Biology NotesContents Chapter: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) Cells Movement of Substances Nutrients Enzymes Nutrition in Humans Nutrition in Plants Transport in Humans Transport in Plants Respiration in Humans Excretion in Humans Homeostasis Nervous System Human Eye Hormones Cell Division Reproduction in Plants Reproduction in Humans Heredity Molecular Genetics Ecology Our Impact on the Ecosystem Page: 15 18 25 31 43 47 55 63 67 73 78 81 86 91 98 104 108 113Chapter 1: Cells - Acellis a basic unit of life Cell Structure Animal cell eaondtien tour entepme nen Plant vs Animal Cells Part/structure Animal cell Plant cell Cellulose Absent Present Vacuole ‘Small and numerous vacuole | A large and central vacuole Chloroplasts Absent Present Centriole Present Absent generallyParts and their Functions Part Func Nucleus Nuclear envelope: separates the content of the nucleus from the rest of the cytoplasm. Nucleoplasm: dense material within the nucleus. Nucleolus: plays a part in the making of proteins in the cell, Chromatin: long strands of DNA. cytoplasm Forms the larger part of the cell, made up of 90% water and contains dissolved protein, sugars and enzymes. Also contains larger suspended particles of fats and many structures called organelles. Site of chemical reactions in the cell. Mitochondria Rod-shaped structures that carry out cellular respiration to release energy. Energy used to perform cellular activities (membrane visible under a electron scanning microscope) Plasma membrane Plasma membrane is a membrane that surrounds the entire cell. Itis partially permeable allowing certain substances to pass through, Cell wall Plant cells are supported by a cellulose cell wall Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Consist of a network of flattened spaces lined with a membrane. Have ribosomes attached to the membrane. Responsible for the synthesis of protein Reticulum Smooth Endoplas! Responsible for the synthesis of fats, steroids and sex (SER) hormones. Vacuoles ‘Small numerous and temporary spaces that stores substances. Ribosomes Place for synthesising proteins. Can be attached/unattached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Chloroplasts Only found in the cells of green plants. Carries out photosynthesis. (membrane visible under electron scanning microscope) Golgi apparatus Consists of stacks of flattened membranous sacs and vesicles involved in processing packaging and secretion of substances out of the cell.Movement of Substances out of the Cell 1) Vesicles transport substances within the cell. Small vesicles containing substances made by the ER are pinched off the ER. 2), These vesicles then fuse with the Golgi apparatus and release their content into the Golgi apparatus. The substance made by the ER may be modified inside the Golgi apparatus. 3) Secretory vesicles containing these substances are pinched off from the Golgi apparatus. They move to the cell surface membrane. 4) The secretory vesicle fuse with the cell surface membrane and their contents are released out of the cell. Specialised Cells, Tissues, Organs and Systems - _ Differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes specialised for a specific function, A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures which work together to perform a specific function. 1) Cells Cells are the basic unit of life. 2), Simple Tissue = Cells of the same kind may group together to form a simple tissue. 3) Complex Tissue Complex tissues contains more than one type of cells grouped together. 4) Organ ~ An organ contains more than one type of tissue, all working together for a specific function. 5) Organ System = An organ system consists of several organs working together for a common purpose. 6) Organism - Various systems together make up the entire body of an organism.Chapter 2: Movement of Substances Diffusion Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between two regions. It is a passive mode of transportation as energy is not required for the movement of molecules from one place to another. When the molecules have spread evenly (equilibrium) between the two regions, the concentrations are the same. As a result, there will be no net movement of molecules between the regions as the concentration gradient is no longer present. Asa result, there will be no net movement of molecules between these region. Importance of Diffusion Diffusion enables living organisms, unicellular or multicellular, to survive by allowing the exchange of nutrients, gases and waste substances. Osmosis Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water pote! a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane. Water potential is the measure of the tendency of water to move from one place to another. A dilute solution has more water molecules per unit volume than a concentrated solution Hence it has a higher water potential. Water always moves from an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential naturally by osmosis Application to living cells Cell membranes act as a partially permeable membrane that allows some substances to pass through but not others. The concentration of dissolved substances is usually higher than their surroundings, thus allow water to enter by osmosis.‘Type of cells Effect in concentrated solution Effect in dilute solution Leaf cell Plasmolysis occurs when cells are _| Turgor pressure results in placed in concentrated solution, when cells are placed ina Water leaves the cells, dilute solution, Vacuole decreases in size Water enters the cell Cytoplasm shrinks away from the | Vacuole increase in size cell wall Cellulose cell wall prevents over expansion of the cell membrane by exerting an opposing pressure. When cell is fully turgid further entry of water is prevented Red blood cell Crenation occurs when cells are __| Haemolysis occurs when cells placed ina concentration solution _| are placed in a dilute solution Water leaves the cell Water enters the cell Membrane of the cell forms little | Animal cells do not have walls spikes to prevent over expansion of Cell shrinks, becomes dehydrated _| the cell membrane. and dies, Active transport Active transport is the movement of substances across a cell membrane against a concentration gradient, from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. Amount of mitochondria affects the rate of active transport Surface area to volume ratio The surface area to volume ratio is the amount of surface area per unit volume of an object. In living organisms, it is an important factor that affects the rate of diffusion of substances across the cell membrane. Nutrients, oxygen and waste substances rely on the diffusion of, substances across the cell membrane in order to enter or leave the cells. Cells with large surface area to volume ratio enable nutrients and oxygen to diffuse into the cell quickly and allows the waste to diffuse out of the cell quickly. Ifthe cells have a small surface area to volume ratio, the nutrients will take longer to diffuse as compared to a cell with a larger surface area to volume ratio,Chapter 3: Nutrients Importance Of Nutrients In The Body Nutrients provide energy for vital activities - Green plants undergo photosynthesis using the light energy from the sun to convert raw materials from their surroundings into food. = These food substances contain chemical