EB-CURING TECHNOLOGY

QUESTION & ANSWER

Q. What are the Fundamental

Differences Between UV and
EB Technology?

A. Ultraviolet (UV) and electron beam (EB) curing

technologies are often grouped together. This
is certainly the case in this new publication,
UV+EB Technology. The main reason the technologies are
somewhat as they pass through the window foil and air
gap but still average on the order of 70,000 eV when they
reach the substrate. This means that EB electrons are on
the order of 20,000 times more energetic than UV photons!
considered together is that UV and EB energy can be used If one considers that a typical C-H or C-C bond energy is
to initiate rapid polymerization of monomers and oligomers. on the order of 4 to 5 eV, then it becomes clear that EB has
This process is often referred to as “radiation curing” or more than enough energy to break chemical bonds. This
“energy curing.” This similarity is well known, but it is much bond-breaking ability qualifies EB as a form of “ionizing
less common to ask how UV and EB technologies are radiation” as compared to UV, which is “non-ionizing.” The
different. bond-breaking power of EB is why free radical curing occurs
without an added photoinitiator. The radicals can form
Perhaps the best way to understand the difference is to directly by EB acting on the monomer and oligomer portion
consider the fundamentals of UV and EB energy. Photons of the compositions.
are the smallest “bit” of UV energy. They are considered
by physicists to have properties of both a particle and a Given this discussion of the energy of individual photons
wave. Photons do not have mass. The energy of a photon and electrons, how does the total amount of energy applied
is determined by its wavelength. Most UV-curing chemistry in the curing process compare for UV and EB? Applied UV
uses wavelengths from about 250 to 450 nm. energy is usually given as energy per unit area in units of
mJ/cm2 or J/cm2. Applied EB energy is given in energy per
The smallest “bit” of EB
energy is the electron. Unlike
photons, electrons have
mass and they are negatively UV Photons
charged. The energy of
EB Electrons
electrons is determined by
the voltage potential used in
the acceleration process. For
curing applications, we are
most often using equipment
that accelerates electrons
in the range of about 70 to
300 kV. The behavior of
the electron beam is best
characterized as accelerated
particles rather than a form of
electromagnetic radiation.

Simple conversion of energy

units shows that a 350 nm
UV photon is equivalent to
3.5 eV. This is in contrast
to electrons accelerated at
FIGURE 1. Illustration comparing UV and EB energy deposition in a material cross section.
110 kV. The electrons slow

10 | UV+EB Technology • Issue 1, 2015 uvebtechnology.com + radtech.org

unit mass in units of Mrads or kGy. By definition, 1 kGy = 1
J/gram. The applied energy for UV curing can vary widely
depending on the application but is often in the range of
0.1 to 0.5 J/cm2. A typical EB cure dose for curing acrylate-
based chemistry is usually in the range of 20 to 40 kGy.
Assuming that this EB energy is deposited in a 50 g/m2
layer, then this equates to an applied energy of 0.1 to 0.2
J/cm2 at the surface. It is interesting that the total energy
applied for UV and EB can be quite similar in spite of the
individual “bits” being so different.
Another fundamental difference between UV and EB energy
is the manner by which the energy is deposited into the
materials to be cured or treated. This is very critical because
curing only occurs where the energy is deposited. (There
are some special “shadow curing” chemistries that could
be an exception to this statement.) UV energy deposition is
determined by the optical density of the material. UV curing
can occur quite deep (multiple inches) into clear materials
where there is limited absorbance of the base material in
competition with the photoinitiators.
In contrast, UV curing can be quite limited into opaque
materials with a high optical density. High power, well
focused (high peak irradiance) UV sources can be helpful
to a degree in getting penetration in high optical density
materials. The well-known relationship for predicting UV
penetration into materials is the Bouguer-Lambert Law.
It is interesting that the total
energy applied for UV and EB
can be quite similar in spite of
the individual “bits” being so
different.
EB energy deposition does not depend on the optical
density of the material. It penetrates equally well into clear
and opaque materials. Instead, the mass density is a much
better predictor of EB energy deposition into materials.
Electrons are very small particles with a rest mass of
about 5.5 x 10-4 AMU. A carbon nucleus is about 22,000
more massive than an electron. An analogy for electron
penetration is in some ways like shooting BBs at a bowling
ball. What makes EB penetration possible is the fact that
condensed matter (liquids and solids) have a lot of space
between the nuclei.
uvebtechnology.com + radtech.org
Electron beam penetration then becomes a matter of
probability of avoiding a direct collision with a nucleus.
Electron beam energy deposition in materials can be
predicted by Monte Carlo calculations which, as the name
implies, is a statistical averaging of the interactions of a
large number of electrons. The interactions of accelerated
electrons with matter were derived by physicists at
collaborating National Laboratories more than 30 years ago.
These were incorporated in powerful software programs that
are available for industrial applications.
The inputs into Monte Carlo simulations are the elemental
composition of the material and the accelerating voltage
of the beam. Higher atomic number compositions are
more effective at stopping the beam. Atomic number also
is directly related to the density of a material, thus the
correlation between density and EB penetration. The highly
accurate Monte Carlo predictions can be verified by EB
irradiation of stacks of radiochromic film dosimeters. A set of
depth/dose cures for EB energy deposition in a polymer is
shown in a subsequent article (see Figure 3 on page 46).
Figure 1 on page 10 helps to illustrate the difference
between UV and EB energy deposition in materials. With
UV, there are a large number of relatively low energy
photons. The energy of the photons is concentrated at the
surface and decreases exponentially though the material
as predicted by Bouguer-Lambert Law. Longer wavelength
photons may be less strongly absorbed and have enough
penetration to cure through the material. With EB, there is
a smaller number of higher energy electrons. Each electron
may result in multiple initiating events. Given a selection
of accelerating voltage appropriate for the material, the EB
energy can be very uniform from the front to back surface of
the material.
Hopefully this introduction provides a basis to explore EB
application-related questions for future columns. u
[ Do you have a question that you’d like to see
addressed here? Submit your ideas for consideration
to sclapin@teampct.com.
Stephen C. Lapin, Ph.D.
BroadBeam Applications Specialist,
PCT Engineered Systems LLC
sclapin@teampct.com
UV+EB Technology • Issue 1, 2015 | 11