

2) Selecting appropriate group techniques

➀ pair work : short, linguistically simple, quite controlled structure of the task
➁ group work : games, role plays, simulations, drama, projects, interviews, brainstorming,
information gap, jigsaw activities, problem solving, decision making, opinion exchange

3) Planning group work

➀ introduce the technique
➁ justify the use of small groups for the technique
➂ model the technique
➃ give explicit detailed instructions
➄ divide the class into groups
➅ check for clarification
➆ set the task in motion

4) Monitoring the task

5) Debriefing
- reporting on task objectives
- establishing affective support
■ Classroom management

1) The physical environment of the classroom

sight, sound, comfort/seating arrangements/chalkboard use/qeuipment

2) Your voice and body language

3) Unplanned teaching: midstream lesson changes

4) Teaching under adverse circumstances

- teaching large classes
- teaching multiple proficiency levels in the same class
- using English only in the classroom?
- compromising with the institution
- disciplining
- dealing with cheating

5) Teachers’ roles, styles, cultural expectations

6) Creating a positive classroom climate

- establishing rapport
- balancing praise and criticism
- generating energy
■ Teaching language skills

1. Integrating the four skills

-skill integration, whole language approach

1) Models of skills integration

① Content-Based Instruction
- immersion programs
- sheltered English programs
- Adjunct programs
- English for specific purposes (ESP)

② Task-Based Language Teaching

- pragmatic language competence

③ Theme(Topic)- Based Instruction(weak version of CBI)

: Theme based instruction uses environmental statistics and facts for classroom reading, writing,
discussion, and debate. Students are to carry out research and writing projects. It has students
create their own environmental awareness material (language experience approach)
- arrange field trips, conduct simulation games

④ Experiential learning; language experience approach (LEA)

⑤ The Episode Hypothesis (Oller)

2. Teaching listening
- comprehensible input, converting input to intake
- We internalize linguistic information without which we could not produce language.

1) An interactive model of listening comprehension

- psychomotor, interactive process
- schemata
- perceived, intended meaning
- pruned

3) What makes listening difficult?

- clustering, chunking
- redundancy
- reduced forms
- performance variables (hesitation, false start, pause, correction)
- colloquial language
- rate of delivery (pauses)
- stress, rhythm, intonation(suprasegmental elements, prosodic features, stress-timed language)
- interaction (negotiation, clarification)

4) Microskills(sentence level, form-related) and macroskills(discourse, meaning) of listening

5) Principles for teaching listening skills

① Include a focus on listening in an integrated-skills course
② Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating
③ Utilize authentic language and contexts
④ Carefully consider the form of listeners’ responses
: doing, choosing, transferring, answering, condensing, extending, duplicating, modeling,
conversing
⑤ Encourage the development of listening strategies (teach how to learn)
⑥ Include both bottom-up and top-down listening techniques
3. Teaching speaking

1) Oral communication skills in pedagogical research

① Conversational discourse
② Teaching pronunciation
③ Accuracy and fluency
- message oriented, language oriented
- language use, language usage
④ Affective factors
⑤ The interaction effect(interlocutor effect)
⑥ Questions about intelligibility
⑦ The growth of spoken corpora
⑧ Genres of spoken language

2) Principles for teaching speaking skills

① Focus on both fluency and accuracy, depending on your objective
② Provide intrinsically motivating techniques
③ Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts
④ Provide appropriate feedback and correction
⑤ Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening
⑥ Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication
⑦ Encourage the development of speaking strategies

3) Teaching conversation
- strategy consciousness-raising, gambits, ordering from a catalog, meaningful oral grammar
practice, individual practice(oral dialogue journals), interviews, guessing games, jigsaw tasks,
ranking exercises, discussions, values clarification, problem-solving activities, role plays,
simulations, information gap activities

4) Teaching pronunciation
<variables that you should consider>
☞ native language, age, exposure, innate phonetic ability, identity and language ego, motivation
and concern for good pronunciation
- discourse-based view of pronunciation teaching
- intonation-listening for pitch changes
- stress-contrasting nouns
- meaningful minimal pairs (contextualization)
4. Teaching reading

2) Research on reading a second language

① Bottom-up and top-down processing
② Schema theory and background knowledge(content, formal schemata, linguistic schemata)
③ Teaching strategic reading(strategy-based instruction)
④ Extensive reading
⑤ Fluency and reading rate
⑥ Focus on vocabulary
⑦ The role of affect and culture
⑧ Adult literacy training