energy and can be used for bodily processes. Food provides raw materials to make new protoplasm = Protoplasm is synthesised from certain substances found in food. = Protoplasm is used for growth, reproduction, and repair of body parts. Food helps organisms stay healthy = Substances in food such as vitamins and minerals help to keep the body healthy. Water - Water is an essential component of all body tissues. About 70% of our body weight is water. Functions of water = Asolvent for chemical reactions, required in photosynthesis = Akey component of tissues = Regulation of blood temperature = Transportation of substances by acting as a solventCarbohydrates = Carbohydrates are organic molecules made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are present in the ratio 2:1 = Glucose has the formula C,H,,0, = Sucrose has the formula C,,H,.0,, - Carbohydrates can be classified as single sugars, double sugars or complex carbohydrates. Single sugars / monosaccharides ~ Single sugars or monosaccharides are small molecules. They cannot be further digested into smaller molecules. They can pass through cell membranes and be absorbed into the cells. - Three common single sugars, all having the chemical formula C,H,,0,, are: + Glucose + Found in plants and animals - Fructose = Common in plants but rare in animals + Galactose + Present in milk sugar in mammals Double sugars / disaccharides = Double sugars, or disaccharides, have two molecules of single sugars bonded together. ~ Three common double sugars, all having the same chemical formula C,,H,;0,. are: - Maltose = Maltose occurs in germinating grains. It consists of two glucose molecules bonded together. - Glucose + Glucose —--Condensation Reaction-—-> Maltose + Water = condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in which two simple molecules are joined together to form a larger molecules with the removal of one molecule of water. = Adouble sugar can be split into two single sugar molecules by using an enzyme. - Maltose + Water -—-Maltase, Hydrolytic Reaction~ = Hydrolysis or a hydrolytic reaction is a reaction in which a water molecule is needed to break up a complex molecule into smaller molecules = Sucrose - Only sugar among the single and double sugars to not be a reducing sugar = Lactose = Found in milk of all mammals > Glucose + GlucoseComplex carbohydrates / polysaccharide = Acomplex carbohydrate, or polysaccharide, consists of many monosaccharide molecules joined together. Polysaccharides are produced by the condensation(polymel many similar molecules to form a long molecule. ion) of Polysaccharide Structure Role Occurrence Starch —_| Astarch molecule is Itis a storage form of Found in storage made up of several carbohydrates in plants. When | organs, e.g. thousand glucose needed, it can be broken down | potato tubers molecules joined to glucose to provide energy for | and tay together. cell activities, Cellulose | Acellulose molecule is | The cellulose cell wall protects | Present in cell made up of many glucose | plant cells from bursting or —_| walls of plants. molecules joined damage. Cellulose cannot be together. The bonds digested in our intestines. They between the glucose serve as dietary fibres that units are different from | prevent constipation. that in starch Glycogen | Glycogen isa branched _| Itis a storage form of Stored in the liver molecule. itis made up of many glucose molecules joined together. carbohydrates in mammals. When needed, itis broken down to glucose to provide energy for cell activities, and muscles of mammals 10Fats - _ Fats are organic compounds conti oxygen as compared to hydrogen. ing carbon. Hydrogen and oxygen, with much less Properties and functions of fats: = Compact and insoluble in water - Fats are stored as droplets inside cells because they are insoluble and do not affect water potential in cells - Energy Store - Triglyceride(fat) contains a greater number of Carbon-Hydrogen bond per gram than starch or glycogen, therefore one gram of triglyceride yield about twice as much energy compared to one gram of carbohydrates, = Triglyceride has about half the mass of carbohydrates for an equivalent amount of energy stored. - Carbohydrates are still the most direct source of energy in living things as they are mobilised much more quickly compared to fats. = Common food store in animals living in cold climates. - Hibernating animals store fats as food reserve as itis difficult for animals to hunt for food in cold seasons. - Conduct heat slowly - Mammals have specialised cells for storing fat under their skin; cells are grouped together to form adipose tissue. - Function as an excellent heat insulator against heat loss from deeper regions of the body to the outside. + Less dense than water ~ _ Large animals that live in cold seas such as whales and seals, often have very thick layers of adipose tissue called blubber. + Gives buoyancy to aquatic animals. - Both the heat insulation and buoyancy help these animals to survive in this environment. = Absorb shock - Acts as a protective layer around delicate and vital organs. + Important component of myelin sheath in nerve cells and cell membrane. = Actas an electrical insulator, allowing rapid transmission of electrical impulses along myelinated neurons. - _ Anessential component of the cell membrane. + Acts asa solvent = Acts as a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and other vital substances. uwProteins - Proteins are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulfur is sometimes present. = Each type of protein had a unique three dimensional shape thus proteins have diverse functions. - When heated, the weak bonds in the proteins are broken, and the protein is denatured. - Proteins are built up from amino acids Structure of Amino Acids - Amino acids are monomers of the protein = There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids. Properties of amino acid - Amino acids are colourless and crystalline solids with relatively high melting point. ~ Soluble in water where they form ions but generally insoluble in organic solvents Formation of polypeptide = Amino acids join together to form a polypeptide through condensation reaction with the removal of water molecules. = The covalent bond that is formed is a peptide bond. Functions of Proteins - Proteins are used in the synthesis of new cells, for growth and repair of worn-up cells. = Proteins are used as biological catalyst to speed up chemical reactions, e.g, enzymes - Proteins serve as chemical messengers, e.g. hormones such as insulin = Proteins serve a transport function, e.g. haemoglobin is used to transport oxygen in red blood cells ~ Proteins perform a structural function, e.g. collagen is a component of skin, bones while keratin is a component of hair, nails, and feathers. - Proteins are used for the defense of the body, e.g. antibodies which recognise and combine with foreign substances such as bacteria = Proteins can be a source of energy during starvation and are oxidised after all the carbohydrates and lipids are used up. 12Food Tests ’s Test = _ Tests for the presence of reducing sugar. = Sucrose is the only common non-reducing sugar among the monosaccharides and disaccharides. 1) Add equal volume of Benedict's solution to 2 cmof solution to be tested. 