Optimal Modelling & Implementation of Real Time Pesticide Sprayer

Abstract

The optimal modelling and implementation of a real-time pesticide sprayer is a crucial

advancement in the agricultural industry. This specialized agricultural equipment is designed
to spray pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides, and other liquid solutions efficiently and precisely
onto crops and agricultural fields. By automating the spraying process, this technology aims
to improve efficiency, precision, and sustainability in farming practices. Traditional
agricultural spraying methods often rely on manual labor or large machinery, which can be
time-consuming, resource-intensive, and lead to uneven distribution of agricultural inputs.
These drawbacks can result in wastage, environmental pollution, and reduced crop yields. To
overcome these challenges, the development of a real-time pesticide sprayer with optimal
modeling and implementation has emerged as a potential solution. The real-time pesticide
sprayer incorporates advanced technologies such as robotic body chassis design, pumping
sprayer mechanism, and wireless communication. This combination of features enables
precise control over the spraying process, ensuring an even distribution of pesticides while
minimizing waste.

By utilizing optimal modeling techniques, the pesticide sprayer can be designed to maximize
its efficiency and effectiveness. Through careful analysis and simulation, the sprayer's
performance can be optimized to deliver the right amount of pesticide to specific areas of the
crops, targeting pests and diseases effectively. This modeling process also helps in identifying
and mitigating any potential issues or limitations that may arise during implementation. The
implementation of the real-time pesticide sprayer involves the integration of the modeled
system into a functional robotic platform. This platform utilizes sensors, actuators, and
intelligent control algorithms to navigate the agricultural field and spray the pesticides in real
time. The transmitter and receiver components enable wireless communication, allowing for
remote monitoring and control of the sprayer's operations. The implementation of this
technology brings several benefits to the agricultural industry. It reduces reliance on manual
labor, saving time and resources. Additionally, it minimizes pesticide wastage, resulting in
cost savings for farmers and reducing environmental pollution. The precise and targeted
spraying provided by the real-time pesticide sprayer improves crop health and yield,
enhancing overall agricultural productivity.
 Chapter 1

Introduction
The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, with humans developing various
techniques and tools to cultivate crops. Over time, agricultural practices have evolved with
advancements in technology, leading to the introduction of machinery and automation in
farming. The use of sprayers for pesticide and fertilizer application has become a common
practice to ensure optimal crop health and productivity. Traditional sprayers were manually
operated or attached to tractors, limiting their flexibility and efficiency. The need for more
precise and efficient spraying methods has driven the development of agri sprayer robots.

Modern agriculture faces challenges such as increasing population, limited resources, and
environmental concerns. To address these challenges, there is a growing demand for
sustainable and efficient agricultural practices. Precision agriculture has emerged as an
approach that utilizes technology to optimize farming operations. One aspect of precision
agriculture is the development of robotic systems that can perform tasks autonomously,
accurately, and in real-time. Agri sprayer robots are one such innovation that aims to optimize
agricultural operations by providing precise and targeted spraying of pesticides and
fertilizers.

The Realtime Wireless Agri Sprayer Robot is an advanced robotic system designed to
automate and optimize the spraying process in agriculture. It utilizes wireless technology to
communicate with a central control system and operates in real-time, allowing for efficient
and precise spraying operations. The robot is equipped with sensors, actuators, and a spraying
mechanism to deliver the desired agrochemicals in a controlled manner. It navigates through
the field autonomously or with remote guidance, ensuring optimal coverage and minimizing
resource wastage.

Motivation:

The motivation behind the development of the Realtime Wireless Agri Sprayer Robot is to
address the limitations of traditional spraying methods. Manual spraying is labor-intensive,
time-consuming, and often results in uneven application, leading to suboptimal crop
protection and resource wastage. Tractor-mounted sprayers have limitations in terms of
maneuverability and precision. The agri sprayer robot aims to overcome these challenges by
providing a technology-driven solution that enables targeted spraying, reduces chemical
usage, and improves overall crop health.

Significance:

The Realtime Wireless Agri Sprayer Robot offers several significant benefits. Firstly, it
enhances the precision and accuracy of spraying operations. By utilizing sensors and
advanced control algorithms, the robot can precisely identify the areas that require spraying,
reducing the risk of overspraying or missing certain sections. This targeted approach
minimizes the use of agrochemicals, reducing environmental impact and optimizing resource
utilization. Additionally, the real-time wireless communication allows for adaptability and
responsiveness to changing field conditions, ensuring optimal spraying efficiency and
effectiveness.

Problem Statement:

The problem statement addressed by the Realtime Wireless Agri Sprayer Robot is the need
for an automated and precise spraying system in agriculture. The limitations of manual
spraying and tractor-mounted sprayers have led to inefficiencies, overuse of chemicals, and
inadequate coverage. The challenge is to develop a robotic system that can navigate
autonomously, identify the areas requiring spraying, deliver the agrochemicals accurately, and
optimize the spraying process in real-time. The aim is to enhance crop protection, reduce
chemical wastage, and improve overall agricultural productivity through advanced robotics
and wireless communication technologies.

Need for the project

The need for such a robot stem from several factors:

 Precision spraying.

 Time and labour efficiency.

 Reduced environmental impact.

 Data-driven decision-making.

 Safety and scalability.

 Chapter 2

Literature Survey
Adamides, George, and Yael Edan (2023) conducted a review and presented a roadmap for
human-robot collaboration systems in agricultural tasks. They discussed the various
applications of robots in agriculture, such as harvesting, pruning, and spraying, and
highlighted the challenges and future directions for effective human-robot collaboration.

Fountas, S., Malounas, I., Athanasakos, L., Avgoustakis, I., & Espejo-Garcia, B. (2022)
focused on AI-assisted vision for agricultural robots. They explored the integration of
artificial intelligence techniques with computer vision for tasks such as plant detection, fruit
recognition, and weed identification. The paper discussed the benefits and potential
applications of AI-assisted vision in agricultural robotics.

Nasir, F., Haris, M., Khan, B., Tufail, M., Khan, M. T., & Dong, Z. (2023) presented a real-
time plant recognition and crop row navigation system for an autonomous precision
agricultural sprayer robot. Their work utilized computer vision techniques to identify plants
and navigate along crop rows, enabling targeted spraying. The paper focused on the
implementation and performance evaluation of the proposed system.

Alam, Muhammad Shahab, et al. (2022) introduced the TobSet dataset, which consists of
tobacco crop and weeds images, and utilized it for vision-based spraying by agricultural
robots. They highlighted the importance of accurate image datasets for training and testing
vision-based algorithms and discussed the application of the dataset in the context of spraying
tasks.

Tahmasebi, Mona, Mohammad Gohari, and Alireza Emami (2022) developed an autonomous
pesticide sprayer robot with a color-based vision system. Their work focused on detecting the
presence of pests on plants using color information and autonomously applying pesticides.
The paper presented the design, implementation, and evaluation of the vision-based spraying
system.
Hizatate, Tomoaki, and Noboru Noguchi (2023) addressed the work schedule optimization
for electric agricultural robots in orchards. They proposed an optimization algorithm to
determine the most efficient paths and schedules for the robots to perform tasks such as
harvesting and spraying. The paper discussed the benefits of optimizing work schedules in
terms of energy efficiency and productivity.

Navya, P., and D. Sudha (2023) presented an artificial intelligence-based robot for harvesting,
pesticide spraying, and maintaining a water management system in agriculture using the
Internet of Things (IoT). Their work integrated AI algorithms with IoT technologies to enable
autonomous operations and optimize resource management. The paper discussed the
utilization of AI and IoT in various agricultural tasks.

Benos, Lefteris, Claus G. Sørensen, and Dionysis Bochtis (2022) discussed the field
deployment of robotic systems for agriculture considering key safety, labor, ethics, and
legislation issues. They highlighted the challenges and considerations associated with the
deployment of agricultural robots, including safety regulations, labor displacement, and
ethical concerns. The paper provided insights into the practical aspects of adopting robotics in
agriculture.

Wang, Xuelei, et al. (2022) designed an autonomous navigation intelligent spraying robot.
Their work focused on developing a robot capable of autonomously navigating in agricultural
fields and performing precision spraying tasks. The paper presented the design, control
algorithms, and experimental evaluation of the autonomous navigation system.

Pak, Jeonghyeon, et al. (2022) conducted a field evaluation of path-planning algorithms for
autonomous mobile robots in smart farms. They compared the performance of different path-
planning algorithms in terms of efficiency and accuracy for autonomous mobile robots
operating in agricultural environments. The paper discussed the results of the field evaluation
and provided insights into the suitability of various path-planning techniques for practical
implementation.

Cheng, Chao, et al. (2023) discussed recent advancements in agricultural robots and
highlighted their benefits and challenges. They presented an overview of the applications of
agricultural robots in various tasks, such as planting, harvesting, and spraying. The paper also
discussed the challenges associated with robotic systems, including perception, navigation,
and integration with existing agricultural practices.
Xie, Dongbo, et al. (2022) conducted a review focused on actuators and sensors for
application in agricultural robots. They discussed various types of actuators and sensors used
in agricultural robotics, such as motors, hydraulic systems, and vision sensors. The paper
provided insights into the selection, integration, and performance of actuators and sensors in
agricultural robot systems.

Chapter 3

Existing Methodology

In the past, a simple agriculture sprayer was commonly used for pesticide and fertilizer
application in farming. The operation of this sprayer involved manually filling the tank with
the desired agrochemical solution. The farmer would then carry the sprayer on their back or
transport it on a tractor. While walking through the field, the farmer would manually pump
the handle to pressurize the tank, allowing the agrochemical solution to be sprayed through a
nozzle.

However, this method had several drawbacks. Firstly, it was labor-intensive and time-
consuming. The farmer had to walk through the entire field while carrying the heavy sprayer
on their back, leading to fatigue and decreased efficiency. Additionally, the manual pumping
of the handle required physical effort, limiting the spraying capacity and causing discomfort
for the farmer. Another drawback was the lack of precision and uniformity in the application
of agrochemicals. Since the sprayer was operated by hand, the spraying pattern could vary,
resulting in uneven coverage. Some areas might receive excessive chemical application,
leading to potential crop damage, while other areas might be missed altogether,
compromising pest and weed control.