2) Characteristics of written language

: Permanence, Processing time, Distance (decontextualized), Orthography, Complexity
Vocabulary(variety, lower-frequency, Formality-rhetorical, organizational

3) Strategies for reading comprehension

① Identify the purpose in reading
② Use graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding (phonics approaches)
③ Use efficient silent reading techniques for improving fluency
④ Skim the text for main ideas (skimming)
⑤ Scan the text for specific information (scanning)
⑥ Use semantic mapping or clustering(grouping ideas into meaningful clusters)
⑦ Guess when you aren’t certain(compensation strategies)
⑧ Analyze vocabulary
⑨ Distinguish between literal and implied meanings (pragmatic information)
⑩ Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationships

4) Principles for teaching reading skills

① In an integrated course, don’t overlook a specific focus on reading skills
② Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating –language experience approach
③ Balance authenticity and readability - suitability of content, exploitability
④ Encourage the development of reading strategies
⑤ Include both bottom-up and top-down techniques
⑥ Follow the SQ3R sequence: Survey, question, read, recite, review
⑦ Plan on pre-reading, during-reading, after-reading phases
⑧ Build an assessment aspect into your techniques
5. Teaching writing

1) Research on second language writing

① Composing versus writing
② Process versus product
③ Contrastive rhetoric
④ Differences between L1 and L2 writing
⑤ Authenticity
⑥ Responding to student writing
⑦ Voice and identity

2) Principles for teaching writing skills

① Incorporate practices of good writers
② Balance process and product
③ Account for cultural/literary backgrounds
④ Connect reading and writing
⑤ Provide as much authentic writing as possible
⑥ Frame your techniques in terms of prewriting, drafting, and revising stages
- brainstorming, free writing, quick writing, listing, clustering, semantic mapping
- peer-reviewing or editing, read-aloud technique, proofreading
⑦ Strive to offer techniques that are as interactive as possible
⑧ Sensitively apply methods of responding to and correcting your students’ writing
⑨ Clearly instruct students on the rhetorical, formal conventions of writing

3) Evaluation checklists
- Formative assessment, summative evaluation
6. Form-focused instruction
-noticing, consciousness-raising

◎ Issues about how to teach grammar

① Should grammar be presented inductively or deductively?
② Should we use grammatical explanations and technical terminology in a CLT classroom?
③ Should grammar be taught in separate grammar only classes?
④ Should teachers correct grammatical errors?

1) Grammar techniques
☞ charts, objects, maps and drawings, dialogues, other written texts

2) Grammar sequencing in textbooks and curricula

→ optimal functional sequence!

3) Current issues in vocabulary teaching

- incidental(implicit)/intentional(explicit)
- corpus linguistics (collocation, concordancing)

4) Principles for teaching vocabulary

① Allocate specific class time to vocabulary learning
② Help students to learn vocabulary in context
③ Play down the role of bilingual dictionaries
④ Encourage students to develop strategies for determining the meaning or words
⑤ Engage in unplanned vocabulary teaching
■ Assessing language skills

1. Language assessment

1) Principles of language assessment

① Practicality
- norm-referenced tests
- criterion-referenced tests
② Reliability
- test reliability
- the administration of a test
- student-related reliability
- rater(or scorer) reliability
③ Validity
- content validity
- face validity
- construct validity
④ Authenticity
⑤ Washback

2) Kinds of tests
① Proficiency tests
② Diagnostic tests
③ Placement tests
④ Achievement tests
⑤ Aptitude tests

3) Current issues in language assessment

① Large-scale language proficiency testing
② Authenticity
③ Performance-based assessment
④ Challenges from innovative theories of intelligence
⑤ Expanding alternatives in classroom-based assessment
⑥ Ethical issues: critical language assessment
2. Classroom-based assessment

1) Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests

2) Some practical steps to test construction

① Test toward clear, unambiguous objectives
② From your objectives, draw up test specifications
③ Draft your test
④ Revise your test
⑤ Final-edit, word-process, and print the test
⑥ Utilize your feedback after administering the test
⑦ Provide ample washback

3) Turning existing tests into more effective procedures

① Facilitate strategic options for test-takers
② Establish face validity
③ Design authentic tasks
④ Work for washback

4) Alternatives in assessment
① Portfolios
② Journals
③ Conferences
④ Observations
⑤ Self- and peer- assessments

5) Performance-based assessment