2), Shake the mixture 3) Place test tube in boiling water bath for five minutes, 4) Observe precipitate formation and colour changes. Results: Blue solution turns: Blue (absent) — Green (little amount) — Yellow (moderate amount) — Orange — Brick-red (most) lodine Test ~ _ Tests for the presence of starch. 1) Place food substance on a white tile. Solid foods may need to be chopped up to smaller pieces. 2) Add 2-3 drops of dilute iodine solution to substance to be tested. 3) Observe colour changes, if any. Results: Solution changes colour from yellowish-brown to blue-black colouration — Starch present. Solution remains yellowish-brown = Starch absent Biuret Test - Tests for the presence of protein 1) Add 1. cm*sodium hydroxide solution to 2 cm? food solution 2), Shake thoroughly. 3) Add 1% copper (I!) sulfate solution, drop by drop, shaking after every drop until a colour change is observed Results: Solution changes colour from blue to violet + Protein present Solution remains blue — Protein absent 13Ethanol Emulsion Test + Tests for the presence of fats/oil For liquid food mixture: 1) Add 2 cm*of ethanol to the substance in a dry test tube, 2), Shake the mixture thoroughly. 3) Add 2cm* of water to mixture. For solid food mixture: 1) Chop solid food into small pieces and place into a dry test tube. 2) Add 2.cm* of ethanol and shake thoroughly. 3) Allow the solid particles to settle. 4) Decant the ethanol into another test tube containing 2cm’ of water. Results: White emulsion formed — Fats/oil present. Solution remains colourless — Fats/oil absent. 14Chapter 4: Enzymes ‘An enzyme is a protein that functions as a biological catalyst. They can alter or speed up chemical reactions. They remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. Enzymes can build up or break down complex substances. Enzyme Action and Specificity Lock and Key hypothesis The active site of an enzyme has a specific shape into which the substrate(s) fit exactly. The shape of the substrate is complementary to the shape of the active site of the enzyme. The substrate acts as a “key” while the enzyme is a “lock”, The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. Once the products are formed, they no longer fit into the active site of the enzyme and are released back into the surrounding medium. Chemical Reaction and Activation Energy Ina typical chemical reaction, the reactants have to collide with each other in the correct orientation and amount of energy, known as effective collisions, if not no reaction would occur. Activation energy Activation energy is the energy required to make substances react. It also represents the energy barrier that has to be overcome before a reaction can take place to form products. The greater the activation energy, the slower the reaction at any particular temperature. Activation energy of a reaction can be supplied by heating the reactants and the reaction will then proceed at a faster rate that without heating. How enzymes lower activation energy by effective collision. Effective collision is the collision between substrate and enzyme at the correct orientation. When substrate molecules bind to the enzyme molecules at the active site it forms an enzyme-substrate complex. The formation of enzyme-substrate complex lowers the activation energy as enzyme molecule holds the substrate molecule(s) in an arrangement that forces them together in the correct orientation. Substrate molecules react with each other. Once the reaction has occurred, the enzyme-substrate complex dissociates to release the products and the chemically unchanged enzyme molecule is ready for another cycle of reaction, 15Characteristics of Enzymes Enzymes speed up chemical reactions ~ Enzymes alter the rates of chemical reactions that occur in a cell. Enzymes speed up a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy needed to start a reaction. Enzymes are required in minute amounts ~ Enzymes remain chemically unchanged after catalysing a reaction. The same enzyme molecule can be used over and over again, thus a small amount of enzyme can catalyse a large number of chemical reactions. Enzymes are specific in action = Due to their active sites being complementary to only one type of substrate, enzymes are highly specific in action, Due to this enzyme specificity, each chemical reaction inside a cell is catalysed by a unique enzyme. Factors Affecting Rate of Enzyme-Catalysed Reaction Temperature Enzymes have an optimum temperature at which the enzyme activity is at its maximum, Different enzymes have different optimum temperatures, with most ranging from 37-45°C. At low temperature: Rate of enzyme activity is low. - Enzymes are inactive at low temperatures. ~ Reversible condition - Inactive enzymes can be made active by increasing temperature. From low temperature to optimum temperature: = _ As temperature increases, kinetic energy of substrate and enzyme molecules increases. = Substrate and enzyme molecules collide more often. This increases the chances of effective collisions and formation of enzyme-substrate complex and thus rate of reaction increases. + Reaction rate doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature until optimum temperature is reached. ~ Reaction rate is its maximum at optimum temperature, = As temperature increases beyond optimum temperature, reaction rate starts to decrease. - Enzyme is denatured. The enzyme loses its 3D shape and active site is unable to bind to the substrate. Once an enzyme is denatured, itis irreversible and it cannot regain its function even when temperature is lowered. = _ As temperature continues to increase, more enzyme molecules become denatured, which causes the rate of reaction to decrease further. 16pH Enzymes have an optimum pH, which is the pH at which enzymes activity is at its maximum, Different enzymes have different optimum pH. Any pH that deviates from the optimum pH will cause the rate of reaction to decrease. At extreme pH, enzyme loses its 3D shape and active site is unable to bind to the substrate. Denaturation is an irreversible process and once an enzyme is denatured, it cannot regain its function even when pH is back to optimum, Enzyme concentration Limiting factor. At low enzyme concentrations, adding more enzyme increases the rate of reaction. With more enzymes present, there are more active sites for effective collisions to take place. The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the enzyme concentration until enzyme concentration can no longer increase the rate of reaction. At this point, substrate concentration becomes the limiting factor. The rate of reaction becomes constant and reaches a plateau. Substrate concentration Limiting factor. At low substrate concentration, few substrate molecules are present, hence there are many available active sites for effective collisions to occur. The rate of reaction increases proportionally with an increase in substrate concentration. Substrate concentration is the limiting factor. ‘At higher substrate concentrations, increasing the amount of substrate cannot increase the rate of reaction. All enzyme molecules are being made use of - enzyme molecules are saturated and the amount of product formed per unit time remains the same. Enzyme concentration becomes the limiting factor. Rate of reaction becomes constant and reaches a plateau. 