Furthermore, the manual sprayer had limited reach and maneuverability. It was challenging to
access tall or densely grown crops, and areas near obstacles or field boundaries were often
difficult to spray effectively. This limited reach and maneuverability could result in
inadequate pest management and decreased crop yield. The manual sprayer also suffered
from the issue of overuse or underuse of agrochemicals. Since there was no precise control
over the amount of solution being sprayed, it was common to either apply excessive
chemicals, leading to environmental pollution and increased production costs, or apply
insufficient amounts, resulting in ineffective pest control.
 Chapter 4

Proposed Methodology

The real-time Agri sprayer robot operates through the integration of various hardware and
software components. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of agri sprayer. The hardware
modules include an Arduino UNO controller, a 6-CH transmitter and receiver for
communication, hybrid planetary general DC motors, a motor driver for motor control, a
power supply for providing electrical power, a relay module for switching the spray pumps
on and off, spray pumps for dispensing the liquid solution, a robot body chassis constructed
through CNC laser cutting and metal bending, and 3D printed brackets, clamps, and solid
parts for additional support and functionality. On the software side, Catia V5 is utilized for
mechanical design, parts design, sketching, assembly design, drafting, and generative sheet
metal design. It allows for the creation and visualization of the robot's physical structure and
components.

The Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is employed for programming the
Arduino UNO controller. This software facilitates the writing, editing, and uploading of the
code necessary for controlling the robot's movements, pump activation, and overall operation.
By combining these hardware and software elements, the real-time Agri sprayer robot is able
to function effectively. The Arduino UNO controller acts as the central control unit, receiving
commands from the transmitter via the receiver and executing the appropriate actions. The
motor driver enables precise control over the DC motors, allowing for smooth and accurate
movements. The power supply provides the necessary electrical energy to power the various
components of the robot. The relay module enables the activation and deactivation of the
spray pumps. The robot body chassis, constructed with CNC laser cutting, metal bending, and
3D printed parts, provides a sturdy and functional structure for the robot. Overall, the real-
time Agri sprayer robot combines both hardware and software components to create an
autonomous agricultural spraying system that can navigate fields, activate spray pumps, and
efficiently distribute liquid solutions for crop protection and management.

Fig. 1: Block diagram of Agri sprayer.

Methodology

Arduino UNO controller: The Arduino UNO serves as the main controller of the Agri sprayer
robot. It receives inputs, processes data, and controls the various hardware components
accordingly.

6-CH transmitter & receiver: The transmitter allows the operator to send commands
wirelessly to the robot, while the receiver receives these commands and relays them to the
Arduino UNO for further processing.

Hybrid planetary general DC motors: These motors provide the necessary mechanical power
for the movement of the Agri sprayer robot. They are responsible for driving the wheels or
tracks, and other movable parts.

Motor Driver: The motor driver module acts as an interface between the Arduino UNO and
the motors, allowing the controller to control the speed and direction of the motors.

Power supply: The power supply module provides the necessary electrical power to all the
components of the Agri sprayer robot, ensuring their proper functioning.

Relay module: The relay module is used to control the operation of the spray pumps. It
enables the Arduino UNO to switch the pumps on or off as needed.
Spray pumps: The spray pumps are responsible for pumping the liquid solution, such as
pesticides or fertilizers, from the tank and spraying it onto the crops or agricultural fields.

Robot body chassis: The robot body chassis provides the structural support and framework
for the Agri sprayer robot. It houses and protects the various hardware components.

CNC laser cutting: CNC laser cutting technology is used to precisely cut and shape the metal
parts of the robot body chassis, ensuring accuracy and efficiency.

CNC metal bending: CNC metal bending is utilized to bend and shape metal components,
such as brackets and clamps, with precision, enabling proper fitting and assembly.

3D printed brackets, clamps, and solid parts: 3D printing technology is employed to create
customized brackets, clamps, and other solid parts required for the assembly and operation of
the Agri sprayer robot.

Catia V5: Catia V5 is a software used for mechanical design, parts design, sketching,
assembly design, drafting, and generative sheet metal design. It is employed to design and
visualize the various components and structures of the Agri sprayer robot.

Arduino IDE: The Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is the software
platform used for programming and uploading code to the Arduino UNO controller. It
provides a user-friendly interface for writing, compiling, and uploading the necessary code to
control the robot's behavior and interaction with the hardware components.

Algorithm

step 1: Initialization: The robot is powered on, and the Arduino UNO controller initializes the
system by running the preloaded software code.

step 2: Communication: The 6-CH transmitter allows the operator to wirelessly send
commands to the robot. These commands are received by the receiver module connected
to the Arduino UNO controller.

step 3: Command Processing: The Arduino UNO controller processes the received
commands, interpreting them as instructions for the robot's movements and spraying
operations.

step 4: Motor Control: The motor driver connected to the Arduino UNO controller regulates
the power and direction to the hybrid planetary general DC motors. This control enables
 the robot to move forward, backward, turn left, turn right, or perform other maneuvers as
commanded by the operator.

step 5: Navigation: Based on the received commands, the robot's motor mechanism
determines the direction and maneuverability of the robot. This allows the robot to
navigate through the fields, covering the desired areas for spraying.

step 6: Spray Pump Activation: The relay module, controlled by the Arduino UNO controller,
switches the spray pumps on and off. When instructed, the relay module activates the
spray pumps, allowing them to dispense the liquid solution onto the crops.

step 7: Spraying Operation: As the robot moves through the field, the activated spray pumps
distribute the liquid solution evenly onto the crops. This ensures that the crops receive the
required number of agrochemicals for effective pest and weed control.

step 8: Autonomous Operation: The robot operates autonomously, following the programmed
instructions and predefined paths. It continues to move, spray, and cover the designated
areas until the task is completed or until instructed otherwise by the operator.

step 9: Monitoring and Safety: The Arduino UNO controller constantly monitors the robot's
status and sensors. It incorporates safety features to prevent collisions or accidents, such
as obstacle detection sensors or emergency stop mechanisms.

step 10: Real-time Feedback: The robot may be equipped with sensors or cameras to
provide real-time feedback on the spraying process, field conditions, or any potential
issues. This feedback can be transmitted to a monitoring system or displayed to the
operator for analysis and decision-making.
 CHAPTER 5

HARDWARE COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

5.1 Arduino Microcontroller

Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino consists
of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller) and a
piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your computer,
used to write, and upload computer code to the physical board. Arduino board designs use a
variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards are equipped with sets of digital and
analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards ('shields')
or breadboards (for prototyping) and other circuits. The boards feature serial communications
interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models, which are also used for
loading programs. The microcontrollers can be programmed using the C and C+
+ programming languages, using a standard API which is also known as the Arduino
language, inspired by the Processing language, and used with a modified version of the
Processing IDE. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino project
provides an integrated development environment (IDE) and a command line tool developed
in Go.

The Arduino project began in 2005 as a tool for students at the Interaction Design Institute
Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices and professionals to create
devices that interact with their environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples
of such devices intended for beginner hobbyists include
simple robots, thermostats, and motion detectors.

The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the founders of the project
used to meet. The bar was named after Arduino of Ivrea, who was the margrave of the March
of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.

The Arduino platform has become quite popular with people just starting out with electronics,
and for good reason. Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, the Arduino does
not need a separate piece of hardware (called a programmer) to load new code onto the board
— you can simply use a USB cable. Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version
of C++, making it easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor
that breaks out the functions of the micro-controller into a more accessible package.

Fig. 2: Arduino UNO.

The Uno is one of the more popular boards in the Arduino family and a great choice for
beginners. The Arduino hardware and software was designed for artists, designers, hobbyists,
hackers, newbies, and anyone interested in creating interactive objects or environments.
Arduino can interact with buttons, LEDs, motors, speakers, GPS units, cameras, the internet,
and even your smart-phone or you’re TV! This flexibility combined with the fact that the
Arduino software is free, the hardware boards are cheap, and both the software and hardware
are easy to learn has led to a large community of users who have contributed code and
released instructions for a huge variety of Arduino-based projects.

What’s on the board?

There are many varieties of Arduino boards that can be used for different purposes. Some
boards look a bit different from the one below, but most Arduino have most of these
components in common:

Power (USB / Barrel Jack): Every Arduino board needs a way to be connected to a power
source. The Arduino UNO can be powered from a USB cable coming from your computer or
a wall power supply that is terminated in a barrel jack. In the picture above the USB
connection is labeled (1) and the barrel jack is labeled.
The USB connection is also how you will load code onto your Arduino board. More on how
to program with Arduino

NOTE: Do NOT use a power supply greater than 20 Volts as you will overpower (and
thereby destroy) you’re Arduino. The recommended voltage for most Arduino models is
between 6 and 12 Volts.

Pins (5V, 3.3V, GND, Analog, Digital, PWM, AREF)

The pins on your Arduino are the places where you connect wires to construct a circuit
(probably in conjunction with a breadboard and some wire. They usually have black plastic
‘headers’ that allow you to just plug a wire right into the board. The Arduino has several
different kinds of pins, each of which is labeled on the board and used for different functions.

Fig. 3: Arduino UNO board.

 GND (3): Short for ‘Ground’. There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of
which can be used to ground your circuit.
 5V (4) & 3.3V (5): As you might guess, the 5V pin supplies 5 volts of power, and the
3.3V pin supplies 3.3 volts of power. Most of the simple components used with the
Arduino run happily off 5 or 3.3 volts.
 Analog (6): The area of pins under the ‘Analog In’ label (A0 through A5 on the
UNO) are Analog In pins. These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor (like
a temperature sensor) and convert it into a digital value that we can read.
  Digital (7): Across from the analog pins are the digital pins (0 through 13 on the
UNO). These pins can be used for both digital input (like telling if a button is pushed)
and digital output (like powering an LED).
 PWM (8): You may have noticed the tilde (~) next to some of the digital pins (3, 5, 6,
9, 10, and 11 on the UNO). These pins act as normal digital pins, but can also be used
for something called Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). Think of these pins as being
able to simulate analog output (like fading an LED in and out).
 AREF (9): Stands for Analog Reference. Most of the time you can leave this pin
alone. It is sometimes used to set an external reference voltage (between 0 and 5
Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.
Reset Button: Just like the original Nintendo, the Arduino has a reset button (10). Pushing it
will temporarily connect the reset pin to ground and restart any code that is loaded on the
Arduino. This can be very useful if your code doesn’t repeat, but you want to test it multiple
times. Unlike the original Nintendo however, blowing on the Arduino doesn’t usually fix any
problems.

