Utilizing EEG and fNIRS For The Detection of Sleep Deprivation Induced Fatigue and Its Inhibition Using Colored Light Stimulation

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OPEN Utilizing EEG and fNIRS

for the detection
of sleep‑deprivation‑induced
fatigue and its inhibition using
colored light stimulation
Zeshan Shoaib 1, Arbab Akbar 1, Eung Soo Kim 2, Muhammad Ahmad Kamran 1,
Jun Hyun Kim 1 & Myung Yung Jeong 1*
Drowsy driving is a common, but underestimated phenomenon in terms of associated risks as it often
results in crashes causing fatalities and serious injuries. It is a challenging task to alert or reduce the
driver’s drowsy state using non-invasive techniques. In this study, a drowsiness reduction strategy has
been developed and analyzed using exposure to different light colors and recording the corresponding
electrical and biological brain activities. 31 subjects were examined by dividing them into 2 classes,
a control group, and a healthy group. Fourteen EEG and 42 fNIRS channels were used to gather
neurological data from two brain regions (prefrontal and visual cortices). Experiments shining 3
different colored lights have been carried out on them at certain times when there is a high probability
to get drowsy. The results of this study show that there is a significant increase in HbO of a sleep-
deprived participant when he is exposed to blue light. Similarly, the beta band of EEG also showed
an increased response. However, the study found that there is no considerable increase in HbO and
beta band power in the case of red and green light exposures. In addition to that, values of other
physiological signals acquired such as heart rate, eye blinking, and self-reported Karolinska Sleepiness
Scale scores validated the findings predicted by the electrical and biological signals. The statistical
significance of the signals achieved has been tested using repeated measures ANOVA and t-tests.
Correlation scores were also calculated to find the association between the changes in the data signals
with the corresponding changes in the alertness level.
The driving process is a demanding, multifaceted, and often perilous task requiring an individual’s entire cog-
nitive and physical resources to sustain safe performance. Vehicle driving in drowsy or fatigued brain states
distracts the attention and may result in disastrous situations. These situations lead to car crashes and/or fatal
accidents involving loss of multiple lives and/or causing injuries and in some cases life time disabilities1. National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) USA has compiled car accident data during fatigued or drowsy
states which shows alarming figures of 2.4% of total car crashes due to drowsy state driving through years 2011
to 2015. These statistics reveal a huge number of human lives lost due to drowsy driving almost comparable to
the drunk driving fatalities2. Extended working h ours3, sleep deprivation4, and medical disorders5 are a few of
the many possible contributors to this compromised alertness state. Generally drowsy brain state is defined as
loss of processing efficiency of human brain. There are two possible methodologies to avoid fatal accidents while
driving under drowsy or fatigued brain state. The first strategy is preventive approach in which the driver of a
vehicle is continuously monitored through different types of sensors. These sensors generate several alerts as
soon as the driver falls to the drowsy brain state. While in the second technique, the vehicle is controlled through
an automatic software based safety system which safely parks the car on road side in case of drowsy or fatigued
1
Department of Cogno‑Mechatronics Engineering, Pusan National University, Busandaehak‑ro 63 beon‑gil 2,
Geumjeong‑gu, Busan 46241, Korea. 2Department of Electronic and Robot Engineering, Busan University of
Foreign Studies, 65, KeumSaem‑Ro 485 beongil, KeumJeong‑Gu, Busan 46234, Korea. *email: myjeong@
pusan.ac.kr
Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:6465 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33426-2 1
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www.nature.com/scientificreports/
state. The preventive measure technique is beneficial and has attracted several researchers to propose algorithms
and schemes to alert the driver or help in reducing his drowsy state.
As drivers’ fatigue has a direct relation with an increased risk of road accidents, therefore, automobile indus-
try has invested in the development of preventive equipment to reduce car c rashes6. The automobile industry/
companies have invested huge amount of money and technical resources to develop automatic intelligent systems
that timely alert drowsy drivers and take other automated steps7. A leading automobile company, Toyota Motors
has developed, ‘‘Toyota Safety Sense’’8, a distinguishing system that responds to cases of driver heedlessness. The
system works with two main features;
• A pre-collision detection system that safeguards the vehicle from collisions by employing visual and audio
alarms, and, a system that automatically applies brakes to avoid crashes after detecting the driver in a drowsy
state.
• The system is powered by a lane assist mechanism that generates audio / visual indications in cases of lane
deviations without the use of vehicle indicators. In case of unresponsiveness to these indications, the system
automatically adjusts the position of the steering wheel.
Hyundai motor company introduced the ‘‘Driver Attention Warning’’ system, which takes the steering wheel’s
position, the angle of torque applied to it, lane position, and the driving time to determine the driving pattern.
The system displays a coffee mug and sounds an alarm if it detects the driver in a drowsy state9. ‘‘Attention
Assist System’’ developed by the Mercedes automobile company observes sensors installed in the steering wheel,
acceleration and braking patterns of the car, road condition, etc. to determine the driver’s mental state10. During
a particular trip, the system generates a driver’s profile with certain thresholds based on the above-mentioned
factors. In case of a considerable deviation from the generated profile, the system renders a warning sign and
beeps. Ford Motors have also introduced a ‘‘Driver Alert System’’ that utilizes a pinhole camera to record the
moving patterns of the car. Whenever the driver is deviating from a specific lane, a vibration in the steering wheel
is generated to alert the driver and eventually lane is automatically adjusted if the driver is found to be d rowsy11.
A ‘‘Driver’s Drowsiness detection system’’ is equipped in automobiles from Bosch company that analyzes steering
movement, the car’s steering angle, and the velocity profile to alert the driver in a drowsy brain state12. All these
famous automobile companies have installed drowsiness indicator systems but there is no cognitive mechanism
developed in the industry yet.
A more direct and objective assessment of alertness level is provided by evaluating physiological parameters,
those can be assessed continually. Fatigue-related signals may also be monitored using functional Near-Infrared
Spectroscopy (fNIRS), Electroencephalogram (EEG), and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)13–16.