7Chapter 5: Nutrition in Humans Nutrition = Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain food and energy for growth, repair and maintenance of the body. + Inhumans, nutrition consists of: ~ Feeding or Ingestion - Food is taken into the body Digestion ~ Large food molecules are broken down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells. Physical digestion: Mechanical break up of food into smaller particles. = Chemical digestion: Breakdown of large food molecules into smaller soluble molecules catalysed by digestive enzymes through hydrolytic reactions. = Absorption Digested food substances are absorbed into the body cells. ~ Assimilation ~ Some of the absorbed food substances are converted into new protoplasm or used to provide energy, Human Digestive System Mouth and buccal cavity - Food enters the body through the mouth, which leads into the buccal cavity. The mouth contains: - Teeth = Chewing action of the teeth breaks down large pieces of food into smaller pieces. This increases the surface area of the food so enzymes can act on it more efficiently. ry glands = Secretes saliva into the mouth. Saliva flows into the buccal cavity via tubes called salivary ducts. - Tongue - Helps to mix food with saliva. Taste buds on the tongue help to identify and select suitable foods. Pharynx ~The pharynx is the part of the gut which connects the buccal cavity to the oesophagus and the larynx. The pharynx also leads to the trachea, = The larynx has a slit-ike opening called the glottis. 18esophagus The oesophagus or gullet is a narrow, muscular tube. It passes through the tharos and the diaphragm to join the stomach. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle which separates the thorax from the abdomen. The wall of the oesophagus contains two layers of muscles. These muscles are present along the whole gut from the oesophagus to the rectum. The two layers of muscles are: = Longitudinal muscles, on the outer side of the gut wall - Circular muscles, on the inner side of the gut wall Both sets of muscles produce long, slow contractions that move food along the gut by peristalsis. Peristalsis Peristalsis is the rhythmic, wave-like muscular contractions in the wall of the alimentary canal. Peristalsis enables food to be mixed with the digestive juices, and also pushes or propels the food along the gut. The circular muscles constrict the lumen whereas the longitudinal muscles shorten and widen the lumen. The circular and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic muscles. - When the circular muscles contract, the longitudinal muscles relax. As a result, the wall of the gut constricts, and the gut becomes narrower and longer. The food is squeezed or pushed forwards. - When the longitudinal muscles contract, the circular muscles relax. The gut dilates, and it becomes wider and shorter. This widens the lumen for food to enter. Stomach The stomach is a distensible muscular bag, with thick and well-developed muscular wall. When the stomach is fully distended, it sends signals to the brain that itis full, The stomach wall has numerous pits that lead to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice into the stomach cavity. The pyloric sphincter is located at the place where the stomach joins the small intestine. When the muscle contracts, the entrance to the small intestine clases. When the ring relaxes, the entrance opens, allowing food to pass from the stomach into the small intestine. Liver ~The liver is dark red and is made up of five lobes. The liver secretes bile, which is stored in the gall bladder. Gall bladder Bile is stored temporarily in high concentration in the gall bladder Bile flows into the duodenum via the bile duct. Small intestine The small intestine consists of the U-shaped duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The lining of the walls of the small intestine contains glands which secrete digestive enzymes. The wall os the small intestine is adapted to absorb digested food products and water. 19Large intestine The large intestine is shorter but broader than the small intestine. It consists of the colon and the rectum. At the junction between the colon and small intestine are the caecum and the appendix. In humans, these have no specific functions. Faecal matter is temporarily stored in the rectum. When the rectrum contracts, the faeces is expelled through the anus. The main function of the colon is to absorb water and mineral salts from the undigested food material, No digestion occurs in the large intestine, igestive Processes Digestion is the process whereby large food molecules are broken down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells. Digestive processes in the mouth Food in the mouth stimulates the salivary glands to secrete saliva Saliva is mixed with food. Mucus in saliva helps to soften the food. Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase which digests starch to maltose. The pH of the saliva is neutral. Salivary amylase is most active at this pH. Chewing breaks the food up into smaller pieces. This increases the surface area to volume ratio for salivary amylase to work on. The tongue rolls the food into small, slippery, round masses or boli The boli are swallowed and passed down into the oesophagus via the pharynx. Peristalsis in the walls of the oesophagus pushes each bolus of food down into the stomach. Digestive processes in the stomach The presence of food in the stomach stimulates the gastric glands to secrete gastric juices into the stomach cavity. Peristalsis in the stornach wall churns and breaks up the food. Peristalsis also mixes the food well with gastric juices, Gastric juice is a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid and pepsin. The dilute hydrochloric acid: = _ stops the action of salivary amylase by denaturing it. ~ changes the inactive form of the enzyme pepsinogen, in the gastric juice to the active pepsin - _ provides a slightly acidic medium suitable for the actions of pepsin ~ kills certain potentially harmful microorganisms in food. Protease (pepsin) digests proteins to polypeptides. Food normally remains in the stomach for about three to four hours. The partly digested food becomes liquefied, forming chyme. CChyme passes in small amounts into the duodenum when the pyloric sphincter relaxes and opens. 20ive processes in the small intestine = Chyme enters the small intestine. It stimulates: - _ the pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice. Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes pancreatic amylase, pancreatic protease (trypsin), and pancreatic lipase. The pancreatic juice passes through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum, = _ the gall bladder to release bile. Bile does not contain enzymes so it cannot digest good, but bilt salts sped up the digestion of fats. Bile passes through the bile duct into the duodenum. - _ the epithelial cells in the small intestine to produce the enzymes maltase, peptidases and lipase. - Food comes into contact with pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice. = Allthree fluids are alkaline. They: - neutralise the acidic chyme = provide a suitable alkaline medium for the action of the pancreatic and intestinal enzymes. igestion of Foods Carbohydrate digestion - Starch is digested by amylases. + Starch digestion starts in the mouth. However, only a little starch is digested as food does not remain long in the mouth. ~ No digestion of starch occurs in the stomach. ~ Inthe small intestine: = _ Starch is digested by pancreatic amylase to form maltose. = Maltose is digested by maltase to form glucose. = Lactose is digested by lactase to form glucose and galactose. ~ Sucrose is digested by sucrase to form glucose and fructose. = The end-products of carbohydrate digestion are simple sugars which can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Protein digestion + Proteins are digested by proteases. - Some protein digestion begins in the stomach, where pepsin digests proteins to polypeptides. - The undigested proteins which enter the small intestine are digested by trypsin to polypeptides. ~The polypeptides produced are further digested to amino acids by peptidases. ~The end-products of protein digestion are amino acids. Fat digestion = Fats are digested by lipases. - Inthe small intestine, bile salts emulsify fats. They break down the fats into tiny fat droplets, which increases surface area to volume ratio for increased rate of digestion. - _ Emulsified fats are digested by pancreatic and intestinal lipases to fatty acids and glycerol. = The end-products of fat digestion are fatty acids and glycerol. 21Absorption = Absorption is the process where digested food substances are absorbed into the body cells. Adaptations in the small intestine Adaptations Functions Small intestine is long. Provide sufficient time for absorption to take place. Small intestine is lined with many villi, each possessing numerous microvilli To increase surface area to volume ratio for absorption of digested food particles. ‘The epithelium of the villus is one cell thick. To reduce the distance for digested products to diffuse into the blood vessels. The small intestine consists of a dense network of blood capillaries and lacteal or lymphatic capillaries within the intestinal walls and vill Continuous transport of digested food substances maintains the steep concentration gradient for fast absorption of digested particles. Transport processes for food substances Substance Process Monosaccharides Diffusion, active transport Amino acids Diffusion, active transport Fatty acids and glycerol Diffusion Water Osmosis Mineral salts Diffusion, active transport Undigested and unabsorbed matter - Undigested and unabsorbed matter is stored temporarily in the rectum, They are discharged as faeces through the anus through egestion, 22Transport and Assimilation of Absorbed Nutrients - Assimilation is the process whereby some of the absorbed food substances are converted into new protoplasm or used to provide energy. Glucose and amino acids - Blood capillaries from the small intestine join together to form the hepatic portal vein, which transports nutrients to the liver. - Glucose is assimilated and then oxidised during tissue respiration to release energy for the vital activities of the cells, - Excess glucose is returned to the lover and stored as glycogen. Insulin stimulates the liver cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen. Glucagon stimulates the liver to convert glycogen back into glucose. + Amino acids which enter the cells are converted into new protoplasm that is used for growth and repair of worn-out parts of the body. = Amino acids are used to form enzymes and hormones. - Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver. + Fats are absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries. The lymphatic capillaries join to form larger lymphatic vessels, which discharge fats into the bloodstream, = Under normal conditions when there is a sufficient supply of glucose, fats are not broken down, but are used to build protoplasm. - When glucose is in short supply, fats are broken down to provide energy needed by the body. + Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissues beneath the skin and around the heart and kidneys. They act as shock absorbers. Functions of the Liver = The liver is the main organ involved in regulating the levels of certain substances in the body. Regulation of blood glucose content ~The liver plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism by keeping the amount of glucose in the blood constant, especially after a heavy meal or during fasting, - Insulin stimulates liver cells to convert glucose into glycogen. - Glucagon stimulates liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose. Production of bile ~The live secretes bile, which emulsifies fats. - Bile is temporarily stored in the gall bladder. Iron storage ~The liver breaks down the haemoglobin in red blood cells, and stores the iron that is. released. Bile pigments are formed from the breakdown of the haemoglobin. 23Protein synthesis = The liver synthesis protein found in blood plasma from amino acids in the diet. These plasma proteins include prothrombin and fibrinogen which are essential for clotting of blood, 24Deamination of amino aci = Deamination is the process by which amino groups are removed from amino acids and converted to urea - Excess amino acids are transported to the liver, where they are deaminated and converted to urea = Urea is removed from the body in urine. Detoxification = Detoxification is the process of converting harmful substances into harmless substances. = Alcohol is broken down in the liver. Liver cells contain alcohol dehydrogenase, which breaks down alcohol to acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde can be further broken down to compounds that can be used in respiration to provide energy for cell activities. Effects of Excessive Alcohol Consumption Harmful effects on the digestive system - Alcohol stimulates acid secretion in the stomach. Excess stomach acid increases the risk of gastric ulcers. = Prolonged alcohol abuse may lead to cirrhosis of the liver, where liver cells are destroyed and replaced with fibrous tissue, making the liver less able to function. = Patients with alcoholic cirrhosis may haemorrhage or have bleeding in the liver. - This can lead to liver failure, and subsequently, death Harmful effect on the nervous system - Depressant - Alcohol is a depressant. it slows down some brain functions. Its effects vary from one person to another. = Reduced self-control + Under the influence of alcohol, a person becomes carefree as alcohol takes away his inhibitions. His self-control is reduced. Some may take social or personal liberties which they may regret after the effects of alcohal have worn off. - Increased reaction times = Asthe person drinks more alcohol, other observable effects of intoxication such as slurred speech occur. ~ Blurred vision and poor muscular coordination make him clumsy and unable to walk steadily. His judgement deteriorates and he tends to underestimate speed. + Asadriver, he may drive faster and with less caution, and his reactions become slower. Social implications ~ When a person drinks alcohol frequently he can become addicted. He is unable to stop drinking until he is drunk and his body becomes dependent on alcohol. ~ Alcoholics tend to: ~ neglect their work and families, and exhibit violent behaviour especially towards family members. = commit more crimes compared to people who are sober. 