Power LED Indicator: Just beneath and to the right of the word “UNO” on your circuit
board, there’s a tiny LED next to the word ‘ON’ (11). This LED should light up whenever
you plug your Arduino into a power source. If this light doesn’t turn on, there’s a good
chance something is wrong. Time to re-check your circuit!

TX RX LEDs: TX is short for transmit; RX is short for receive. These markings appear quite
a bit in electronics to indicate the pins responsible for serial communication. In our case,
there are two places on the Arduino UNO where TX and RX appear — once by digital pins 0
and 1, and a second time next to the TX and RX indicator LEDs (12). These LEDs will give
us some nice visual indications whenever our Arduino is receiving or transmitting data (like
when we’re loading a new program onto the board).

Main IC: The black thing with all the metal legs is an IC, or Integrated Circuit (13). Think of
it as the brains of our Arduino. The main IC on the Arduino is slightly different from board
type to board type but is usually from the ATmega line of ICs from the ATMEL company.
This can be important, as you may need to know the IC type (along with your board type)
before loading up a new program from the Arduino software. This information can usually be
found in writing on the top side of the IC. If you want to know more about the difference
between various IC’s, reading the datasheets is often a good idea.
Voltage Regulator: The voltage regulator (14) is not actually something you can (or should)
interact with on the Arduino. But it is potentially useful to know that it is there and what it’s
for. The voltage regulator does exactly what it says — it controls the amount of voltage that is
let into the Arduino board. Think of it as a kind of gatekeeper; it will turn away an extra
voltage that might harm the circuit. Of course, it has its limits, so don’t hook up your Arduino
to anything greater than 20 volts.

Technical specifications
 Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega328P
 Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
 Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
 Digital I/O Pins: 14
 PWM Pins: 6 (Pin # 3, 5, 6, 9, 10 and 11)
 UART: 1
 I2C: 1
 SPI: 1
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
 Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
 SRAM: 2 KB
 EEPROM: 1 KB
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz
 Length: 68.6 mm
 Width: 53.4 mm
 Weight: 25 g
 ICSP Header: Yes
 Power Sources: DC Power Jack & USB Port
Arduino Technology

A typical example of the Arduino board is Arduino Uno. It includes an ATmega328

microcontroller, and it has 28-pins. The pin configuration of the Arduino Uno board is shown
in the above. It consists of 14-digital i/o pins. Wherein 6 pins are used as pulse width
modulation o/ps and 6 analog i/ps, a USB connection, a power jack, a 16MHz crystal
oscillator, a reset button, and an ICSP header.

Fig. 4: Arduino pin diagram.

Arduino board can be powered either from the personal computer through a USB or external
source like a battery or an adaptor. This board can operate with an external supply of 7-12V
by giving voltage reference through the IORef pin or through the pin Vin.
Digital I/Ps: It comprises of 14-digital I/O pins, each pin takes up and provides 40mA
current. Some of the pins have special functions like pins 0 & 1, which acts as a transmitter
and receiver respectively. For serial communication, pins-2 & 3 are external interrupts,
3,5,6,9,11 pins deliver PWM o/p and pin-13 is used to connect LED.
Analog i/ps: It has 6-analog I/O pins, each pin provides a 10 bits resolution.
Aref:  This pin gives a reference to the analog i/ps.
Reset: When the pin is low, then it resets the microcontroller.
Features of the Arduino Uno Board

 It is an easy USB interface. This allows interface with USB as this is like a serial
device.
 The chip on the board plugs straight into your USB port and supports on your
computer as a virtual serial port. ...
 It is easy-to-finding the microcontroller brain which is the ATmega328 chip. It has
a greater number of hardware features like timers, external and internal interrupts,
PWM pins and multiple sleep modes.
 It is an open-source design and there is an advantage of being open source is that
it has a large community of people using and troubleshooting it. ...
  It is a 16 MHz clock which is fast enough for most applications and does not
speed up the microcontroller.
 It is very convenient to manage power inside it and it had a feature of built-in
voltage regulation. ...
 13 digital pins and 6 analog pins. This sort of pins allows you to connect hardware
to your Arduino Uno board externally.
 This has an ICSP connector for bypassing the USB port and interfacing the
Arduino directly as a serial device. ...
 It has a 32 KB of flash memory for storing your code.
 An on-board LED is attached to digital pin 13 to make fast the debugging of code
and to make the debug process easy.
 Finally, it has a button to reset the program on the chip.
Arduino Uno Architecture

Basically, the processor of the Arduino board uses the Harvard architecture where the
program code and program data have separate memory. It consists of two memories such as
program memory and data memory. Wherein the data is stored in data memory and the code
is stored in the flash program memory. The Atmega328 microcontroller has 32kb of flash
memory, 2kb of SRAM  1kb of EPROM and operates with a 16MHz clock speed.

Advantages of Arduino Uno

Ready to Use: The biggest advantage of Arduino is its ready to use structure. As Arduino
comes in a complete package form which includes the 5V regulator, a burner, an oscillator, a
micro-controller, serial communication interface, LED, and headers for the connections. You
don’t have to think about programmer connections for programming or any other interface.
Just plug it into USB port of your computer and that’s it. Your revolutionary idea is going to
change the world after just few words of coding.

Examples of codes: Another big advantage of Arduino is its library of examples present
inside the software of Arduino. I’ll explain this advantage using an example of voltage
measurement. For example, if you want to measure voltage using ATmega8 micro-controller
and want to display the output on computer screen then you must go through the whole
process.  The process will start from learning the ADCs of micro-controller for measurement,
went through the learning of serial communication for display and will end at USB – Serial
converters. If you want to check this whole process, click on the link below.
 Fig. 5: Arduino UNO architecture.
DC voltage measurement using Atmel AVR micro-controller. On the other hand, if you want
to measure the voltage using Arduino. Just plug in your Arduino and open the
ReadAnalogVoltage.

The project is ready after putting some reasonable resistors and zener diode. You can easily
see the voltage on the Serial terminal of Arduino.

Effortless functions: During coding of Arduino, you will notice some functions which make
the life so easy. Another advantage of Arduino is its automatic unit conversion capability. You
can say that during debugging you don’t have to worry about the unit’s conversions. Just use
your all force on the main parts of your projects. You don’t have to worry about side
problems.

Large community: There are many forums present on the internet in which people are talking
about the Arduino. Engineers, hobbyists, and professionals are making their projects through
Arduino. You can easily find help about everything. Moreover, the Arduino website itself
explains each function of Arduino
 Fig. 6: Arduino IDE.
Applications of Arduino uno

 Weighing Machines
 Traffic Light Count Down Timer
 Parking Lot Counter
 Embedded systems
 Home Automation
 Industrial Automation
 Medical Instrument
 Emergency Light for Railways
Weighing Machines: Load cell which is an amplifier senses the weight and supplies an
electrical analog voltage to HX711 Load Amplifier Module. Then this amplified value is fed
to the Arduino where the output of HX711 is converted into the weight values in grams. The
output result is displayed on the 16*2 LCD.

Traffic Light Count Down Timer: Traffic lights are great examples of simple robotic systems
that have had profound effects on society. Using the Arduino Uno and a simple circuit, we
will create a model of a three coloured traffic light. The circuit will consist of three lights,
green; yellow; and red, that are each connected to the Arduino Uno.
Parking Lot Counter: The use of parking systems in cars has brought ease for the drivers
especially when they have to park the cars in tight places or turning cars on tight turns. The
parking system we made uses an ultrasonic distance sensor for measuring distance of coming
obstacles and lets the user know by changing its alarm intensity that the obstacle is near.
Similarly, it also displays the distance of the sensor from the obstacle on LCD which can also
give the idea how far is the obstacle. To understand how we can make parking sensors we
have provided the Arduino sketch and the circuit design that we implemented on hardware.

Embedded systems: And an Arduino is one of those Embedded System Devices (called as an
Embedded Development Board), which got very famous in the maker's community due to its
free and open-source nature. An Arduino can be used for making any kind of simple
automated electronic projects.

Industrial Automation: Industrial Automation with Industrial Arduino. The industrial PLC
Arduino is a great option to fulfil these needs. Flexibility, safety, robustness, and price. Open-
Source Hardware ready to use on industrial environments lets you automate installations and
production plans.

Medical Instrument: Arduino-based Health Projects. to build new medical devices. It

provides a solution for measurement of body parameters like ECG, Temperature, Moisture,
and Heartbeat. It also detects the body condition and location of the patients.

Emergency Light for Railways: Arduino code is written to detect obstacle on the track as
well as fire in the trains, and floods in the railway track and simulated in Proteus. The result
shows that this new innovative technology will increase the reliability of safety systems of
railway.

Home Automation: This application makes use of the Arduino Uno board, Bluetooth
interface for connectivity, and smartphones. Software loaded boards are connected to the
home devices like lamps, A/C, TV, Refrigerator, and Bluetooth software is interfaced with the
board. The app loaded in the smartphone talk to the processor through Bluetooth connectivity
and inputs from the phone are used to control the operation of the devices.

Operations like switch on, switch off, increasing or decreasing the intensity, volume, and
other operating of parameters of these devices. Remote monitoring and operation is also
enabled. These applications simplify the operation of household gadgets and enables better
control.
Public Utility Automation: Applications to manage public utilities like street lighting,
Dynamic traffic management systems are being implemented.

Street lighting Street lights are fitted with Arduino boards and sensors. The microcontroller is
programmed to read the inputs from the signal sent by the sensor on the light and temperature
change and dynamically change the voltage supplied to the lights and control the intensity of
the light. This system can be used to switch on and switch off the light also. Dynamic traffic
Management Arduino controller along with infra-red sensors helps in managing the traffic
dynamically. Input from the sensor helps the controller to measure the volume of traffic and
accordingly control the timing of signals as per the traffic flow and its direction.