Several studies have employed fNIRS for drowsiness detection and also to discover association between neuro-
physiological responses and driver’s mental state. Cai et al. utilized fNIRS to evaluate fatigue level by scanning
the parietal-occipital brain r egion17. Data from multiple brain regions using fNIRS was acquired by Chuang et al.
to discriminate the alert and drowsy brain states based on dHBO p ower18. Karageorghis et al. measured fNIRS’s
hemodynamic signal showing that music may help to avert f atigue19. Using EEG, Barua et al. analyzed sleepi-
ness while driving complemented by E OG20. Wang et al. in a study utilized EEG in real driving task to evaluate
the frequency bands’ PSD and sample entropy for the detection of drivers’ f atigue21. In a simulated driving task
involving 15 male subjects, EEG signals were obtained by Chen et al., for drowsiness d etection22. Yang et al.
utilized behavioral and EEG data from 52 participants in a simulated driving experiment to classify drowsy and
alert brain s tates23. Several studies have employed fMRI for the task because of better spatial resolution than
EEG or fNIRS24. Using fMRI, Allen et al. examined the brain network connectivity patterns in open-eyes and
closed-eyes states to highlight brain’s sub-regions of interest for drowsy and alert s tates25. In a study based on
fMRI, with divided-attention task, Drummond et al. detected an improved activation in the pre-frontal region
in the drowsy state26. The fNIRS and EEG modalities have attracted many research groups because of easy setup,
portability, and cost effectiveness27,28 as compared to fMRI because its experimentation is difficult, requires
certain pre-requisites, and is time t aking29. Apart from EEG, fNIRS, and fMRI there are several other physiologi-
cal parameters that can help in detecting the drowsiness level of human brain. Such factors include Epworth
sleepiness scale, a questionnaire based method of estimating drowsiness/sleepiness levels30. Karolinska Sleepi-
ness Scale (KSS) test is another sleepiness quantification self-reporting t est31. Another important physiological
parameter is electrocardiogram (ECG), it can continuously measures heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability
(HRV), where a decrease in average HR of a subject predicts d rowsiness32. Electro-Oculogram (EOG) monitors
the eye movement of a subject and estimates alertness level33. Some researchers have presented different head
movement characteristics for normal and drowsy persons, therefore it may be used to classify sleepy/drowsy
states34. Eye blinking patterns and the gap between eyelids are also helpful in distinguishing between an awake
and a drowsy person35–37.
Exposure to light has shown certain effects on various human behaviors and diseases. Light therapy is a
famous and effective technique to treat several human psychological, medical, and behavioral conditions38,39.
Exposing bright light has been found to treat seasonal affective d isorder40. Several other types of depression have
also been treated with bright light such as bipolar depression, chronic depressive disorder, ante-and postpartum
depression, and behavioral disturbance etc.41. A study has shown that blue light exposure is effective for treat-
ment of inflammatory a cne42,43. Light emitting diode based low level light therapy (LED-LLLT) has proved an
enhanced blood flow in epidermis and dermis skin layers which attracted plastic surgeons to treat the aging face
problem using this technique44. Lack et al. showed that exposure to bright morning light for 1 week improves the
sleep quality and daytime feelings among people with sleep onset insomnia with a delayed circadian r hythm45.
Moreover, human brain also shows changes in signals with exposure to different light conditions. Light exposure
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directly affects how well a person can think and process information because of its effects on nonvisual functions
rain46. Blue light influences cognitive processes that are regulated by a melanopsin-based photoreceptor
in the b
system controlling circadian c ycles47. Different ambient lighting conditions may result in reduction of stress and
improving driving performance in particular environments like long tunnels48. Several other studies also analyzed
specific light intensities exposure and colors to humans lead to peculiar outcomes such as improved response
times, change in precision metrics, and increased a lertness49,50. Additionally, some other neuroimaging studies
concluded that subcortical structures of the brain, such as the brain stem, hypothalamus, and thalamus, which
are connected to wake promotion, are affected by light exposure51,52.
This study proposes a drowsiness reduction scheme by analyzing the changes in neurological and physiologi-
cal signals of participants with the exposure of different colors of light. EEG and fNIRS brain imaging modali-
ties were utilized to acquire neurological data of participants from the prefrontal and visual cortices brain. 31
healthy participants were divided in a control and a healthy group. All the participants were involved in several
experiments asking them to drive in a simulated driving environment for 50/60 min in different colored lights
exposures. The experimentation time was cleverly selected to increase the probability of falling drowsy. The
study revealed that in case of blue light exposure to a sleep deprived participant, there is a significant increase
in HbO, and the beta band power response. On the contrary, the results indicated that in case of red and green
light exposures, there was no considerable increase in HbO and beta band power. Additionally, other physi-
ological signals acquired such as heart rate, eye blinking, and self-reported KSS scores also indicated the same
findings as projected by the electrical and biological signals. Repeated measures ANOVA test and t-tests were
utilized for determining the statistical significance of the signals attained. To highlight the association of the
observed changes in the data signals (HbO and beta band) with the changes in the alertness level (KSS scores),
corresponding correlation values were also reported.
Material and methods
The effect of different colors of light (red, green and blue) illumination causing an increase/decrease in alert-
ness level was studied. This is an investigative study to evaluate the neuronal synchronization, electrical activity,
cerebrovascular function and functional connection of sleep-deprived subjects exposed to different colors of
light. The primary hypothesis in this work is that different colors of light may effect biological and electrical
signals enabling to indirectly measure the drowsy/alert cognition level. Therefore, this study employed advanced
analytical and signal processing approaches to extract useful information regarding fatigued/awake states of the
human brain caused by different colors of light. The schematic of the study and EEG and fNIRS data processing
analysis workflows are depicted in Fig. 1a, b, respectively. The key variables selected for analyses in this study
are shown in Table 1.
Participants. In this study, 31 drivers were selected for the different colored light exposure experiments
in a simulated driving environment. The goal of the study and the experimental protocol were described to
the participants as they arrived for the experiment. An informed consent was obtained from all participants in
advance. Soon after the subjects signed the consent form, they were advised to practice driving tasks to become
accustomed to the system. Participants were prohibited from drinking alcohol, coffee, or tea one day before the
experiment. A physician evaluated the subjects and people who could not be deprived of sleep due to certain
medical conditions (e.g., epilepsy, diabetes, psychiatric disorders), those who exhibited sleep disorder symptoms
or had a medical problem, or those who were on drugs that would adversely affect mental performance (e.g.,
neurological disease, psychotropic medication) were excluded from the study. Additionally, participants who
needed vision glasses were excluded from the study. To assure participants’ suitability, the following responses
were also recorded:
• Driving simulator sickness susceptibility (as measured by the Motion Sickness Susceptibility Questionnaire),
• Last night’s sleep quality (on a scale of 1 to 7),
• Routine coffee intake (never, seldom, one or two cups per day, more than two cups per day),
• Driving (highway) frequency (sometimes, several times a month).
To improve the study’s performance, participants’ responses, such as personal information and routine data,
were saved and analyzed for the purpose of the study. The demographic data of the subjects are shown in Table 2.
The study was designed and performed according to the latest version of the Declaration of Helsinki, and was
approved by the regional Research Ethics Committee (Pusan National University, Busan).