25,Chapter 6: Nutrition in Plants Photosynthesis = Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is converted into chemical energy. The chemical energy is used to synthesise glucose from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is released as a product. Word equat Carbon dioxide + Water — zen, —+ Glucose + Oxygen + Water Chemical equation Chiorpil C4 0 CO, + 12H.0 — TiirEneray —* Cota , + 60, + 6H,0 Simplified equation Ctorephytt 6C0, + 64,0 — are > GH,,0, +60, Light-dependant stage = _ Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and then converted into chemical energy. Light energy is also used to split water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen atoms, also known as photolysis of water. 12 molecules of water are split to yield 6 molecules of oxygen and 24 atoms of hydrogen. Oxygen is released out of the lead by the stomata Light-independent stage = Hydrogen released during photolysis is used to reduce carbon dioxide to glucose. The energy needed for this process comes from the light-dependant stage. ~ 24 hydrogen atoms are used to reduce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide to form 1 molecule of glucose. 26Comparing Light-dependent and Light-independent stages Light-dependent stage dependent stage Enzymes Needed in both cells Site of occurence in chloroplast Thylakoids Stoma Requirements Light energy, water Carbon dioxide, hydrogen Energy Light energy converted into ATP | Comes from light-dependent stage (ATP) Reactions Photolysis of water Reduction of carbon dioxide Products formed Oxygen gas, hydrogen atoms Glucose, water What happens to glucose formed during photosynthesis? Glucose is used for respiration to provide ATP for cellular activities. Glucose is used to form cellulose cell wall When rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate of respiration, excess glucose is converted into starch for storage. When photosynthesis stops, starch is converted back to glucose for usage. Glucose is also converted into triglycerides (fat) and lipids for storage and synthesis of cell membrane. Glucose is converted to sucrose for transport to other parts of the plant via the phloem Glucose reacts with nitrates and other mineral salts from the soil to form amino acids in leaves. Amino acids form proteins for new cellular materials. Factors Affecting Rate of Photosynthesis Light Intensity Compensation point is the point where rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration. As light intensity increases during the morning and fades during the evening, there will be a time when the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration At this point, there will be no net intake or output of carbon dioxide or oxygen. This is the compensation point. The glucose produced by photosynthesis exactly compensates for the glucose broken down by respiration. As light intensity increases, the rate of the light-dependent reaction, and thus photosynthesis, increases proportionally. As light intensity increases beyond a certain point, the rate of photosynthesis is limited by some other factors such as temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. 27Carbon Dioxide concentration ‘An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain point. Beyond this point, when the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, the rate of photosynthesis plateaus. Rate of photosynthesis is limited by another factor such as light intensity or temperature. Carbon dioxide is no longer the limiting factor. Under normal circumstances, carbon dioxide is an important limiting factor since atmospheric carbon dioxide remains constant at about 0.03% Temperature Photosynthesis is dependent on temperature as it is a reaction catalysed by enzymes. When temperature increases, kinetic energy increases which increases the frequency of effective collision between enzymes and substrates, thus increasing the rate of photosynthesis. ‘As the enzymes approach their optimum temperatures, the overall rate of photosynthesis, reaches maximum, When the temperature increases beyond the enzymes’ optimum temperatures, the rate of photosynthesis begins to decrease until it stops. Enzymes are denatured Importance of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis makes chemical energy available to animals and other organisms Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for living organisms. Photosynthesis enables the light energy to be converted into chemical energy which is then stored within the carbohydrate molecules. Fats, proteins and other organic compounds can be formed with carbohydrates. All these substances eventually become the food of other organisms. They thus obtain this chemical energy directly or indirectly from plants. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide and provides oxygen Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the air and at the the same time, produces ‘oxygen. The oxygen released is used by living organisms in respiration to release energy for cell activities. This also maintains a constant level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Energy is stored in fossil fuels through photosynthesis All the energy in fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, came from the sun, captured through photosynthesis. Burning of fossil fuels release energy for human activities. 28External Features of a Leaf - Atypical green leaf consists of a lamina and petiole. lamina = The lamina had a large flat surface compared to its volume. This enables it to obtain the maximum amount of sunlight for photosynthesis. A large, thin lamina also means that carbon dioxide can rapidly reach the inner cells of the leaf. Petiole - The petiole holds the lamina away from the stem so that the lamina can obtain sufficient sunlight and air. In some leaves, for example grasses and maize, the petiole is absent as they have lone laminae. Network of veins ~ Veins carry water and mineral salts to the cells in the lamina and carry manufactured food from these cells to other parts of the plant. In a simple leaf, there is a main vein giving off branches repeatedly, forming a network of fine veins, Leaf arrangement ~ Leaves are always organised around the stem in a regular pattern. In general, leaves grow either in pairs or singly in an alternate arrangement to ensure that the leaves are not blocking one another from sunlight and that each leaf receives sufficient light. Internal Structure of the Lamina Cuticle ~ Waxy and transparent layer. + Reduced water loss through evaporation from the leaf and prevents the invasion of bacteria or viruses. - Does not contain chloroplasts. {upper and lower) = Protects the inner cells and allows light to pass through, = Single layer of closely packed cells. ~ Does not contain chloroplasts. Palisade mesophyll ~ Long and cylindrical cells which contain the largest number of chloroplasts for photosynthesis, - They are nearest to the upper epidermis and closely packed together. - filled with chloroplasts, 29Spongy mesophyll Irregularly shaped cells which contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis. Loosely packed with large intercellular air spaces among the cells to increase surface area for gaseous exchange, Cells are covered with a thin film of moisture. Contains vascular bundle. Contains less chloroplasts that the palisade mesophyll cells. Vascular bundle Contains the transport tissues xylem and phloem. Intercellular air spaces Allow circulation of air inside leaf for photosynthesis and respiration. Interconnecting system of air spaces in the spongy mesophyll allows for rapid diffusion of gases into and out of the cells. Guard cells Contains chloroplasts and regulate the size of the stomata for gaseous exchange and transpiration. Cell wall near the stoma is thicker than elsewhere in the cell = Inthe day: Guard cells photosynthesise = Chemical energy is used to pump potassium ions into the guard cells from neighbouring epidermal cell. ~ Concentration of K' ions increases in the guard cells Water potential in guard cell is lowered. = Water from neighbouring cells enter guard cells by osmosis. ~ Guard cells swell and becomes turgid. = Due to difference in thickness of cell wall in guard cells, one side expands more than the other. ight: ~ Potassium ions move out of the guard cells vie diffusion - Water potential in guard cells increases. Water moves out of the guard cells = Guard cells become flaccid ~ Stoma closes. 