5.2 CNC Metal Laser Cutting

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) laser cutting is a highly precise and efficient
manufacturing process that uses a laser beam to cut through various materials with
exceptional accuracy. In the context of designing and fabricating a wireless pick and place
robot, CNC laser cutting plays a crucial role in creating the necessary components for the
robot's structure and functionality. When it comes to designing the robot, engineers and
designers can use computer-aided design (CAD) software to create detailed 2D or 3D models
of the robot's parts. These models can then be converted into machine-readable instructions
that guide the CNC laser cutting machine.

The CNC laser cutting machine operates by directing a high-powered laser beam onto
the material to be cut. The laser beam is controlled by a computer program that precisely
determines its movement and intensity. As the laser beam interacts with the material, it
generates an intense heat that melts or vaporizes the material along the predetermined cutting
path. The focused laser beam can cut through various materials, including metals, plastics,
and wood. By utilizing CNC laser cutting, the robot's structural components can be accurately
manufactured with intricate details and precise dimensions. For example, the robot's chassis,
which provides the framework and support for other components, can be fabricated from a
sturdy metal sheet using CNC laser cutting. The laser cutting process ensures clean and
smooth edges, minimizing the need for additional finishing or post-processing.

Additionally, CNC laser cutting enables the creation of intricate shapes and patterns in
the robot's components. For example, the robot's gripper, which is responsible for picking up
and placing objects, can be designed with specific contours and features optimized for its
function. These complex shapes can be easily achieved through CNC laser cutting, allowing
for a more efficient and reliable grip. Moreover, CNC laser cutting is a highly automated
process, which means it can be seamlessly integrated into the overall fabrication workflow.
Once the design files are prepared and loaded onto the CNC laser cutting machine, it can
autonomously cut the required components without requiring constant manual intervention.
This automation speeds up the manufacturing process, reduces errors, and ensures
consistency in the produced parts.

When it comes to creating a wireless pick and place robot, precision and efficiency
are crucial. CNC metal laser cutting is a sophisticated technique that uses a high-powered
laser to precisely cut through various types of metal sheets. This technology allows
manufacturers to produce intricate and accurate parts with speed and consistency. In the
design phase of a wireless pick and place robot, this project created a detailed drawings and
specifications for each component. These components include the robot's body, arms,
grippers, and other structural elements. CNC metal laser cutting comes into play during the
fabrication process of these components. The laser cutting machine is programmed using
computer software to follow the precise paths and patterns defined in the design. The
machine focuses a powerful laser beam onto the metal sheet, heating it to a point where it
melts or vaporizes, creating the desired cut. The laser can be controlled with exceptional
precision, allowing for intricate shapes and fine details to be cut accurately.

One of the significant advantages of using CNC metal laser cutting in the fabrication
process is its ability to handle various types of metals with ease. Whether it's steel, aluminum,
or stainless steel, the laser cutting machine can efficiently cut through these materials,
ensuring consistent quality across all components. The accuracy and precision of CNC metal
laser cutting ensure that the robot's components fit together perfectly during the assembly
process. This is essential for the robot's smooth functioning and reliable performance.
Additionally, the clean and precise cuts produced by laser cutting minimize the need for
additional finishing or post-processing, saving time and resources in the manufacturing
process.

Moreover, CNC metal laser cutting enables flexibility in design iterations. If

modifications or improvements are required during the prototyping phase, the laser cutting
machine can quickly adapt to the changes and create revised components without extensive
retooling or setup time.

5.3 CNC Metal Bending

Due to advanced technologies and inventions, the world has seen numerous changes for the
better. Thanks to these technologies, industries around the world have been introduced to
numerous aids, solutions, and tools that have made operations easier, more efficient, and even
environment friendly. One such tool is the CNC Bending Machine. CNC Hydraulic Bending
Machine and CNC Bending Machine have been around for a while but have become better
and better with time and advancement. It is a machine that helps bend cold sheets of metals
into desired geometric and cross-sectional shapes. It has several uses which are needed in
various industries such as manufacturing, automobile, railway, aircraft, shipbuilding, and so
on.
Some of the features for CNC sheet metal bending machines are:

 A powerful CNC control system for precise control and supervision of the bending
and pressing.
 Excellent back gauge adjustments to help suit your needs.
 Consistent parallel and precision run with a reliable crowning system.
 Has top-class optical safety without disrupting performance or productivity.
 Smart Tooling App from WILA for efficient management of inventory and quick data
entry.
 An improved system for tooling clamping.
 All products have Hybrid Eco Function to support the environment and be eco-
friendly.
 Active angle Control for better angle management and measurement.
CNC bending, also called CNC forming, is the process whereby sheet metal is reshaped from
a flat form. Using CNC bending technology you can produce almost any component design.
A basic example of this would be the creation of a 90-degree bend transforming a flat piece
of metal into an ‘L’ shaped bracket.
 The machines used for CNC bending are called CNC press brakes (or brake presses).
They can transform sheet metal ranging in size from a few millimetres to several metres long.
The press brake is made up of a bottom bed and a top rail or beam. A vee (or die) sits on the
bottom bed and a punch tool sits on the top rail. The size and angle of the vee and the punch
are determined by the thickness of the sheet metal to be used and the geometry of the desired
bend. Once the machine is operating, the punch forces the metal into the vee and creates a
shape. A CNC press brake has a programmable console into which the data (numbers) are
entered. This controls the position of a back stop which in turn, controls the height and length
of each bend. It can also quickly alter the height between the bottom bed and top rail,
allowing you to easily remove parts once formed. The beauty of this technology is that once
the console is programmed, you can repeatedly form multiple bends accurately (with a
tolerance of a few microns).

5.4 Powder Coating

Powder Coating is a dry finishing process created by an electric charge that causes a dry

powder to fuse to the surface of the metal. This is then baked in a curing oven to achieve a
smooth coating. It is usually used to create a hard finish that is tougher than conventional
paint. Powder coating does not have a liquid carrier, meaning it can produce thicker coatings
than conventional liquid coatings without running or sagging. It produces minimal
appearance differences between horizontally coated surfaces and vertically coated surfaces.

Powder coating is a surface finishing option that applies a relatively thin film to
provide excellent corrosion protection and chemical resistance in a highly cosmetic manner. 
While parts are often designed with specific colors, gloss, and textures – the types of powder
coating are often overlooked, yet a critical component to every powder coating job. Powder
coatings are applied in a variety of types. Each resin system has specific attributes that are
able to better suit needs of specific environments. Some of the most popular types of powder
coating include Epoxy Powder Coatings; Polyester Powder Coatings; Hybrid Powder
Coatings.

Polyester Powder Coating

The two most widely used types of powder coating are TGIC Polyester and Urethane
Polyester. Both types of powder coating provide excellent wear resistance and outdoor
durability. Polyester Urethane powder systems provide excellent chemical resistance.  This
powder coating system is often seen in the automotive, plumbing and power transmission
industries.  Polyester urethane powder typically needs to undergo a higher temperature curing
cycle, which limits its ability to be applied to low-cure candidates, such as aluminum
extruded parts, cast parts and lead based parts. Another limitation of polyester urethanes is
that they are limited to thin film applications of 1-3 mils (25-75µm).  As a thickness
increases, the film has the tendency pull back on itself which can produce an “orange-peel”
effect.

Like Polyester Urethane Powders, TGIC Polyester powders are often used in power
transmission and automotive industries. TGIC Polyester powder coating films on the other
hand can be applied with greater ease as they can be sprayed at thickness greater than 3 mils
(>75µm). TGIC Polyester powders can also be cured at lower temperatures making them
ideal for cast parts and extruded parts. TGIC-Polyester is also very resistant to overbaking,
which is associated with a lower gloss and a yellow appearance; however, the chemical
resistance of this powder coating system is reduced.

Epoxy-Polyester Hybrid Powder Coating

Hybrid powder coatings are very similar to Epoxy Powder coating systems as these types
both offer good corrosion protection. Hybrid powder types typically have a greater ease of
application due to their over-bake stability, like Polyester-TGIC films; although, the hybrid
powders are not well suited for applications exposed to UV-rays like Epoxy powders and
have a slightly reduced chemical resistance than epoxy powders. Hybrid powder coating
systems are used across many industry subsectors, but often applied in the
telecommunication, electronic and plumbing industries.

Epoxy Powder Coating

Epoxy powder coating is one of the first powder coating systems to become commercially
available and still maintains its popularity today in various industries including Medical, Oil
& Gas, Automotive and Defense. Epoxy based coatings display excellent performance in
chemical resistance, wearability and provide great corrosion protection. 

Advantages of Epoxy powder coating

Epoxy powder coatings provide tough, durable, and resilient coatings for metal. They are
well-suited to applications where there is a requirement for a hard, electrical insulating
coating, or where their surfaces will be subject to a wide range of temperatures.

 Epoxy powders produce and exceptionally hard finish, which makes the surfaces they
coat resistant to impact and abrasion.
 Epoxy powder coating also provides an effective barrier against corrosion.
 It is effective as a high dielectric insulator, when applied to copper or aluminium
conductors, and is useful in reducing the need for time-consuming and expensive
lamination processes.
Applications

Due to its resistance to corrosion and harsh chemical, epoxy powder coating is used as a
metal protector for a wide variety of applications:

 It coats pipelines, pillars, and poles.

 Epoxy powders protect steel rebars in high load bearing structures.
 Its anti-corrosion properties work for marine structures and vessels.
 Epoxy powder coating protects industrial furniture, for when it is exposed to
aggressive cooling, and cleaning and lubrication fluids.
 Epoxy powder coating is applied to household goods such as washing machines,
refrigerators, microwaves, and stoves.
Properties

 Many epoxy powder coatings can be used at temperatures of 150°C or higher.