Instrumentation. EEG recording. Throughout the experiment, continuous EEG data were collected con-
currently with fNIRS using a 32-channel ActiCap equipped with a BrainAmp DC amplifier (Brain Products
GmbH, Gilching, Germany). The following electrodes were utilized to record EEG data: PPO9 h, POO9 h,
POO1, OI1 h, POO2, OI2 h, POO10 h, and PPO10 h in the visual cortex and AFF5 h, AFp1, AFF1 h, AFp2,
AFF2 h, and AFF6 h in the prefrontal cortex. The electrodes were positioned between the fNIRS sources and
detectors in such a way that the EEG electrodes were positioned as closely as possible to the usual 10–20 arrange-
ment. All electrodes were grounded to a passive electrode and referenced to a common mode sense electrode.
The skin under the reference electrodes was cleaned and abraded, and the Ag/AgCl electrodes were prevented
from having an impedance over 5kOhm (Impedance < 5kOhm). The sampling rate for EEG was set at 500 Hz.
Two ECG channels (left and right chest) were used to obtain the HRs of each subject during the course of the
experiment. The participant was monitored via a camera, which was placed at a comfortable distance to observe
both the subject’s activity and their facial expressions. When a participant closed his or her eyes for more than
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Figure 1. Study schematic for the reduction in fatigue level: (a) Flow chart of the experimentation, data
collection and analysis procedure of the study. (b) Electrical and optical collection of data from subjects’ brains
and subsequent data preprocessing and relative feature extraction to generate topographic images resulting in
awake/fatigued states of the brain. The details of the schematic and feature extraction process are provided in the
Materials and Methods section.
Variable Unit
Colors of light (red, green and blue) Wavelength (nm)
HbO Concentration changes (mM)
HbR Concentration changes (mM)
Frequency band powers (alpha, beta, theta, delta, gamma) μV2
Eye closure Unit/sec
Heart rate Beats per minute (B/M)
Table 1. Key variables and their units used in this study.
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Variables Categories Count Mean ± SD Percentage

Male 24 77.4
Participants
Female 7 22.6
18–20 4 19 ± 1 12.9
20–25 13 22.3 ± 1.5 41.9
Age (years)
25–30 11 26.9 ± 2.2 35.5
30–35 3 33.4 ± 1.1 9.7
≤ 14 5 13.1 ± 0.5 16.1
Education (years) 14–16 10 15.3 ± 0.3 32.3
16–20 16 17.8 ± 2.4 51.6
6 or less 14 5.2 ± 0.4 45.2
Sleep hours (per day) 7–8 11 7.1 ± 0.2 35.5
8–9 6 8.09 ± 0.4 19.3
Sometimes 12 38.7
Exercise
Often 19 61.3
≤ 20 8 18.6 ± 1 25.8
BMI (kg/m2) 20–24 21 22.3 ± 1.4 67.7
Overweight 2 25.7 6.5
≤ 5 13 3.6 ± 1.1 41.9
Driving experience (years)
5–10 18 6.8 ± 1.8 58.1
Never 19 61.3
Penalties (traffic offences in last 2 years)
1–3 times 12 38.7
Table 2. Demographic variables of the subjects in this study. *The variables estimated through questionnaire.
five seconds, it was counted as an eye closure (EC), and complete video was used to calculate the overall EC
count.
fNIRS recording. Participants’ brain functional data were measured using a NIRScout fNIRS system (NIRX
Medical Technologies, LLC, Germany). During the experiment, individuals’ HbO and HbR concentrations were
continuously recorded, which corresponded to the brain functional data. The fNIRS system employs two differ-
ent wavelengths of infrared light (785 nm and 850 nm) monitored at a frequency of 3.81 Hz. The visual cortex
and prefrontal cortex were designated as regions of interest. For experimentation, several optode-probe sets were
mounted to a head cap to cover the two cortices.
One of the optode-probe sets (consisting of eight sources and seven detectors, yielding 22 channels) was
intended to cover the participant’s visual cortex. The other optode-probe set (which included eight sources
and seven detectors and generated 20 channels) was designed to cover the prefrontal cortex. According to the
international 10–20 system, the probe sets were meticulously registered. Proper measurements and refinements
ensured precise optode placement among all participants. To obtain a suitable signal-to-noise ratio, proper
contact between optodes and skin was guaranteed.
Exposure to colored light. The red, green, and blue light colors were emitted using light-emitting diode (LED)
light sources. A total of 9 LED lights were installed in the experimental room, which could be controlled through
a control system in addition to the experimentation room. Three of these LED lights were red (A19 3 W-R,
ILSHIN Vitron, Gyeonggi-do, KOEA), 3 were green (A19 3 W-G, ILSHIN Vitron, Gyeonggi-do, and KOEA),
and the remaining 3 were blue (A19 3 W-B, ILSHIN Vitron, Gyeonggi-do (A19 3 W-B, ILSHIN Vitron, Gyeo-
nggi-do and KOREA). A CCD camera (DCU224C, Thorlabs, Inc., USA) was utilized to capture the broad spec-
trum of spectral peaks produced by the light control system, which generates three distinct colors of light. Each
light wavelength was measured using the CCD camera and the chromaticity diagram. To determine the wave-
lengths of light present in the room, the CIE 1931 colorimetric chromaticity diagram was used. The spectral
peaks for the three primary colors of light were as follows: red light with a wavelength of 625 nm (full width at
half maximum (FWHM) of 17 nm), green light with a wavelength of 520 nm (FWHM of 30 nm), and blue light
with a wavelength of 455 nm (FWHM of 22 nm).
Driving simulation. A driving environment was simulated using a computer-based driving simulator. The driv-
ing simulator system comprised a steering wheel equipped with a brake, an accelerator and a comfortable chair.
There was a large display screen at a distance of 1.5 m from the person sitting in the chair. Special software
designed for commercial driving simulations was used during the experiments (Gran Turismo 5 on a PlayStation
3). Using curved and straight roads, tiresome 50- and 60-min drive experiments were performed. A rural two-
lane road with a lane width of 3.75 m, a right lane boundary, and a smooth randomized curvature was used as a
driving scenario. Furthermore, participants were instructed to maintain a speed between 60 and 80 km per hour
(kph). A vibratory mechanism was set in the steering wheel to alert the drivers and to prevent them from falling
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completely asleep whenever the car impacted a crash barrier. After every 16 km of track, the road pattern was
repeated. Only 1 experiment in one night was conducted and every participant was provided with a 7-day wash
out period before his next experiment. For example, if Experiment 2 on Participant X was performed in the night
of Day-1, then it was followed by a 7-Day rest or washout period, and the next experiment (e.g. Experiment 3) on
Participant X was carried out in the night of Day-8 on the same time as of his Experiment 2.
Experimental protocol. Five distinct experimental groups were designed to collect data from the partici-
pants. The purpose of such a diverse experimental design was to acquire ample raw data from cortical signals
in the fatigued and alert states, as well as to assess the effects of colored light on these brain states. The first two
experimental protocols (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2) were developed to extract criteria values for alert and
fatigued brain states.