30Adaptations in the Leaf for Photosynthesis Adaptation Function Petiole Holds leaf in position to absorb maximum light energy. Thin, broad lamina Thin lamina provides a short diffusion distance for gases and enables light to reach all mesophyll cells. Broad lamina provides a large surface area for maximum absorption of light. Waxy cuticle on upper and lower epidermis Reduces water loss through evaporation from the leaf, transparent for light to enter leaf. Stomata present in epidermal layers Open in presence of light, allowing carbon dioxide to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out of the leaf. Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll in all mesophyll cells Chlorophyll absorbs and transforms light energy to chemical energy used in the manufacture of sugars, More chloroplasts in upper palisade tissue More light energy can be absorbed near the leaf surface. Interconnecting system of air spaces in the spongy mesophyll Allows rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen into and out of the mesophyll cells. Veins containing xylem and phloem situated close to mesophyll cells Xylem transports water and mineral salts to mesophyll cells. Phloem transports sugars away from the leaf. Carbon Dioxide Entering the Leaf 1) In daylight when photosynthesis occurs, the carbon dioxide in the leaf is rapidly used up. The carbon dioxide concentration in the leaf becomes lower than that in the atmospheric air, so a diffusion gradient exists. Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from the surrounding air through the stomata into the air spaces in the leaf. 2), The surfaces of the mesophyll cells are always covered by a thin film of water so that carbon dioxide can dissolve in it. 3}, The dissolved carbon dioxide then diffuses into the cells. Water and Mineral Salts Entering the Leaf 1). The xylem transports water and dissolved mineral salts to the leaf form the roots. 2) Once out of the veins, the water and mineral salts move from cell to cell right through the mesophyll cells of the leaf. 31Chapter 7: Transport in Humans The Need for a Transport System - Ina simple unicellular organism, the movement of materials into and from the cell occurs by diffusion as no part of the cell ios afr form the external environment. - Ina complex multicellular organism, a transport system is needed to carry materials from one part of the body to another, as cells are located deep into the body, far from the external environment. = Mammals have developed a transport system consisting of blood vessels, blood and a heart. Double Circulation and its Advantages Complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood ~ Ensures only oxygenated bload can reach tissue cells. + _ Efficiency of transport of oxygenated blood. Blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circuit ~ Pulmonary circulation at lower pressure = Blood enters the lungs at a lower pressure compared to blood leaving the heart. This ensures that blood flows more slowly through the lungs, allowing sufficient time for the blood to be well oxygenated before it returns to the heart. ~ Systemic circulation at higher pressure + Oxygenated blood is distributed to the rest of the body tissues more quickly. Helps to maintain the high metabolic rate in mammals. 32Structure and Composition of Blood Plasma - Plasma is a pale yellowish liquid. It is about 90% water and the rest is a complex mixture of various dissolved substances such as: = Soluble proteins such as fibrinogen, prothrombin and antibodies. Fibrinogen and prothrombin play an important part in the clotting of blood. These proteins are made in the lever. Antibodies help to fight diseases. = _ Dissolved mineral salts, for example, hydrogencarbonates, chlorides, sulfates and phosphates of calcium, sodium and potassium. All these occur as ions in the plasma. Calcium is essential for blood clotting. - Food substances, for example, glucose, amino acids, fats and vitamins. = _ Excretory products, for example, urea, uric acid and creatinine, Carbon dioxide is present as hydrogencarbonate ions, - Hormones, for example, insulin. - Plasma transports all these substances, together with the blood cells, around the body. The amount of soluble proteins, mineral salts and glucose in the blood plasma and kept relatively constant. Red blood cells = There are about 5 million red blood cells in each cubic millimetre of blood. Each red blood cell: = Contains the pigment haemoglobin which combines reversibly with oxygen. It enables red blood cells to transport oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body. - Has. circular, flattened biconcave disc. The centre of the cell is thinner than its edge. This increases the cell's surface area to volume ratio. The cell can thus absorb and release oxygen at a faster rate. ~ Does not possess a nucleus, enabling it to carry more haemoglobin and thus more oxygen. - _ Iselastic and can turn bell-shaped in order to squeeze through blood vessels smaller than itself in diameter. ~ Red blood cells are produced by the bone marrow. Each red blood cell ives for about 3-4 months, before they are destroyed by the spleen. White blood cells ~ White blood cells are larger than red blood cells but are fewer in number. For each white blood cell, there are 700 red blood cells. Each white blood cell: - _Iscolourless and does not contain haemoglobin = _ Is irregular in shape and contains 2 nucleus - Can move, change its shape and squeeze through the walls of the thinnest blood capillaries into the spaces among tissue cells. + There are two main kinds of white blood cells: lymphocytes and phagocytes. They play a vital role in keeping the body healthy by fighting diseases, 33= Lymphocytes - Each lymphocyte has a large, rounded nucleus and a relatively small amount of, non-granular cytoplasm. Lymphocytes tend to be nearly round in shape and only show limited movements. They produce antibodies that may protect the body from disease-causing microorganisms. + Phagocytes = Phagocytes ingest and digest foreign particles such as bacteria. Blood platelets - Blood platelets or thrombocytes are not true cells. They are membrane-bound fragments of cytoplasm from certain bone marrow cells. They play a part in the clotting of blood Blood Groups = _ Red blood cells have antigens on the surface of their cell membranes. = Blood plasma contains antibodies which recognise and bind to specific antigens on the red blood cells of another person. - Transfusion of wrong type of