 In thicknesses over 10 mils (250 µm), they have a dielectric strength of up to 12,000
volts/mil.
 They are resistant to corrosion and to most solvents and mild acids.
 Epoxy powders have excellent adherence to metal substrates, and in many situations
do not require a primer.
5.5 6-CH Transmitter and Receiver

A wireless pick and place robot is a robotic system that can autonomously move objects from
one location to another. To control such a robot wirelessly, we use a transmitter and a
receiver. In this case, we specifically use a 6-channel transmitter and receiver. The transmitter
is a device that you can hold and use to send commands to the robot. It has six different
channels or buttons that you can press to control various functions of the robot. Each channel
corresponds to a specific action or movement that the robot can perform. For example,
moving the robot forward, backward, left, right, picking up an object, and placing an object.

The receiver, on the other hand, is a device installed in the robot. It receives the signals sent
by the transmitter and interprets them as commands for the robot to execute. The receiver is
connected to the robot's control system, allowing it to activate the necessary motors or
actuators to carry out the desired actions.

In the design and fabrication of the wireless pick and place robot, the 6-channel transmitter
and receiver play a crucial role. They enable the operator or user to control the robot remotely
without the need for physical connections. This wireless control allows for greater flexibility
and freedom of movement. During the fabrication process, the transmitter and receiver are
carefully integrated into the robot's electronics. The receiver is usually placed inside the
robot's main body, while the transmitter is designed to be portable and handheld. They
communicate with each other using a wireless communication protocol, such as radio
frequency or Bluetooth, depending on the specific implementation.
 Once the transmitter and receiver are properly set up and connected, it is ready to operate
using the buttons on the transmitter to send signals to the robot. For example, if the operator
wants the robot to move forward, they will press the corresponding button on the transmitter's
channel dedicated to forward movement. The receiver receives this signal, processes it, and
triggers the appropriate motors or actuators in the robot to make it move forward. Similarly,
the other channels on the transmitter control different actions of the robot. For instance,
pressing the "pick-up" button might activate the robot's gripper mechanism to pick up an
object, while pressing the "place" button could trigger the release of the object at a desired
location.

5.6 Planetary general DC motors

A planetary gear motor, also known as a planetary gearbox motor, combines a DC motor with
a planetary gear system to provide enhanced torque and efficiency compared to a general DC
motor. Let's explore how a planetary gear motor works and the advantages it offers over a
general DC motor. Working of a Planetary Gear Motor: A planetary gear motor consists of
three main components: the DC motor, the sun gear, and the planet gears. The DC motor
provides the rotational power, which is transmitted to the sun gear. The sun gear is located at
the center and is surrounded by multiple planet gears that are evenly spaced around it. These
planet gears are held in place by a carrier. The outer ring gear meshes with the planet gears.
When the DC motor rotates the sun gear, it causes the planet gears to rotate as well. As the
planet gears rotate, they engage with the outer ring gear, resulting in a combined rotational
motion. The planetary gear system allows for the distribution of torque and load sharing
among the planet gears, which helps in achieving high torque output.

Advantages of Planetary Gear Motors over General DC Motors:

Increased Torque: The planetary gear system in a planetary gear motor allows for torque
multiplication. It can generate higher torque output compared to a general DC motor of the
same size. This makes planetary gear motors suitable for applications that require high
torque, such as robotics and automation.

Compact Size: Planetary gear motors are more compact than general DC motors with similar
torque output. The planetary gear system allows for higher gear reduction in a smaller form
factor, making them ideal for applications where space is limited.

Higher Efficiency: Due to the gear reduction provided by the planetary gear system, the
motor operates closer to its peak efficiency point. This results in improved overall efficiency
compared to a general DC motor, which can help in conserving energy and extending battery
life in battery-powered applications.

Improved Precision and Control: The planetary gear system offers better control and
precision in motion control applications. The gear reduction provides finer control over the
motor's speed and torque, allowing for smoother and more accurate movements.

Higher Load Capacity: The load on the motor shaft is distributed among multiple planet gears
in a planetary gear motor. This load sharing capability enables planetary gear motors to
handle higher loads and resist stalling or jamming better than general DC motors.

5.7 Relay module

The relay module is an electronic device that works as a switch, controlling the flow of
electrical current to other devices or components in a circuit. It is commonly used to control
high-powered or high-voltage devices using low-powered control signals.

The architecture of a relay module typically consists of the following components:

 Coil: The relay module includes a coil that is energized when a control signal is
applied. When the coil is energized, it generates a magnetic field.
  Contact System: The contact system consists of one or more sets of movable contacts
that are mechanically linked to the coil. These contacts can be normally open (NO),
normally closed (NC), or both.

 Spring Mechanism: The contacts are held in place by a spring mechanism. When the
coil is energized, the magnetic field attracts the movable contacts, causing them to
change their position.

 Terminals: The relay module has terminals for connecting the control signal and the
devices or components that need to be controlled. These terminals allow for easy
wiring and connection to the circuit.

The working principle of a relay module is as follows:

 Control Signal: When a control signal, typically a low-voltage electrical signal, is

applied to the coil, it energizes the coil, creating a magnetic field.

 Contact Operation: The magnetic field generated by the coil attracts the movable
contacts, causing them to move from their resting position. If the contacts are
normally open (NO), they close to establish an electrical connection. If the contacts
are normally closed (NC), they open to break the electrical connection.

 Device Control: The change in the position of the contacts determines the flow of
electrical current to the connected devices or components. If the contacts are closed,
current flows through the relay module to the connected devices. If the contacts are
open, the current is interrupted, and the connected devices are turned off.

 Control Signal Removal: When the control signal is removed or de-energized, the coil
loses its magnetic field, and the spring mechanism returns the movable contacts to
their resting position. The contacts resume their original state (either open or closed)
based on their design.

The relay module architecture and working allow it to act as a reliable switch, enabling the
control of high-powered or high-voltage devices using low-powered control signals. It
provides isolation between the control circuit and the controlled circuit, protecting sensitive
components from potentially damaging voltage or current levels.

5.8 Spray pumps

The spray pump, also known as the sprayer pump, is an essential component in agricultural
spraying systems. It is responsible for pumping liquid solutions, such as pesticides or
fertilizers, and dispersing them in a fine mist or spray form. The spray pump operates using a
motor-driven mechanism to create the necessary pressure for liquid delivery.

The architecture of a spray pump typically includes the following components:

 Pump Motor: The pump motor is an electric motor that provides the mechanical
power to drive the pump. It is usually an electric DC motor or an electric AC motor,
depending on the specific application.

 Impeller: The impeller is a rotating component inside the pump that consists of blades
or vanes. As the pump motor rotates the impeller, it creates a centrifugal force that
pushes the liquid towards the outlet.

 Pump Casing: The pump casing houses the impeller and provides a pathway for the
liquid to flow through. It is designed to optimize the flow dynamics and efficiency of
the pump.

 Inlet and Outlet Ports: The spray pump has dedicated inlet and outlet ports for the
liquid solution. The inlet allows the pump to draw the liquid from a reservoir or
container, while the outlet delivers the pressurized liquid to the spray nozzles or
distribution system.

The working principle of a spray pump is as follows:

 Power Input: The pump motor is activated by an electrical power source, such as a
battery or power supply. The motor begins rotating, transferring mechanical energy to
the impeller.

 Liquid Intake: As the impeller rotates, it creates a low-pressure region at the pump
inlet. This suction effect draws the liquid solution into the pump through the inlet
port, filling the pump casing.

 Pressure Generation: The rotating impeller imparts kinetic energy to the liquid,
causing it to move outward towards the pump casing walls. This centrifugal force
increases the liquid's pressure, generating the necessary pumping action.
  Liquid Discharge: The high-pressure liquid is forced out of the pump through the
outlet port. It flows towards the spray nozzles or distribution system, where it is
atomized or sprayed onto the target area.

 Control and Regulation: The spray pump's operation can be controlled and regulated
using valves, pressure switches, or electronic control systems. These components
ensure the desired pressure and flow rate for efficient and precise spraying.

The spray pump's architecture and working enable it to deliver liquid solutions with the
appropriate pressure and dispersion pattern, ensuring effective coverage of crops or target
areas. However, it's worth noting that the specific design and features of spray pumps can
vary depending on the application, size, and requirements of the spraying system.

5.9 3D Printing

The common 3D printing technology types include SLA (Stereolithography) three-

dimensional engraving technology; FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) selective cladding of
filamentous material; SLS (Selected Laser Sintering) selective Sintering of powder materials;
LOM (Laminated Object Manufacturing); 3D Printing powder selective bonding technology,
etc. The following are the principles and characteristics of common 3D printing technologies,
as shown in table 1.

Table 1. Principles and characteristics of common 3D printing technologies.

3D-Printer Working

The different types of 3D printers each employ a different technology that processes different
materials in different ways. It is important to understand that one of the most basic limitations
of 3D printing — in terms of materials and applications — is that there is no ‘one solution fits
all’. For example some 3D printers process powdered materials (nylon, plastic, ceramic,
metal), which utilize a light/heat source to sinter/melt/fuse layers of the powder together in
the defined shape. Others process polymer resin materials and again utilize a light/laser to
solidify the resin in ultra thin layers. Jetting of fine droplets is another 3D printing process,
reminiscent of 2D inkjet printing, but with superior materials to ink and a binder to fix the
layers. Perhaps the most common and easily recognized process is deposition, and this is the
process employed by the majority of entry-level 3D printers. This process extrudes plastics,
commonly PLA or ABS, in filament form through a heated extruder to form layers and create
the predetermined shape. Because parts can be printed directly, it is possible to produce very
detailed and intricate objects, often with functionality built in and negating the need for
assembly. However, another important point to stress is that none of the 3D printing processes
come as plug and play options as of today. There are many steps prior to pressing print and
more once the part comes off the printer — these are often overlooked. Apart from the
realities of designing for 3D printing, which can be demanding, file preparation and
conversion can also prove time-consuming and complicated, particularly for parts that
demand intricate supports during the build process. However there are continual updates and
upgrades of software for these functions and the situation is improving. Furthermore, once off
the printer, many parts will need to undergo finishing operations. Support removal is an
obvious one for processes that demand support, but others include sanding, lacquer, paint or
other types of traditional finishing touches, which all typically need to be done by hand and
require skill and/or time and patience.