Experiment 1 (Without sleep deprivation (considered an awake state)). In experiment 1, the participants were
instructed to drive on a simulator for 50-min in awake state, in a sound-proof room, controlled tempera-
ture at 26°Celsius, and dim light conditions. Sitting with dim lights and, participants in this experiment were
instructed to drive on a simulator for 50 min. It was ensured that the subjects had a good night sleep of 7.9 h ± 0.5
(mean ± SD). Each day, in the morning, only one such experiment was conducted. The likelihood of falling
asleep between the times of 02:00 and 06:00 and between the times of 14:00 and 16:00 is three times greater than
it is at 10:00 or 19:00, respectively53,54. The experimental periods were chosen to best match the experimental
needs, incorporating the times with the lowest risk of sleepiness (in the morning) for the awake-state experi-
ments and times with the highest risk of sleepiness (middle of the night) for the sleep deprived-state experi-
ments. During the driving task, after every 10-min session, a self-reported level of alertness was recorded using
the KSS score. Participants scheduled for the experiment on a particular day were advised to report to the lab the
evening before the trial day. To ensure good quality sleep, they were provided with a pleasant sleeping area inside
the laboratory. Furthermore, participants were strictly advised to abstain from alcohol and other carbonated/
caffeinated beverages for 24 h prior to the experiment.
Experiment 2 (With sleep deprivation). After completing the awake-state criterion experiments success-
fully, participants were ready for the fatigue-state criterion experimentation to be set up in the same lab. For
these experiments, it was ensured that each participant underwent continuous sleep deprivation for 22 ± 0.5 h
(mean ± SD. Participants carried out the driving task for 50 min using the driving simulator keeping the environ-
mental settings the same as in Experiment 1, i.e., soundproof and air-conditioned room with temperature set to
26°Celsius in dim light. As before, participants reported to the lab one day prior to the experiment and were kept
awake by engaging in different activities, such as reading, watching movies, and playing games, under the super-
vision of a research assistant. During the experiment, the KSS score was used to assess and record subjective
alertness level every ten minutes. One such experiment was conducted in dim light each day exactly as the awake
state experiments. To provoke maximized sleepiness symptoms, these experiments were conducted at midnight.
Experiments 3–5 (Colored light exposure under sleep‑deprivation conditions). The major study experiments
were designed for participants in a sleep deprived state and then by shining the luminance of colors (red, green,
and blue) in their environment. Participants were asked to perform a driving activity using the driving simulator
for 60 min under sleep-deprivation conditions, which has already been explained. The total experiment time in
each of Experiments 3–5 was divided into 3 subblocks. The main block was preceded and succeeded by 5-min
subblocks with dim light conditions. However, the 50-min main block was the period where the surrounding
light color was changed. In short, 5 min of test data were captured under dim light both before and after the light
luminance block, whereas 50 min of data were collected within the light luminance settings. In Experiments 3,
4, and 5, participants were exposed to red, green, and blue light, respectively. The KSS score was recorded dur-
ing the main block with the colored light exposure time every 10 min while participants were performing the
driving task.
Preprocessing and other measures. EEG preprocessing. The data acquired through the EEG system
were analyzed and processed using EEGLAB and MATLAB 2012a (The MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA).
A sixth-order Butterworth bandpass filter between 1 and 50 Hz was used to filter the data. The EEG signal was
then decomposed into 14 independent components using independent component analysis (ICA). By checking
each ICA component manually, components with high percentage of artifacts such as eye blinking and motion
artifacts were screened for elimination. Extra care was taken in eliminating only those components having a
frequency less than 8 Hz and peaks. On average 2–3 components were eliminated in most of the cases with a
maximum of 5 components in a few participants. The remaining components with brain signal greater than 90%
were utilized to generate a processed EEG signal. The EEG sample rate gave enough time resolution to capture
the frequencies we were expecting to find in the scalp EEG. Finally, the processed EEG data were decomposed
into five frequency bands—the delta (1–3 Hz), theta (4–7 Hz), alpha (8–12 Hz), beta (13–29 Hz) and gamma
(30–50 Hz) bands. The power spectral density of each band was computed. The power spectrum was computed
using the MATLAB function pwelch with a hamming window size of 500 (data points) and a half-length win-
dow size of 250 for the overlap (data points). The wavelet transform (Morlet wavelet) with 0.5 frequency step
was used to analyze the EEG-band powers. Outliers were removed using two sigmas, and the mean power of all
data was calculated.
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fNIRS preprocessing. We processed the optical data using HOMER2 s oftware55. The software utilizes a GLM-
based methodology to extract useful information related to the experiment. To annihilate heart-rate artifacts
(~ 1 Hz) but to conserve human respiration frequency component (0.2–0.4 Hz) or Mayer waves (0.1 Hz) during
the hemodynamic measurement, a low-pass filter was designed for fNIRS at a 0.5 Hz cutoff frequency. Using the
modified Beer–Lambert Law (MBLL)56, the concentration changes of HbO and deoxyhemoglobin (HbR) were
calculated from the signals. Between a source and a detector, the MBLL formulates an exponential attenuation
of light along a channel whose effective length is a multiple of the source-detector separation. The differential
path length factor (DPF) is dependent on the wavelength of the light emitted by the source and is multiplied by
the source-detector separation to obtain the effective path length. It is assumed that HbO and HbR were the only
light absorbers in the setup. For the 785-nm and 850-nm wavelengths, extinction coefficients (units c m-1 M−1) of
1486.6 and 2526.4 were used for HbO, whereas 3843.1 and 1798.6 were used for HbR. The corresponding values
of DPF for HbO and HbR were 7.25 and 6.38, respectively.
KSS score and other physiological parameters. A modified version of the KSS score was used to obtain subjec-
tive evaluations of sleepiness. This KSS version requires the participant to speak out a number between 1 and 7,
and each number corresponds to the real-time alertness level (1 = very alert, 2 = alert, 3 = neither alert nor sleepy,
4 = some signs of sleepiness, 5 = sleepy, but no effort to remain awake, 6 = sleepy, some effort to keep alert, 7 = very
sleepy, great effort to keep alert, fighting sleep). Participants were asked to review the KSS scale while driving
during every driving session. Prior to any experiment, it was ensured that the participant understood what the
KSS scale was, and any doubts were clarified. It was also made clear to the participants that they would be asked
about the KSS scale value corresponding to their alertness level at the commencement of the experiment and
at intervals of 10 min. They were requested to report a number estimating their alertness level at that time. It is
quite logical that these sleepiness ratings came from the subjects themselves because it is a subjective measure-
ment that is inaccessible to others.
The ECG data were bandpass filtered between 0.1 and 30 Hz and were de-trended to remove baseline devia-
tions. To measure a subject’s HR or to predict any abnormality in heart functionality, the QRS-wave is often
utilized. Specifically, an R-peak simply retrieved with an adjustment of the ECG magnitude threshold clearly
identifies the HR of the subject. The frequency of these R-peaks was determined for one minute to evaluate HR
per minute.
