What are the three states of matter?

solid liquid gas

2
Solids
Definite shape & size

Definite volume

Particles close together, fixed

Particles move very slowly

3
Liquids
Indefinite shape, Take the shape of container

Definite volume

Particles are close together, but mobile

Particles move slowly

4
Gases

Indefinite shape
Indefinite volume
Take the shape and volume of container
Particles are far apart
Particles move fast

5
 Matter can be classified as mixtures or pure
substances.
 Mixtures are further divided into two
 Homogeneous mixture
 Heterogeneous mixture
Pure substances
 Elements
 Compounds
Measurement
SI system (metric)

Length Meter (m)

Mass Kilogram (kg)
Temperature Kelvin (k)
Time Second (s)
Amount of substance Mole (mol)
Electric current Ampere (A)
Luminous intensity Candela (cd)
 Multiple Prefix Symbol
 10–12 pico p
 10–9 nano n
 10–6 micro μ
 10–3 milli m
 10–2 centi c
 10–1 deci d
9
 Multiple Prefix Symbol
 10 deca da
 102 hecto h
 103 kilo k
 106 mega M
 109 giga G
 1012 tera T
10
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS
 Law of Conservation of Mass
 Law of Definite Proportions
 Law of Multiple Proportions
 Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
 Avogadro Law

11
Law of Conservation of Mass
It states that matter can
neither be created nor
destroyed

Antoine Lavoisier
(1743—1794)

12
4 grams of hydrogen reacts with some oxygen to make 36
grams of water. Figure out how much oxygen must have been
used by applying the law of conservation of mass?

Hydrogen + Oxygen → water

4g ? 36 g
According to law of conservation of mass –
Mass of reactants = Mass of products
4+? = 36
So, 32 grams of oxygen was used.
 A thin strip of iron with a mass of 15.5 g is placed into a
solution containing 21.0 g of copper (II) sulfate and copper
begins to form. After some times, the reactions stops because
all the copper (II) sulfate has reacted. The iron strip is found
to have a mass of 8.5g. The mass of copper formed is found to
be 8.60g. What mass of iron (II) sulfate has been formed in
the reaction?
Solution:
Mass of iron = Initial mass – Final mass
= 15.5 – 8.5 = 7.0g
Mass of copper (II) sulfate = 21.0g
Mass of copper = 8.60g
According to law of conservation of mass,
Mass of iron + Mass of copper (II) sulfate = Mass of copper + Mass of iron (II) sulfate
7.0g + 21.0g = 8.60g + Mass of iron (II) sulfate
So, Mass of iron (II) sulfate = 19.40g
Q . 5g of ethane on complete combustion gives
4.4g of CO2 and 2.7g of H2O. Show that the given
reaction obeys law of conservation of mass?
Both reactant side and product side mass will be 7.1 gm
Law of Definite Proportions
 It states that a given
compound always
contains exactly the
same proportion of
elements by weight.

Joseph Proust
(1754—1826)
17
6.488 g of lead combine directly with 1.002 g of oxygen to form lead peroxide. Lead
peroxide is also produced by heating lead nitrate and it was found that the
percentage of oxygen present in lead peroxide is 13.38 percent. Use these data to
illustrate the law of constant composition.

Step 1: Step 2:

To calculate the percentage of oxygen To compare the percentage of oxygen

in first experiment. in both the experiments.

Weight of peroxide formed = 6.488 + Percentage of oxygen in in the first

1. 002 = 7.490 g. experiment = 13.38

7. 490 g of lead peroxide contain Percentage of oxygen in in the second

1.002 g of oxygen experiment = 13.38

100 g of lead peroxide will contain Since the percentage composition of

oxygen oxygen in both the samples of is
identical, the above data illustrate the
i.e. oxygen present = 13.38% law of constant composition.
Copper oxide was prepared by the following methods:

a. In one case, 1.75 g of the metal were dissolved in nitric acid and igniting the
residual copper nitrate yielded 2.19 g of copper oxide.

b. In the second case, 1.14 g of metal dissolved in nitric acid were precipitated as
copper hydroxide by adding caustic alkali solution. The precipitated copper
hydroxide after washing, drying and heating yielded 1.43 g of copper oxide.

c. In the third case, 1.45 g of copper when strongly heated in a current of air
yielded 1.83 g of copper oxide. Show that the given data illustrate the law of
constant composition.
Step 1: In the first experiment.

2.19 g of copper oxide contained 1.75 g of Cu.

100 g of copper oxide contained 1.75X100/2.19 = 79.90 g Cu

Step 2: In the second experiment.

1.43 g of copper oxide contained 1.14 g of copper.

100 g of copper oxide contained 1.14X100/1.43 = 79.72 g Cu

Step 3: In the third experiment.

1.83 g of copper oxide contained 1.46 g of copper

100 g of copper oxide contained 1.46X100/1.83 = 79.7 g Cu

Thus the percentage of copper in copper oxide derived from all the three
experiments is nearly the same. Hence, the above data illustrate the law of
constant composition.
 Limitations

The law does not hold true if the different isotopes of the element are
involved in making chemical compound.
Eg CO2 using carbon 12 -> ratio is 12:32
carbon 14-> 14:32

the law is not applicable when elements combine in the same ratio but
different compounds are formed.
C2H5OH and CH3OCH3 C:H:O = 24:6:10 => 12:3:8
Q- In an experiment 0.2430 gm of magnesium on burning
with oxygen yielded 0.4030 gm of magnesium oxide. In
another experiment 0.1820 gm of magnesium on burning
with oxygen yielded 0.3020 gm of magnesium oxide. Show
that the data explain the law of definite proportions.
Solution