Figure. 3D-Printer.
3D Printing Processes

Stereolithography: Stereolithography (SL) is widely recognized as the first 3D printing

process; it was certainly the first to be commercialised. SL is a laser-based process that works
with photopolymer resins, that react with the laser and cure to form a solid in a very precise
way to produce very accurate parts. It is a complex process, but simply put, the photopolymer
resin is held in a vat with a movable platform inside. A laser beam is directed in the X-Y axes
across the surface of the resin according to the 3D data supplied to the machine (the .stl file),
whereby the resin hardens precisely where the laser hits the surface. Once the layer is
completed, the platform within the vat drops down by a fraction (in the Z axis) and the
subsequent layer is traced out by the laser. This continues until the entire object is completed
and the platform can be raised out of the vat for removal.

Figure. Stereolithography.

Because of the nature of the SL process, it requires support structures for some parts,
specifically those with overhangs or undercuts. These structures need to be manually
removed. In terms of other post processing steps, many objects 3D printed using SL need to
be cleaned and cured. Curing involves subjecting the part to intense light in an oven-like
machine to fully harden the resin. Stereolithography is generally accepted as being one of the
most accurate 3D printing processes with excellent surface finish. However limiting factors
include the post-processing steps required and the stability of the materials over time, which
can become more brittle.

DLP: DLP — or digital light processing — is a similar process to stereolithography in that it

is a 3D printing process that works with photopolymers. The major difference is the light
source. DLP uses a more conventional light source, such as an arc lamp, with a liquid crystal
display panel or a deformable mirror device (DMD), which is applied to the entire surface of
the vat of photopolymer resin in a single pass, generally making it faster than SL.

Figure. DLP

Also like SL, DLP produces highly accurate parts with excellent resolution, but its
similarities also include the same requirements for support structures and post-curing.
However, one advantage of DLP over SL is that only a shallow vat of resin is required to
facilitate the process, which generally results in less waste and lower running costs.

Laser Sintering / Laser Melting: Laser sintering and laser melting are interchangeable terms
that refer to a laser based 3D printing process that works with powdered materials. The laser
is traced across a powder bed of tightly compacted powdered material, according to the 3D
data fed to the machine, in the X-Y axes. As the laser interacts with the surface of the
powdered material it sinters, or fuses, the particles to each other forming a solid. As each
layer is completed the powder bed drops incrementally and a roller smoothes the powder over
the surface of the bed prior to the next pass of the laser for the subsequent layer to be formed
and fused with the previous layer.
 Figure. Laser Sintering / Laser Melting:

The build chamber is completely sealed as it is necessary to maintain a precise temperature

during the process specific to the melting point of the powdered material of choice. Once
finished, the entire powder bed is removed from the machine and the excess powder can be
removed to leave the ‘printed’ parts. One of the key advantages of this process is that the
powder bed serves as an in-process support structure for overhangs and undercuts, and
therefore complex shapes that could not be manufactured in any other way are possible with
this process.

However, on the downside, because of the high temperatures required for laser sintering,
cooling times can be considerable. Furthermore, porosity has been an historical issue with
this process, and while there have been significant improvements towards fully dense parts,
some applications still necessitate infiltration with another material to improve mechanical
characteristics.

Laser sintering can process plastic and metal materials, although metal sintering does require
a much higher powered laser and higher in-process temperatures. Parts produced with this
process are much stronger than with SL or DLP, although generally the surface finish and
accuracy is not as good.

Extrusion / FDM / FFF: 3D printing utilizing the extrusion of thermoplastic material is easily
the most common — and recognizable — 3DP process. The most popular name for the
process is Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), due to its longevity, however this is a trade
name, registered by Stratasys, the company that originally developed it. Stratasys’ FDM
technology has been around since the early 1990’s and today is an industrial grade 3D
printing process. However, the proliferation of entry-level 3D printers that have emerged
since 2009 largely utilize a similar process, generally referred to as Freeform Fabrication
(FFF), but in a more basic form due to patents still held by Stratasys. The earliest RepRap
machines and all subsequent evolutions — open source and commercial — employ extrusion
methodology. However, following Stratasys’ patent infringement filing against Afiniathere is
a question mark over how the entry-level end of the market will develop now, with all of the
machines potentially in Stratasys’ firing line for patent infringements.

Figure. Extrusion / FDM / FFF

The process works by melting plastic filament that is deposited, via a heated extruder, a layer
at a time, onto a build platform according to the 3D data supplied to the printer. Each layer
hardens as it is deposited and bonds to the previous layer. Stratasys has developed a range of
proprietary industrial grade materials for its FDM process that are suitable for some
production applications. At the entry-level end of the market, materials are more limited, but
the range is growing. The most common materials for entry-level FFF 3D printers are ABS
and PLA.

The FDM/FFF processes require support structures for any applications with overhanging
geometries. For FDM, this entails a second, water-soluble material, which allows support
structures to be relatively easily washed away, once the print is complete. Alternatively,
breakaway support materials are also possible, which can be removed by manually snapping
them off the part. Support structures, or lack thereof, have generally been a limitation of the
entry level FFF 3D printers. However, as the systems have evolved and improved to
incorporate dual extrusion heads, it has become less of an issue. In terms of models produced,
the FDM process from Stratasys is an accurate and reliable process that is relatively
office/studio-friendly, although extensive post-processing can be required. At the entry-level,
as would be expected, the FFF process produces much less accurate models, but things are
constantly improving. The process can be slow for some part geometries and layer-to-layer
adhesion can be a problem, resulting in parts that are not watertight. Again, post-processing
using Acetone can resolve these issues.

Inkjet: There are two 3D printing process that utilize a jetting technique.

Figure. Inkjet

Binder jetting: where the material being jetted is a binder, and is selectively sprayed into a
powder bed of the part material to fuse it a layer at a time to create/print the required part. As
is the case with other powder bed systems, once a layer is completed, the powder bed drops
incrementally and a roller or blade smoothes the powder over the surface of the bed, prior to
the next pass of the jet heads, with the binder for the subsequent layer to be formed and fused
with the previous layer.

Advantages of this process, like with SLS, include the fact that the need for supports is
negated because the powder bed itself provides this functionality. Furthermore, a range of
different materials can be used, including ceramics and food. A further distinctive advantage
of the process is the ability to easily add a full colour palette which can be added to the
binder. The parts resulting directly from the machine, however, are not as strong as with the
sintering process and require post-processing to ensure durability.

Material jetting: a 3D printing process whereby the actual build materials (in liquid or molten
state) are selectively jetted through multiple jet heads (with others simultaneously jetting
support materials). However, the materials tend to be liquid photopolymers, which are cured
with a pass of UV light as each layer is deposited.
 Figure. Material Jetting

The nature of this product allows for the simultaneous deposition of a range of materials,
which means that a single part can be produced from multiple materials with different
characteristics and properties. Material jetting is a very precise 3D printing method,
producing accurate parts with a very smooth finish.

Selective Deposition Lamination (SDL): SDL is a proprietary 3D printing process developed

and manufactured by Mcor Technologies. There is a temptation to compare this process with
the Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) process developed by Helisys in the 1990’s due
to similarities in layering and shaping paper to form the final part. However, that is where any
similarity ends. The SDL 3D printing process builds parts layer by layer using standard
copier paper. Each new layer is fixed to the previous layer using an adhesive, which is
applied selectively according to the 3D data supplied to the machine. This means that a much
higher density of adhesive is deposited in the area that will become the part, and a much
lower density of adhesive is applied in the surrounding area that will serve as the support,
ensuring relatively easy “weeding,” or support removal. After a new sheet of paper is fed into
the 3D printer from the paper feed mechanism and placed on top of the selectively applied
adhesive on the previous layer, the build plate is moved up to a heat plate and pressure is
applied. This pressure ensures a positive bond between the two sheets of paper.
 Figure. Selective Deposition Lamination (SDL)

The build plate then returns to the build height where an adjustable Tungsten carbide blade
cuts one sheet of paper at a time, tracing the object outline to create the edges of the part.
When this cutting sequence is complete, the 3D printer deposits the next layer of adhesive
and so on until the part is complete. SDL is one of the very few 3D printing processes that
can produce full colour 3D printed parts, using a CYMK colour palette. And because the
parts are standard paper, which require no post-processing, they are wholly safe and eco-
friendly. Where the process is not able to compete favourably with other 3D printing
processes is in the production of complex geometries and the build size is limited to the size
of the feedstock.

Figure. SDL Operation Steps

EBM: The Electron Beam Melting 3D printing technique is a proprietary process developed
by Swedish company Arcam. This metal printing method is very similar to the Direct Metal
Laser Sintering (DMLS) process in terms of the formation of parts from metal powder. The
key difference is the heat source, which, as the name suggests is an electron beam, rather than
a laser, which necessitates that the procedure is carried out under vacuum conditions. EBM
has the capability of creating fully-dense parts in a variety of metal alloys, even to medical
grade, and as a result the technique has been particularly successful for a range of production
applications in the medical industry, particularly for implants. However, other hi-tech sectors
such as aerospace and automotive have also looked to EBM technology for manufacturing
fulfillment.

Figure. EBM 

3D Printing Materials: The materials available for 3D printing have come a long way since
the early days of the technology. There is now a wide variety of different material types, that
are supplied in different states (powder, filament, pellets, granules, resin etc). Specific
materials are now generally developed for specific platforms performing dedicated
applications (an example would be the dental sector) with material properties that more
precisely suit the application. However, there are now way too many proprietary materials
from the many different 3D printer vendors to cover them all here. Instead, this article will
look at the most popular types of material in a more generic way. And also a couple of
materials that stand out. Nylon, or Polyamide, is commonly used in powder form with the
sintering process or in filament form with the FDM process. It is a strong, flexible and
durable plastic material that has proved reliable for 3D printing. It is naturally white in colour
but it can be coloured — pre- or post printing. This material can also be combined (in powder
format) with powdered aluminium to produce another common 3D printing material for
sintering — Alumide.