Statistical analysis. A point-by-point comparison was performed among the time samples of the colored
light experiment with the corresponding time signals of the first two experiments. Data from all bio-signals
were segregated into 5-min bins except for the KSS scores, which were evaluated in 10-min bins. The mean and
standard deviation (SD) for every segment were calculated to visualize and analyze the changes in parameters
at the group level. The measured data were verified for normality using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov normality
test. Repeated measures ANOVA (RM-ANOVA) was used to compare parameters observed between the dif-
ferent experimentation conditions. The RM-ANOVA test indicates that whether any groups have significant
differences without listing the individual groups with the difference. So, further analysis is required to know
which group is significantly different from the other. A post hoc analysis using Bonferroni confidence interval
adjustments was performed to analyze the groups that are significantly different among each other. The above
explained test sequence was successively repeated for data acquired from both brain interfacing modalities i.e.,
fNIRS and EEG and the physiological parameters i.e., HR, EC, KSS. These test results aided the authors to ana-
lyze the differences between participant’s brain states for exposing each color of light. The findings of the study
are depicted in figures with a significance level of 5% for all analyses.
Correlation analysis. We performed a correlation analysis between the fNIRS and EEG signals with the
KSS scores of the participants. Here KSS scores are used as the quantitative level of alertness as reported in a
number of published studies, and correlate these scores with fNIRS and EEG signals acquired after different
color light stimulations. We selected distinct slices of the fNIRS and EEG signals for color light exposure experi-
ments with different levels of neural activation and calculated their correlation with KSS scores for the respected
experiments. Correlation coefficient between these signals are calculated using Pearson’s correlation coefficient
(r) that may be described as:
N
(xi − x)(yi − y)
rXY = i=1 2 (1)
[ N 2 N

i=1 (xi − x) i=1 yi − y ]
where x denotes the mean value of the first signal xi and y is the mean of the second signal yi . The value of rXY
varies between − 1 and 1. A perfect negative correlation is represented by a value of − 1 and a perfect positive
correlation is represented by a value of 1. Whereas rXY = 0 represents that both the signals are completely
uncorrelated.
Results
Identification of the subjects’ state. MBLL was used to estimate the time course of changes in the rela-
tive concentrations of HbO and HbR. Figure 2a depicts the channel-wise activation in targeted brain regions
(topographic maps), showing only the HbO concentration changes. Figure 2b depicts the mean ± SD values of
HbO and HbR concentration changes in the 31 subjects for 42 channels in both the sleep deprived (upper in
figure) and awake (lower in figure) states.
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Figure 2. (a) The four distinct template maps that best explain channel-wise changes in group mean HbO
potential topographies across sleep-deprived (left two in figure) and non-sleep-deprived (right two) conditions
in the prefrontal (upper two in figure) and visual (lower two) cortices. Blue represents a decrease in HbO
response, while red illustrates an increase in HbO response. (b) Average (group-level of all participants)
concentration changes in cerebral oxygenation (HbO and HbR) (mean ± SD) during a 50-min drive in a
simulator under sleep-deprived conditions (upper in figure) and non-sleep deprivation (lower).
We observed a significant difference (p < αcritical) in the activation evoked by both conditions in either brain
region for HbO. A driver in an alert state utilizes all the required brain functionalities, which results in high
oxygen consumption and higher cerebral blood flow. This high oxygen consumption by the brain is represented
by an increase in HbO. However, due to diminished brain involvement during the fatigued state, lower levels of
HbO were observed.
Figure 3a presents the averaged topographies of all 31 subjects’ relative EEG frequency band powers over 14
channels for each condition. Figure 3b represents the mean ± SD values for relative EEG beta band power for the
pre-frontal cortex region, which is measured after every 5-min interval during a 50-min driving activity for both
the sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived conditions. Normalized values were applied to accommodate the
variability in the diverse amplitude of beta spectral band power. Significantly different effects of each condition
(p < αcritical) were obtained for EEG band power in the frequency range 13–29 Hz (beta band power). However,
other frequency band powers had similar effects (p > αcritical) under both sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived
conditions. A decrease in beta band power over the prefrontal region was observed in the sleep-deprived con-
dition compared to that of non-sleep-deprived subjects, i.e., the beta band power in the non-sleep-deprived
condition was activated to a greater degree in the prefrontal region than it was in the sleep-deprived condition.
We also investigated other frequency band power values—delta, theta, alpha, and gamma—topographically and
found that none of the topographies differed statistically between driving conditions.
During both criterion experiments (with sleep deprivation and without sleep deprivation), a self-evaluation
test of alertness level was also performed every 10 min using the KSS score, as shown in Fig. 4a. The results show
considerably higher fatigued levels for the sleep-deprived subjects during the experiment as compared with
those of the non-sleep-deprived subjects. The significant differences between the two conditions confirm that
sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived subjects reacted differently in their perception of alertness level during
the drive. Figure 4b shows the average HR acquired from the ECG signal peaks over the entire 50-min driving
period under both conditions. Participants in the sleep-deprived condition exhibited significantly lower HRs
than those in the non-sleep-deprived condition. Additionally, a relatively higher rate of EC was observed in the
sleep-deprived subjects, and the differences were statistically significant, as shown in Fig. 4c. In the authors’
opinion, this high EC rate can be associated with the driver’s struggle to overcome fatigue and stay awake while
driving, as evident from the video recordings analyses. Statistical significance among the parameters (KSS, HR,
and Eye Closure) was tested for the 2 underlying conditions i.e. with sleep deprivation condition and without
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Figure 3. (a) The average topography of spatial distributions of the EEG band powers that best explained the
changes in band powers across the sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived conditions. (b) Average normalized
time course values of beta EEG band (mean ± SD) under sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived conditions for
pre-frontal cortex. Drastic discrepancies appear in the EEG beta band across these two conditions.
sleep deprivation condition using t-test. The resulting p-values obtained for KSS, HR, and Eye closure show
significant differences of these parameters in both conditions with p-value < αcritical.
In summary, driver fatigued state has been found to be characterized by decreased beta band power and HbO,
increased HbR and KSS scores and decreased HR with more than five seconds of EC. To determine the subject’s
current state, we employed EC, HR, EEG frequency band powers, and blood oxygenation levels as a feature set.
The ECG peaks were counted to determine HR. To determine the number of ECs, subjects were monitored with
a video camera to count the number of times they closed their eyes for more than five seconds. The EEG fre-
quency band powers were averaged through 14 EEG channels, and the oxygenation level was averaged through
42 fNIRS channels. The abovementioned five parameters were computed for each minute during 50 (1st and
2nd types of experiments) and 60 (3rd to 5th types of experiments) minutes of measurements. An awake state
was determined if a subject had a lower EC rate and KSS score and an increased HR, beta band power and HbO
level. In contrast, a sleep deprived state exhibited constant or opposite parameter values. The study chose 5-min
EEG and fNIRS recordings in both the awake and sleep deprived states for detailed analysis.