Experiment 1: Weight of Magnesium oxide =0.4030 gm

Weight of Magnesium =0.2430 gm
Weight of oxygen0.4030–0.2430=0.16 gm
Ratio of Magnesium: oxygen =0.2430:0.16=1.552:1

Experiment 2:
Weight of Magnesium oxide=0.3020
Weight of Magnesium =0.1820
Weight of oxygen =0.3020–0.1820=0.12
Ratio of magnesium: oxygen=0.1820:0.12=1.552:1
In both experiments the ratio of magnesium: oxygen is same (1.518:1)
Hence, it illustrates the law of definite proportions.
Law of Multiple Proportions
 This law states that if two
elements can combine to form
more than one compound, the
masses of one element that
combine with a fixed mass of
the other element, are in the
John Dalton
ratio of small whole numbers. (1776—1884)

23
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
2g 16g 18g
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen Peroxide
2g 32g 34g
the masses of oxygen (i.e. 16 g and 32 g)
which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen
(2g) bear a simple ratio, i.e. 16:32 or 1: 2.
24
 Carbon is found to form two oxides, which contain 42.9% and 27.3% of
carbon respectively. Show that these figures illustrate the law of multiple
proportions.

First oxide Second oxide

Carbon 42.9% 27.3 %

Oxygen 57.1% 72.7 %

In first oxide 57.1 oxygen parts by mass combine with carbon =42.9 prts
1 part oxygen will combine with 42.9/57.1 parts carbon => 0.751

In second oxide 72.7 parts by mass oxygen combine with carbon 27.3 parts
1 part oxygen will combine with 27.3/72.7 = 0.376

Ratio of masses of carbon that combine with same mass of oxygen =

0.751:0.376 or 2:1
There are 100 g of two different compounds of sulphur and oxygen. The
first compound contains 50 g of sulphur and the second compound
contains 40 g of sulphur. Show that these data illustrate the law of
multiple proportions.

Sulphur Oxygen

50 g 50 g

40 g 60 g

Compound1: 1 g sulphur contains oxygen = 50/50 = 1

Compound 2: 1 g Su;phur contains oxygen = 60/40 = 1.5

Ration of oxygen in two compounda = 1:1.5

= 2:3
 =28.64/28.64
=1
=42.97/28.64
=1.5
For 100 g Nitrogen in both the compounds,
Ratio of oxygen = 2:3
Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous
Volumes
It states that when gases
combine or are
produced in a chemical
reaction they do so in a
simple ratio by volume
provided all gases are at
same temperature and Joseph Louis
pressure. Gay Lussac
33
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
100 mL 50 mL 100 mL

Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen

which combine together (i.e. 100 mL and 50 mL)
bear a simple ratio of 2:1.

34
Avogadro Law
Avogadro proposed
that equal volumes of
gases at the same
temperature and
pressure should
contain equal number Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo
Avogadro di Quareqa edi Carreto
of molecules. (1776-1856)

35
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY(1808)
1. Matter consists of
indivisible atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element
have identical properties,
including identical mass.
Atoms of different elements John Dalton
(1776—1884)
differ in mass.

36
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY(1808)

(contd…)
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of
different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation
of atoms. These are neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Dalton’s theory could explain the laws of chemical
combination. However,
 It could not explain the laws of gaseous volumes.
 It could not provide the reason for combining of atoms,
which was answered later by other scientists.
Atomic Mass
The atomic mass or the mass of an atom is
actually very-very small because atoms are
extremely small. In the nineteenth century,
scientists could determine mass of one atom
relative to another by experimental means.
Hydrogen, being lightest atom was arbitrarily
assigned a mass of 1 (without any units) and
other elements were assigned masses relative to
it.
However, the present system of atomic masses is
based on carbon - 12 as the standard and has
been agreed upon in 1961. Here, Carbon - 12 is
one of the isotopes of carbon and can be
represented as 12C. In this system, 12C is assigned
a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit (amu)
and masses of all other atoms are given relative
to this standard. One atomic mass unit is
defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth
the mass of one carbon - 12 atom.
 1 amu = 1.66056×10–24 g
Mass of C =12 g/mol
ie mass of 6.022x1023 atoms =12 g
Mass of 1 atom = 12/6.022x 1023
= 1.9926 x 10-23 g
1 amu = 1/12 of mass of 1 C atom = 1.9926 x 10-23 /12
= 1.66056×10–24 g
 Today, ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’
which is known as unified mass.

But now the unit is Dalton

Average Atomic Mass
 Many naturally occurring elements exist as
more than one isotope. When we take into
account the existence of these isotopes and
their relative abundance the average atomic
mass of that element can be computed.
Isotope Relative Abundance (%) Atomic Mass (amu)

12C 98.892 12.00000

13C 1.108 13.00335
14C 2 ×10–10 14.00317

The average atomic mass of carbon will

come out to be :
(0.98892) (12 u) + ( 0.01108) (13.00335 u) +
(2 × 10–12) (14.00317 u)
= 12.011 u
Average Atomic Mass of Cl
 Cl (35) 75%
 Cl(37) 25%
35 x 0.75+ 37 x 0.25
= 35.5 u
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses
of the elements present in a molecule. It is
obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of
each element by the number of its atoms and
adding them together.

Molecular mass of methane, (CH4)

= (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
Formula Mass
Some substances such as sodium chloride do not
contain discrete molecules as their constituent
units. In such compounds, positive (sodium)
and negative (chloride) entities are arranged in
a three-dimensional structure
The formula such as NaCl is used to calculate
the formula mass instead of molecular mass
as in the solid state sodium chloride does not
exist as a single entity.
Thus, formula mass of sodium chloride =
atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of
chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u