ABS is another common plastic used for 3D printing, and is widely used on the entry-level
FDM 3D printers in filament form. It is a particularly strong plastic and comes in a wide
range of colours. ABS can be bought in filament form from a number of non-propreitary
sources, which is another reason why it is so popular. PLA is a bio-degradable plastic
material that has gained traction with 3D printing for this very reason. It can be utilized in
resin format for DLP/SL processes as well as in filament form for the FDM process. It is
offered in a variety of colours, including transparent, which has proven to be a useful option
for some applications of 3D printing. However it is not as durable or as flexible as ABS.
LayWood is a specially developed 3D printing material for entry-level extrusion 3D printers.
It comes in filament form and is a wood/polymer composite (also referred to as WPC).

3D-Printing Process

The process flow of 3D printing technology is shown in Figure. It mainly includes four steps,
which are three-dimensional model establishment, preprocessing, prototyping and post-
processing.
 Figure. Process flow chart of 3D printing technology

Three dimensional model: 3d CAD data model directly drives the additive manufacturing
[Link], the first process of additive manufacturing process should be to design the
3d CAD data model of the product. At present, the data file format widely accepted by
various software is STL. Therefore, a large number of small triangle planes should be used to
approximate the original solid model and approximate the original 3d data model.

Preprocessing: select the appropriate molding direction and cut the 3d model with a series of
planes with the same spacing along the direction of the molding height, so as to obtain the 2d
contour information of the cutting layer. The smaller the spacing height, the higher the
molding accuracy and the longer the molding time, and the lower the molding efficiency.

Prototyping: Using a forming head, under the control of a computer, according to the contour
information of the cross-section of each layer, a two-dimensional scanning movement is
performed, and the materials of each layer are stacked and bonded to obtain the final three-
dimensional solid. The forming head can be a laser head or a nozzle.

Post-treatment: The purpose of post-treatment includes improving the strength of the product
and reducing the surface roughness of the product. The process includes repairing, grinding,
postcuring, peeling, polishing, and coating.

CHAPTER 6

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated
functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete
device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose
computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide
range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.
Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are typically
either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is
being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very powerful processors. For
example, air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded, even though they
involve mainframe computers and dedicated regional and national networks between airports
and radar sites. (Each radar probably includes one or more embedded systems of its own.)

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it to
reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some
embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale. Physically
embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to
large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling
nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very
high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or
enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most systems have some
element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld computers share some
elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which
power them, but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be
connected. Moreover, even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature
generally need to support software updates. On a continuum from "general purpose" to
"embedded", large application systems will have subcomponents at most points even if the
system is "designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions” and is thus appropriate to
call "embedded". A modern example of embedded system is shown in Fig. 14.

Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory (7). Embedded systems
programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways, programming for an
embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is
usually chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an extra dollar, a unit in
order to make things easier to program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra
month is cheap in comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow
processors and low memory, while at the same time battling a need for efficiency not seen in
most PC applications. Below is a list of issues specific to the embedded field.
 Fig. 14: A modern example of embedded system.

History: In the earliest years of computers in the 1930–40s, computers were sometimes
dedicated to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for most kinds of tasks
performed by embedded computers of today. Over time however, the concept
of programmable controllers evolved from traditional electromechanical sequencers, via solid
state devices, to the use of computer technology.

One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance Computer,
developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's
inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo
project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the
size and weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17
guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built
from transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When the Minuteman II went into
production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that was the first high-
volume use of integrated circuits.

Tools: Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There are
also many embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set rules, and the
UNIX world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are more
expensive. It also means that they're lowering featured, and less developed. On a major
embedded project, at some point you will almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.
Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general programs on your
embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your program
difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part. However, if
you stop on a breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware (such as a
motor), permanent equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded
programming quickly become masters at using serial IO channels and error message style
debugging.

Resources: To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors that
can do the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. When
dealing with large data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC
programming can hurt you. Luckily, this won't happen too often- use reasonably efficient
algorithms to start and optimize only when necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work
well, due to the same reason debuggers don't work well.

Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded systems usually have
the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be memory
efficient (unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for memory,
rather than the reverse). It also means you can't afford to leak memory. Embedded
applications generally use deterministic memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and
"malloc" functions, so that leaks can be found and eliminated more easily. Other resources
programmers expect may not even exist. For example, most embedded processors do not
have hardware FPUs (Floating-Point Processing Unit). These resources either need to be
emulated in software or avoided altogether.

Real Time Issues: Embedded systems frequently control hardware and must be able to
respond to them in real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or
even damage hardware such as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of
resources available. Almost all embedded systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks
over others, and to be able to put off/skip low priority tasks such as UI in favor of high
priority tasks like hardware control.

Need For Embedded Systems: The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless because
every day new products are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in
novel ways. In recent years, hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA
chips have become much cheaper. So, when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to
just buy the generic chip and write your own custom software for it. Producing a custom-
made chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks costs far more time and money. Many
embedded computers even come with extensive libraries, so that "writing your own software"
becomes a very trivial task indeed. From an implementation viewpoint, there is a major
difference between a computer and an embedded system. Embedded systems are often
required to provide Real-Time response. The main elements that make embedded systems
unique are its reliability and ease in debugging.

Debugging: Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the

facilities available. From simplest to most sophisticate, they can be roughly grouped into the
following areas:

 Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded
operating system (e.g., Forth and Basic)
 External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using either
a monitor in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which even
works for heterogeneous multi core systems.
 An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor
via a JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be
controlled externally but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in
the processor.
 An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent,
providing full control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
 A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all
of it to be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal PC.
 Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run
software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its
operation. The view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code.
Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements, the debugging
strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software (and microprocessor) centric
embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the
processing is performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-processor). An increasing number of
embedded systems today use more than one single processor core. A common problem with
multi-core development is the proper synchronization of software execution. In such a case,
the embedded system design may wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the
processor cores, which requires very low-level debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic
analyzer, for instance.

Reliability: Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously
for years without errors and in some cases recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore, the
software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and
unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.

Specific reliability issues may include:

 The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair.
Examples include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole
systems, and automobiles.
 The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less tolerable.
Often backup s are selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft navigation,
reactor control systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals, engines
on single-engine aircraft.
 The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone switches,
factory controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making,
automated sales and service.
A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from errors—both
software bugs such as memory leaks, and soft errors in the hardware:

 Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the
watchdog
 Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to software "limp
modes" that provide partial function.
 Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture ensures a highly secure
& reliable system environment.
 An Embedded Hypervisor can provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem
component, so that a compromised software component cannot interfere with other
subsystems, or privileged-level system software. This encapsulation keeps faults from
propagating from one subsystem to another, improving reliability. This may also
allow a subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on fault detection.
 Immunity Aware Programming
6.1 Explanation of Embedded Systems
Software Architecture: There are several different types of software architecture in common
use.

 Simple Control Loop: In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls
subroutines, each of which manages a part of the hardware or software.
 Interrupt Controlled System: Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt
controlled. This means that tasks performed by the system are triggered by different
kinds of events. An interrupt could be generated for example by a timer in a
predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller receiving a byte. These kinds of
systems are used if event handlers need low latency, and the event handlers are short
and simple. Usually, these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but
this task is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler
will add longer tasks to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has
finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop. This method brings the system
close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.
 Cooperative Multitasking: A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to
the simple control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The
programmer defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its own environment to “run”
in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called “pause”, “wait”, “yield”,
“nop” (stands for no operation), etc. The advantages and disadvantages are very
similar to the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply
writing a new task, or adding to the queue-interpreter.
 Primitive Multitasking: In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches
between tasks or threads based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level
at which the system is generally considered to have an "operating system" kernel.
Depending on how much functionality is required, it introduces more or less of the
complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel. As any code
can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger systems using an
MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data
must be controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues,
semaphores or a non-blocking synchronization scheme. Because of these
complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a real-time operating system,
allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather
than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often
 cannot afford the overhead associated with a generic real time system, due to
limitations regarding memory size, performance, and/or battery life.
 Microkernels And Exokernels: A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS.
The usual arrangement is that the operating system kernel allocates memory and
switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User mode processes implement
major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc. In general, microkernels
succeed when the task switching and intertask communication is fast and fail when
they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The
hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and extensible by
application programmers. Based on performance, functionality, requirement the
embedded systems are divided into three categories:
Stand Alone Embedded System: These systems take the input in the form of electrical signals
from transducers or commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process
them and produces desired output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and
giving output is done in standalone mode. Such embedded systems come under standalone
embedded systems

Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc.

Real-time embedded systems: Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task
or operation in a specific time those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There
are two types of real-time embedded systems.

Hard Real-time embedded systems: These embedded systems follow an absolute deadline
time i.e.., if the tasking is not done in a particular time period, then there is a cause of damage
to the entire equipment.

E.g., consider a system in which we must open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If this valve is
not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we use
embedded systems for doing automatic operations.

Soft Real Time embedded systems: Consider a TV remote control system, if the remote
control takes a few milliseconds delay it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the
remote control. These systems which will not cause damage when they are not operated at
considerable time period those systems come under soft real-time embedded systems.
Network communication embedded systems: A wide range network interfacing
communication is provided by using embedded systems.

Eg:

 Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used to
spread communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another computer
with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.
 Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.
Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person and sends to the
desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting message with
image on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock just by
clicking the mouse. Fig: 2.2 show the network communications in embedded systems.

Fig. 15: Network communication embedded systems.

Different types of processing units:

 The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following microprocessors,
microcontroller, digital signal processing.
 Among these Microcontroller is of low-cost processor and one of the main advantage
of microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial communication
interfaces, analog to digital converters etc.., all these are built on a single chip. The
numbers of external components that are connected to it are very less according to the
application.
  Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major
applications with several tasking requirements. But the microprocessor requires many
external components like memory, serial communication, hard disk, input output ports
etc.., so the power consumption is also very high when compared to microcontrollers.
 Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly involved
with processing of signals
6.2 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Consumer applications: At home we use several embedded systems which include

microwave oven, remote control, vcd players, dvd players, camera etc….

Fig. 16: Automatic coffee makes equipment.