Effects of different colors of light on alertness level. By analyzing the neurological signals, it can
be deduced that sleep deprivation had a substantial impact on drivers’ subjective judgments regarding keeping
their safe distance and assessing alertness level. Figure 5a presents the topographic maps of the prefrontal cortex
(upper three in figure) and visual cortex (lower three in figure) showing the concentration changes in HbO for
different colors of light (red (left two in figure), green (middle two) and blue (right two)). Figure 5b presents the
mean concentration changes (mean ± SD) of HbO and HbR for different colors (red, green and blue) of light dur-
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Figure 4. KSS scores, HR, and EC. (a) KSS scores (mean ± SD) of 5 time periods (10 min of each period)
(x-axis) during a sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived 50-min drive in a simulator. (b) Average HRs
(mean ± SD) of 5-min bins (x-axis) across all the participants under sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived
conditions during a 50-min drive in a simulator. (c) Average EC rates (mean ± SD) of 5-min bins (x-axis) across
all participants under sleep-deprived and non-sleep-deprived conditions during a 50-min drive in a simulator.
ing a 60-min drive in a simulator under sleep-deprived conditions. Blue light exposure, for the sleep-deprived
condition, exhibited an overall statistically significant impact (p < αcritical) on HbO concentrations. An increasing
propensity was found for HbO concentrations in response to blue light exposure. Red and green light exposure
revealed no notable difference (p > αcritical) in HbO concentration measures compared to the baseline. Conclu-
sively, exposure to blue light contributed to increased total cerebral hemodynamics, increased blood flow, and
resultantly higher oxygenation levels in the sleep-deprived condition. Our findings demonstrated greater HbO
changes with exposure to blue light compared with the red and green colors of light that conforms to the typical
brain activation patterns (topographic maps).
Topographic maps for the beta band power responses against exposure to different colors of light are illus-
trated in Fig. 6a. In this study, beta band power is the decisive parameter to distinguish awake from sleep deprived
states, therefore, mean beta band powers (mean ± SD) for pre-frontal cortex in the sleep-deprived condition
are represented in Fig. 6b for each experiment of exposure to colored light. We note that in comparison with
exposure to green and red light, only exposure to blue light demonstrated different responses. This figure shows
clearly that beta band power increased in cerebral activation with exposure to blue light. In contrast, the other
two colors of light (red and green) demonstrated a pattern akin to that of the sleep deprived state.
In Fig. 7, the mean concentration changes in HbO (Fig. 7a) and the mean beta band power for pre-frontal
cortex (Fig. 7b) are displayed for colored light exposure in comparison to the without sleep-deprivation observa-
tions. The HbO concentration for blue light exposure increased considerably tending towards the without sleep
deprivation response leaving their mutual difference non-significant. However, for red and green light exposures
the HbO concentration changes had a significant difference to the without sleep response p < αcritical. Similarly, in
EEG analysis, the beta band power under blue light exposure increased, although it was not significant but still,
depicting a tendency towards without sleep-deprivation condition. However, the red and green light exposures
resulted in a far lesser increase in beta band power and was not significant (p = 0.356 and p = 0.294 respectively).
In Fig. 8, the mean concentration changes in HbO (Fig. 8a) and the mean beta band power for pre-frontal
cortex (Fig. 8b) for colored light exposure are displayed in comparison to the with sleep-deprivation observa-
tions. Under blue light exposure, the HbO concentration changes increased significantly p < αcritical in comparison
to the with sleep deprivation experiment. Although the increase in HbO under red and green light exposures
were also observed but they were not statistically significant (p = 0.508 and p = 0.471 respectively). Similarly, in
EEG analysis, the beta band power under blue light exposure increased although it is not statistically signifi-
cant (p = 0.107) but this increased beta band power depicts a tendency away from the with sleep-deprivation
condition and towards the without sleep deprivation condition. Also, under red and green light exposures the
increase in beta band power was not significant compared to with sleep deprivation condition (p = 0.356 and
p = 0.294 respectively).
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Figure 5. (a). The six distinct template maps that best explained channel-wise changes in group mean HbO
potential topographies across sleep-deprived conditions for different colors of light exposures (red, green
and blue) in prefrontal (upper three in figure) and visual (lower three) cortices. Blue represents a decrease in
HbO response, while red illustrates an increase in HbO response. (b) Average (group-level of all participants)
concentration changes in cerebral oxygenation (HbO and HbR) (mean ± SD) for different colors of light (red,
green and blue) during a 60-min drive in a simulator under the sleep-deprived condition. The shaded area
represents the time interval during the task/stimulation period (exposure of different colors of light). The
time series is subdivided into 5 min each time period. HbO for blue light exposure differed significantly after
approximately 15 min of light exposure in comparison with exposure to other colors of light.
The RM-ANOVA test had a degree of freedom of 90 for corresponding values of participants and the test
conditions. The F-score result of RM-ANOVA for test with parameters HbO without sleep deprivation, and
HbO after color light exposures was computed to 12.49. Whereas, F-score result of RM-ANOVA for test with
parameters EEG beta band of without sleep and EEG beta band of colored light exposures was computed to 15.81.
These F-scores provided evidence that the null hypothesis stating that all means are same is not valid and there
are at least 2 data groups with statistically significant differences in their means. Further post hoc analyses using
Bonferroni confidence interval adjustments were performed. There were a total of 6 comparisons, (3 comparisons
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Figure 6. (a) The average topography of spatial distributions of EEG beta band power that best explained
changes in beta band powers across sleep-deprived and sleep-deprived conditions with exposure to different
colors of light. (b) Average normalized time course values of the EEG beta band (mean ± SD) for exposure to
different colors of light (red, green and blue) under sleep-deprived conditions for pre-frontal cortex region.
The shaded area represents the time interval during the task/stimulation period (exposure of different colors of
light). The time series is subdivided into 5 min each time period. Drastic discrepancies appear in the EEG beta
band after exposure to blue light in contrast with red and green light exposure.
Figure 7. Statistical comparison of (a) HbO concentration changes (b) and EEG beta band power in pre-frontal
cortex. The standard deviation is represented by the error bars. Significant differences in HbO for red and green
light exposure and without sleep deprivation data (p < αcritical) is observed. Similarly, beta band power for red and
green light exposure and without sleep deprivation data also show significant differences (p < αcritical). Whereas,
in both HbO and beta band power for blue light exposure shows a trend similar to without sleep deprivation
data. ** represented significant difference (p < αcritical).
of each light (red, green, and blue) exposure responses with the awake brain (results of Experiment-1) state and
3 comparisons of each light exposure responses with the drowsy brain state (results of Experiment-2)), so we
divided our critical p-value (α = 0.05) by 6 resulting in an adjusted p-value of 0.0083. The statistical significance
thus is decided when the comparison results in a p-value < 0.0083 (αcritical).
Across all participants, the levels of subjective sleepiness on the KSS scale increased significantly in the sleep-
deprived state. Figure 4a shows that the average KSS score for well-rested subjects was between 1 and 2 out of 7,
but rose to 5 and 6 (sleepy, some effort to keep alert) for sleep deprivation among participants. Notably, there was
a progressive increase in the frequency of all subjective symptoms of sleepiness after participants had been awake
for approximately 22 h. Figure 9a depicts the average self-reported KSS scores for each period in the colored
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Figure 8. Statistical comparison of (a) HbO concentration changes (b) and EEG beta band power in pre-
frontal cortex. The standard deviation is represented by the error bars. Significant differences in HbO for blue
light exposure and with sleep deprivation data (p < αcritical) is observed. Similarly, beta band power for blue light
exposure shows a trend different from sleep deprivation data, although, not significant, but similar to without
sleep deprivation data. The visible differences but not significant (p > αcritical) in all other parameters of fNIRS and
EEG for red and green light exposures can be viewed. * represented the significant difference (p < αcritical).
Figure 9. Subjects’ state identification using KSS scores, HR, and EC. The shaded area represents the time
interval during the task/stimulation period (exposure to different colors of light). (a) KSS scores (mean ± SD) for
different colors of light (red, green and blue) under sleep-deprived conditions in 5 time periods (10 min of each
time period measured only in stimulation duration) (x-axis) during a 60-min drive in a simulator. (b) Average
HRs (mean ± SD) of 5-min bins (x-axis) across all participants for different colors of light (red, green and blue)
under sleep-deprived conditions during a 60-min drive in a simulator. (c) Average EC rates (mean ± SD) of
5-min bins (x-axis) across all participants for different colors of light (red, green and blue) under sleep-deprived
conditions during a 60-min drive in a simulator.
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light exposure experiments. On average, across an hourly experiment of driving under blue light exposure, the
KSS score (between 3 and 4) of the participants was found to be close to that of the awake state. At the start of
the experiment, the average KSS score of the participants was 3.51, representing a brain state close to neither
sleepy nor alert and, it was expected that after a laboriously long driving task, they would be relatively fatigued,
with an average KSS score of 6. The average KSS scores in cases of red and green light exposure were reported to
be up to 6 showing that red and green light exposures have no considerable effect in retaining the alertness level
as compared to the blue light exposure. Alternatively, there may be a chance of false-positives, i.e., the KSS may
indicate that a participant is sleep deprived but may be found awake by other methods. Therefore, participants
classified as fatigued by the KSS method were validated by matching their physiological data, i.e., EC rate using
their recorded video data and HR for accuracy. The mean HRs of the subjects were also calculated according to
the exposure to different colors of light over the entire 60-min driving period under sleep-deprived conditions, as
depicted in Fig. 9b. As shown in the figure, HRs exposed to blue light were significantly higher than HRs exposed
to red and green light. From the video data recorded in the colored light exposure experiments, we found that
the average EC rate was lower after exposure to blue light (see Fig. 9c).
Correlation results. The correlation score was calculated between HbO parameter from the fNIRS signal
and beta band of EEG signal with the KSS scores from each of the colored light experiment results. Table 3 pre-
sents the correlation scores for each of the corresponding pairs using the MATLAB function corr. The results
show that there is a weak positive correlation between HbO and beta band values from the red light exposure
with the corresponding KSS values while a weak negative correlation is observed between HbO and beta band
values from green light exposure with its corresponding KSS scores. However, a strong negative correlation is
found between HbO and beta band values from the blue light exposure with its corresponding KSS values. This
shows that as a result of blue light exposure, there is an increase in the HbO and beta band values and a signifi-
cant decrease in the KSS scores. This decrease in KSS represents a better conscious state of the participant as
compared to the that at the start of the experiment.
Discussion
The research objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of exposure to red, green, and blue colors of light on
human alertness level by assessing blood oxygenation changes (measured with fNIRS), EEG frequency band pow-
ers (delta, theta, alpha, beta and gamma) and other physiological measures, including EC rate and HR. This study
supports our earlier findings14 that, compared with longer wavelength light (red and green) exposure, shorter
wavelength light (blue) exposure increases cognitive activity in specific brain regions under fatigued conditions.
In the absence of sleep deprivation, the average of all subjects resulted in increased HbO values in comparison to
the HbR values, and in the case of sleep deprivation, lower HbO values were observed in comparison to the HbR
values. Throughout the 50-min driving experiments, the changes in HbO concentration increased over time in
the non-sleep-deprived condition, thus demonstrating high levels in all channels. For the sake of this calculation,
every significant pixel was assigned an equal weight. Averaged HbO values were chosen for illustrative purposes
since most channels showed similar behavior over time in the prefrontal (upper two in figure) and visual (lower
two) cortices for both conditions (sleep-deprived (left two in figure) and non-sleep-deprived (right two). A sci-
entific hypothesis for this study was that exposure to different colors of light will influence subjects’ mental state
(may convert a sleepy person to an awake state). Fusion of fNIRS and EEG techniques are employed to quantify
an individual’s state of consciousness (awake or fatigued), and an increase in beta band power (see Fig. 6) and
HbO levels (see Fig. 5) induced by blue light exposure represents an increase in alertness level.
EEG provides a number of advantages, such as being noninvasive, compact, low cost, and safe during driving,
so most studies to date have utilized EEG for investigating driver alertness, which is a strong predictor of this
condition57. In one study, researchers observed significant rises in delta, theta, and alpha activity in the fatigue
transition process58, which was aligned with existing findings according to a review p ublication59. However,
the most notable indicator of sleepiness is alpha band activity. Simon et al.60 performed a short-term Fourier
transformation-based analysis for alpha spindle activity under real-world traffic conditions. Analysis of these
actual 20-min driving data has shown that alpha spindle parameters, such as rate, duration, amplitude, and
power, have an increasing trend during the transition from the awake state to the drowsy state. In this study,
we deduced that the lack of alertness caused by sleep deprivation results in no change in alpha rhythm during
simulated driving (see Fig. 3). In the EEG measurements, there was a significant increase in beta band power
upon exposure to blue light (see Fig. 6). The normalized beta band power values were introduced to measure
fatigue, and a substantial beta band power variation was identified in the targeted brain regions. In earlier studies,
it has also been described that an increase in beta band power is closely associated with increased alertness61,62,
which is potentially useful for safe driving c onditions63.