Office automation: We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…

Fig. 17: Fax machine.

 Fig. 18: Printing machine.

Industrial automation: Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process
control. In industries we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like
monitoring temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc.., and basing on these
monitored levels we do control other devices, we can send information to a centralized
monitoring station.

Fig. 19: Robot.

In critical industries where human presence is avoided there, we can use robots which are
programmed to do a specific operation.

Computer networking: Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc.

Fig. 20: Computer networking.

Tele communications: Cell phones, web cameras etc.

Fig. 21: Cell phone.

CHAPTER 7

SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENT
7.1 Arduino IDE

What is Arduino IDE?

The Arduino Integrated Development Environment - or Arduino Software (IDE) - contains a

text editor for writing code, a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for
common functions and a series of menus. It connects to the Arduino hardware to upload
programs and communicate with them.

A program for Arduino hardware may be written in any programming language with

compilers that produce binary machine code for the target processor. Atmel provides a
development environment for their 8-bit AVR and 32-bit ARM Cortex-M based
microcontrollers: AVR Studio (older) and Atmel Studio (newer).
IDE

The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform application

(for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux) that is written in the Java programming
language. It originated from the IDE for the languages Processing and Wiring. It includes a
code editor with features such as text cutting and pasting, searching, and replacing text,
automatic indenting, brace matching, and syntax highlighting, and provides simple one-
click mechanisms to compile and upload programs to an Arduino board. It also contains a
message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common functions and a hierarchy of
operation menus. The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General Public
License, version 2.

The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special rules of code structuring.
The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from the Wiring project, which provides many
common input and output procedures. User-written code only requires two basic functions,
for starting the sketch and the main program loop, that are compiled and linked with a
program stub main () into an executable cyclic executive program with the GNU toolchain,
also included with the IDE distribution. The Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to
convert the executable code into a text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the
Arduino board by a loader program in the board's firmware.

From version 1.8.12, Arduino IDE windows compiler supports only Windows 7 or newer OS.
On Windows Vista or older one gets "Unrecognized Win32 application" error when trying to
verify/upload program. To run IDE on older machines, users can either use version 1.8.11, or
copy "arduino-builder" executable from version 11 to their current install folder as it's
independent from IDE.

IDE 2.0

On October 18, 2019, Arduino Pro IDE (alpha preview) was released. Later, on March 1,
2021, the beta preview was released, renamed IDE 2.0. The system still uses Arduino CLI
(Command Line Interface), but improvements include a more professional development
environment, autocompletion support, and Git integration. The application frontend is based
on the Eclipse Theia Open-Source IDE. The main features available in the new release are:

 Modern, fully featured development environment

  Dual Mode, Classic Mode (identical to the Classic Arduino IDE) and Pro Mode
(File System view)
 New Board Manager
 New Library Manager
 Board List
 Basic Auto-Completion (Arm targets only)
 Git Integration
 Serial Monitor
 Dark Mode
7.2 Tinker CAD

Tinkercad is an online collection of software tools from Autodesk that enable complete
beginners to create 3D models. This CAD software is based on constructive solid geometry
(CSG), which allows users to create complex models by combining simpler objects together.
As a result, this 3D modeling software is user-friendly and currently enjoyed by many,
particularly teachers, kids, hobbyists, and designers. Best of all, it’s free and you only need an
internet connection to answer it. The software allows users to create models that are
compatible with 3D printing, a great option for beginners to the technology.

Tinkercad is a good alternative to other 3D modeling software such as SketchUp or

Fusion360-another solution from Autodesk- if you do not need the more advanced features of
these solutions. Autodesk acquired Tinkercad in 2013, two years after it was launched by
former Google engineer Kai Backman and his cofounder Mikko Mononen. The software’s
main advantage over the other two software is that it is free, while still offering more
modeling freedom than what first meets the eye! It is currently available in 16 languages.

What Are the Main Features of Tinkercad?

Even though Tinkercad is perfect for beginners, it does not mean that those who are more
experienced with 3D modeling will not also enjoy this software. Given that it is based on
CSG to create solid models, you can always make your model more complex by adding more
shapes. In more concrete terms, all you have to do is select one of the available shapes, add or
remove material and voila you’re done! For example, you could start with a cylinder before
adding triangles, circles, cones, etc. The shape can then be moved and rotated, allowing users
to see it from all angles.
Additionally, the software allows you to add electronic circuits to 3D models to create objects
with light and movement. The result can even be simulated on the software to check how the
components will respond in real life. Another feature of Tinkercad is its ability to transform a
3D design into buildable brick models, like creating legos. Finally, for those that love
Minecraft, you will be well served, as you will be able to make creations compatible with the
application.

Therefore, Tinkercad can be used for a range of applications, including 3D printing. The 3D
models can be saved in three different formats, STL, OBJ, and SVG. Once you have an STL
file of your model, you can go on to using slicing software. Slicing software converts the 3D
model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code file containing instructions tailored
to a specific type of printer. In other words, it is dividing the object into a stack of flat layers
and describing these layers as linear movements of the 3D printer extruder. If you don’t have
a 3D printer, you can also order your model via the online service offered by Tinkercad. You
should also know that it can be exported in SVG format for laser cutting.

Tinkercad’s 35 million users often compliment the intuitiveness of this CAD software.
Transformation, duplication, and shape modification are easy to grasp. Additionally,
Autodesk has made many resources available to its community. For example, you will find
inspiration, and tips & tricks to get started on their blog, as well as videos and course to get
you started with 3D modeling! The software works on any computer with an internet
connection, you just must create your account. It also offers a backup of 3D models on the
cloud.

The Circuits section of Tinkercad is a simulator for an electronic circuit with a Arduino Uno
or a Micro Bit board or a ATtiny chip in the browser. The code can be made with CodeBlocks
which are graphical code pieces that can be put together by shifting them with the mouse
cursor. Programming with code text is also possible. Digi-Key wrote an article in 2022 about
Tinkercad how to start with Tinkercad. They call Tinkercad "intuitive". A circuit can be built
with components, but there are "Starters" which are complete circuits with code.

Tinkercad has included libraries for some components, such as the Adafruit Neopixel library,
the Arduino Servo library, and a library for a I2C display. It is not possible to select or upload
other libraries. The circuit can have analog components which are fully simulated.

Although Tinkercad is an easy introduction into programming and electronics, it has features
for advanced users:
 1. Multiple boards can be simulated at the same time. For example, two Arduino boards
communicating with each other.
2. The analog circuit can be very complex.
7.3 CATIA V5

CATIA V5 is a powerful computer-aided design (CAD) software used in mechanical

engineering for designing and creating detailed 3D models of various products. It offers a
range of tools and features to assist engineers throughout the product development process.
Here are some key aspects of CATIA V5:

Mechanical Design: CATIA V5 provides a comprehensive set of tools for mechanical design.
Engineers can create 3D models of mechanical components and assemblies with precise
dimensions, tolerances, and geometric constraints. It allows for efficient and accurate
representation of complex shapes, ensuring that the designs meet the desired requirements.

Parts Design: With CATIA V5, engineers can focus on designing individual parts or
components of a product. They can create 3D models of parts, defining their shape, size, and
features. The software enables users to easily modify and manipulate these parts, ensuring
that they fit and function correctly within the larger assembly.

Sketcher: The Sketcher module in CATIA V5 allows engineers to create 2D sketches that
serve as the foundation for 3D modeling. It offers a range of sketching tools, such as lines,
arcs, and splines, which help in creating accurate and precise geometry. These sketches can
be used to define profiles that form the basis for creating 3D models.

Assembly Design: CATIA V5 excels in assembly design, where engineers can combine
multiple parts into a complete product assembly. It provides tools to define the relationships
and constraints between parts, ensuring proper alignment and motion. Engineers can simulate
the movement of the assembly to check for interferences or clashes between components.

Drafting: Drafting in CATIA V5 involves the creation of technical drawings and

documentation for communicating design intent. Engineers can generate 2D drawings from
their 3D models, complete with dimensions, annotations, and other specifications. The
software offers a range of tools for creating detailed and accurate engineering drawings,
aiding in the manufacturing and assembly processes.

Generative Sheet Metal Design: CATIA V5 includes a module specifically dedicated to

designing sheet metal components. Engineers can create 3D models of sheet metal parts,
considering factors such as material thickness, bend allowances, and flange lengths. The
software provides tools to unfold these 3D models into 2D flat patterns, which can be used
for manufacturing the sheet metal parts.

CHAPTER 8

SOURCE CODE
 CHAPTER 9

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 CHAPTER 10

CONLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

In conclusion, the optimal modeling and implementation of a real-time pesticide sprayer

represents a significant advancement in the field of agriculture. By automating the spraying
process and incorporating advanced technologies such as robotic design, wireless
communication, and optimal modeling techniques, this technology offers numerous benefits.
The real-time pesticide sprayer provides precise and efficient distribution of pesticides,
fertilizers, herbicides, and other liquid solutions, ensuring optimal crop health and yield. It
reduces the reliance on manual labor and large machinery, saving time and resources for
farmers. Additionally, it minimizes wastage, resulting in cost savings and reduced
environmental pollution. Through optimal modeling, the sprayer's performance can be
optimized, allowing for targeted and effective pest and disease control. Potential issues or
limitations can be identified and addressed during the modeling process, ensuring a reliable
and efficient implementation.

The future scope of Realtime Agri Sprayer robots is promising. Further advancements
can be made in areas such as autonomous navigation, intelligent spraying algorithms, and
integration with sensor technologies for real-time monitoring of crop health and
environmental conditions. The incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning
algorithms can enable the robots to analyze data and make informed decisions regarding
optimal spraying patterns and substance application. Moreover, the integration of Internet of
Things (IoT) technologies can facilitate seamless connectivity, data exchange, and remote
monitoring and control of multiple robots operating in different agricultural fields. By
continuously refining and expanding the capabilities of Realtime Agri Sprayer robots, we can
expect to witness significant improvements in agricultural spraying operations. This
technology has the potential to contribute to sustainable farming practices, reduce the
environmental impact of chemical applications, and ultimately enhance food production to
meet the growing global demand.

References

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