In this study, we also used the fNIRS system. The major benefit of the fNIRS system is that it measures oxygen
concentration changes in brain blood flow, which is comparable to that in fMRI; therefore, fNIRS is also referred
Table 3. Correlation scores for each color light exposure experiment calculated aginst KSS score of the
experiment vs its corresponding HbO and beta values.
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to as portable fMRI with relatively a higher temporal r esolution64. Additionally, fNIRS may be an important
indicator of fatigue detection, and we are certain that using multimodal (fNIRS and EEG) data is advantageous
in monitoring alertness. Considering the benefits and limitations of fNIRS technology, blood oxygenation levels
throughout the dataset were estimated. From these datasets, a standard criterion was extracted that was used
to identify sleep deprived and awake individuals accurately (see section "Identification of the subjects’ state").
Additionally, in the literature, it is also mentioned that the alertness measurement criterion can be represented by
oxygen level changes in the prefrontal and visual cortices65,66. Since we are using visual stimulation and since the
prefrontal cortex is closely associated with mental workload and the enactment of cognitive tasks, we introduced
the prefrontal and visual cortices in this work. However, whole head measurements would be more helpful and
will be considered for future research.
Several studies have investigated the attributes of light exposure in the brain. Brainard and his colleagues67
performed nearly 700 experiments on 72 healthy men and women to identify the most suitable wavelength to
inhibit melatonin secretion. This took place from 1995 to 2001. The results corroborated that blue light possesses
the most critical wavelengths to regulate the circadian system, which was also demonstrated in a Japanese study
on mice68. Green color with a wavelength of 555 nm affects the cones called “color receptors”69. For the rods,
this sensitivity is observed at 507-nm wavelength light69. The peak sensitivity of melanopsin receptors spans
459–485 nm, and this argument is supported by previously published research studies on humans, rats, and apes.
Light has proven effects on hormone release, HR, body temperature, and gene expression in humans70. Blue wave-
lengths have been found to yield stronger effects than green wavelengths do. Light exposure has effects on EEG
beta, alpha, theta, and low-frequency activity, all of which are associated with fatigue level according to earlier
research findings70. Vandewalle et al.71 demonstrated that blue light is more effective than other wavelengths in
aiding responses in the left frontal and parietal cortices, both of which play important roles in working memory
tasks. In the present study, an abundant increase in the beta band frequency by exposure to blue light is associ-
ated with fatigued state effects reduction (see Fig. 6). The significant differences between the sleep-deprived and
non-sleep-deprived drive in the beta band (13–29 Hz) applied to differentiate the awake and fatigued states of
the brain (see Fig. 3). Additionally, an increase in HR is observed during blue light exposure, but no significant
changes in HR are observed during red and green light exposure.
A rise in EEG alpha (theta) power activity and subjective evaluations of alertness were observed in earlier
investigations involving continuous driving a ctivity72–74. During nighttime, such EEG variations have been con-
nected to risky and worse driving b ehavior75. A positive correlation was found between EEG theta and alpha band
spectral powers and alertness level in an experimental study performed on subjects in different age groups using
a driving s imulator76. The reaction time test for young (age range 20–25 years) and older volunteers (age range
52–63 years) who were sleep-deprived was performed in another study by Philip et al.77. Although both groups
exhibited comparable performance impairment, the young group was found to show a 70 percent decrease, while
the senior group showed a decrease of only 15 percent. Elderly subjects had longer (worse) reaction times initially
prior to sleep deprivation than their younger counterparts, contributing to other age-related differences pointed
out by the study. The research findings highlighted the importance of self-perception of performance and peril
among young drivers who usually overstate their driving ability, particularly in sleep-deprived conditions. In
this study, the data analysis shows a clear indication of fatigue state reduction when a sleep-deprived subject is
exposed to blue light during a 60-min driving simulator experiment (see section "Effects of different colors of
light on alertness level"). Furthermore, the KSS mean ratings for blue light exposure are almost 4 on the scale
compared to 6 for red and green light exposures (see Fig. 9a); therefore, it is unlikely that blue light exposure
can cause a degraded alertness level even after an hour-long driving activity. Hence, in the authors’ opinion, blue
light exposure can be useful in managing fatigued state and avoiding accidents by effectively reducing sleepiness.
The experiments reported that the subjects found the driving simulator job quite monotonous, which may
be due to the non-haptic simple driving simulator. To evaluate and compare boredom and sleepiness progres-
sion in real-world scenarios against this study would be extremely interesting, as it is outside the scope of study.
Using a driving simulator offers flexible design parameters, such as changing duration and complexity, and
includes other performance metrics, thus accurately reflecting the age-related variations in alertness levels and
overall psychomotor function. In future studies, it will be beneficial to study age wise optimal recovery time
for long driving stress and to evaluate drivers’ response for longer driving hours and higher sleep deprivation
times to maximize the risks. It is also important to correctly determine the effects of light on the circadian cycle
to develop environments and interventions for healthy circadian rhythms. This study introduced a system to
evaluate different color light effects on alertness to anticipate real-world scenarios. This technique has paved
the way for the creation and development of a future toolkit that will include personalized circadian medicine
to prevent road accidents.
Conclusion
In this study, the effects of different colors of light on human fatigued states in simulated driving conditions and
respective changes in brain hemodynamics in visual and prefrontal cortices were explored by the fusion of EEG
and fNIRS. Overall, it may be concluded that an alerting effect of blue light exposure was observed for the beta
frequency EEG band and HbO for fNIRS. The results indicate a noticeable reduction in fatigue effects following
exposure to blue light in contrast to red and green light exposures. From a practical and human performance
perspective, future research suggesting the use of colored light exposure mechanisms should be performed to
devise more portable and practical solutions that will make roads and workplaces safer and more productive,
respectively.
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Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reason-
able request.
Received: 30 November 2022; Accepted: 12 April 2023
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea gov-
ernment (MSIT) (No.2022R1A2B5B01002377).
Author contributions
Z.S. and A.A. designed and performed the experiments for data collection, performed data analysis, prepared
the figures, and wrote the manuscript; E.S.K. assisted in experimentation and data analysis; M.A.K. analyzed the
data and assisted in results generation and interpretation; J.H.K. assisted in experimental setup preparation and
Vol.:(0123456789)
conduction of experiments, M.Y.J. conceived and supervised the project. All authors contributed to the critical
reading and writing of the manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to M.Y.J.
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Utilizing EEG and fNIRS For The Detection of Sleep Deprivation Induced Fatigue and Its Inhibition Using Colored Light Stimulation

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OPEN Utilizing EEG and fNIRS

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:6465 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33426-2 1

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Table 1. Key variables and their units used in this study.

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Variables Categories Count Mean ± SD Percentage

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Received: 30 November 2022; Accepted: 12 April 2023

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© The Author(s) 2023

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Table 1. Key variables and their units used in this study.