blood causes agglutination or clumping of red blood cells. This could lead to death as the clumps may block up small blood vessels and prevent the flow of blood - Blood group O is known as the universal donor as there are no antigens on the donor's red blood cells and thus the recipient's antibodies would not cause agglutination of the donor's blood. = Blood group ABs also known as the universal acceptor ass there are no antibodies in the plasma of the recipient which could cause agglutination of the donor's blood. Blood group | Antigen present on red blood cells Antibody present in plasma A Antigen A. Antibody b B Antigen B Antibody a ° No antigen Antibodies a & b AB Antigens A&B No antibodies Blood Transfusion A transfusion is the transfer of whole blood or blood components into the bloodstream of another person. - Main purpose is to increase blood volume or to improve immunity. - Incompatible transfusions can result in agglutination - binding of antibodies in recipient's plasma to antigens on donated RBC’s = Reaction between donor’s antibodies in the plasma and the recipient's antigens on the RBCs is not significant. Donor’s antibodies are diluted in the recipient's plasma. 34Functions of Blood Transport function - _ Respiratory gases - oxygen and carbon dioxide. Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body and carbon dioxide form the body cells to the lungs for removal. = Nutrients from alimentary canal to body cells - glucose and amino acids pass through the liver for processing before entering the general circulation. - Metabolic waste from sites of production to sites of removal - urea produced in liver is sent to the kidneys for excretion, lactate produced in muscles is sent to liver to be broken down. - Hormones produced by endocrine glands are transported to target organs - Insulin stimulate the conversion of excess glucose to glycogen in liver and muscle. Substances transported Carried from Carried to ested food products ‘Small intestines Liver, all parts of the body itrogenous waste _| All parts of the body _| Kidney Excretory products Carbon dioxide All parts of the body | Lungs Hormones Glands Target cells or organs Heat Respiring body tissue | All parts of the body Oxygen Lungs All parts of the body Protective function = Clotting mechanism = Protect against blood loss - Prevent the entry of pathogens - Involves platelets, plasma protein and other plasma factors. = Blood clotting occurs to seal a wound and prevent entry of bacteria and further loss of blood. = Blood clotting mechanism: Damaged tissues and platelets produce Thrombokinase. Thrombokinase converts the protein prothrombin into thrombin in the 2) 2) 3) 4) - White blood cells protect against disease-causing organisms. presence of calcium ions. Thrombin catalyses the conversion of the soluble protein to insoluble fibrin threads. Fibrin threads entangle blood cells and forms a clot, sealing the wound. = Undamaged blood vessels contain heparin, an anti-clotting substance. When thrombokinase is released in damaged tissues, it neutralises heparin so clotting can take place, - Defense mechanism = Phagocytes carry out phagocytosis to engulf disease-causing organisms. - Lymphocytes produce and secrete specific antibodies against disease-causing organisms, 35,+ Phagocytosi = Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing and ingesting foreign particles. - Inthe process of fighting bacteria, some phagocytes are killed with the bacteria, forming pus. = Production of antibodies = When pathogens or disease-causing organisms enter the bloodstream, they stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies. Antibodies protect our body from diseases by: - Destroying bacteria, ~ Causing bacteria to clump together and be engulfed by phagocytosis. ~ _ Neutralising the toxins produced by bacteria. - Immunisation or vaccination directly induces lymphocytes to produce antibodies by exposing a person to dead or weakened forms of the pathogen. + Organ transplant and tissue rejection - Adamaged or diseased organ can be replaced by a healthy organ from a donor, = The immune system of the organ recipient may treat a transplanted organ as a foreign body. This induces production of antibodies against the organ and results in tissue rejection. Regulation of pH, water potential and temperature ~ Circulating blood maintains homeostasis of body fluids by: = Maintaining an optimum pH in the tissues through the use of buffers. Maintaining the water potential of body fluid. ~ Blood solutes affect the water potential of the blood. - Water potential gradient between the blood and the tissue fluid is affected. ~The water potential is largely due to sodium ions and plasma proteins, The blood solutes level regulates the movement of water between blood and tissues. - Water in blood plasma plays a part in the distribution of heat between: ~The heat-producing areas such as the liver. ‘Areas of heat loss such as the skin. 36| gl a a 2] S| 2 a S| The ‘uon221p 240 ut pooja jo nog ainsus oF _inssoud poo m0] 9pun Poejq o-moyrped ay wonaid semen eum 1w9s “yeay a “Asyoouss way ue Moy pooiq 0125 ‘nol s2yo uawny ‘oy pooyg jo ours 29npe1 0 sayeiide> or paveduioa se uouin ater “sye9 anssn un sevavew osu were aya ‘249e49 59 Bupunoains >yomgau ansuayey sen aun Bron 2eryp Aysea © Sonpoud 12800 ‘ou yun ‘oj ugeip 10 uokaUeUo9 ‘oBtopun sjoveuy ‘wn yun sod 21 yBrony smoy poor 2100 frou soy Poor, ‘801 pue samouseu soweoag revue aya snoye em -esind 25 208 pue howe ayy uo sunds pani ayn ysnd 0 say syeay ayy spienoy tan) pueswaunnu yo a8ueyo mou, “yea 249 wos heme wog2uny poo1g vodsues,:uon>ung | oy pooig siomjag :uon2ung Jo} noyy uomung | poolgserenfos-uousunj] —_pooygvodsuen uom>unj | or uoperdepy sussge aye sanen seunjauins au “eyo pue ave sonen seunj1w9s uae Aeuowyd 342230 10} 01 syn wosgesanen tun tues -sye pue2ysejasouuny | _sejposnu puesqsea UL sem sejnoenus pue 92/3 | aeinasnu pue ansel2 ainanns wen ‘seinuen ‘oenise sooueuy how ‘soumyeay 37“sense Apoq “sansa, yay ain sueoy ou sueBio uj | 243403501 /suesio oxy oy Apeq axpjo3sa4/suesio ayy | my poor pubitoy suetio Woy ssoly | piemoy suede woy smo | sjja2 ax puncse oj smojj | weay ay woy Aeme swols| 04 Wea ay} Uloy) Aeme-smolj | youop20N1q "emo sepsnus ayy vaya Ssulan ap Bussaudiu0 ‘fey yeay 24) 039989 Pood yo oy 24) 1588 SUION “2oeyd ayy 0} saaueysqns sauaye yay yo uonse aun 01 9U s92snusfraIe¥s Jo a8uevaxe 10} own ax0w | uy moy aun or paveduio> | Burdwind syarAys Sunsoyos mols = AyNoIs soy PoO|e “Aynoyssmoy poors | moje orAmojssmoy pooja | se pamojssmoy pooja | ‘sasind ur Aides smoy pooys | poota yo pads “eave euog95-ss019 uy aseassul ayy 6} anp ua ajausn 0} pua ajouaye aye ut "mo Aion ‘mei ion | — Buoye ses unssoud pootg | eanssa1d pooia wey 290%07 ‘ajesind pue yaix | aunssaud pooig yossan pooyg jo sayewerp | saj]eus ynq “au.qude> 04 01 angeles uown} 28427] povedwioo se uown 1081e7 “wou ews Ason “own ews own) jo 0215 38Tissue Fluid - The tiny spaces between tissue cells contain a colourless liquid, the tissue fluid. The tissue cells are bathed with tissue fluid which carried substances in solution between the tissue cells and the blood capillaries. = Dissolved food substances and oxygen diffuse from the blood in the blood capillaries into the tissue fluid and then into the cells, Metabolic waste products diffuse from the cells into the tissue fluid and then through the blood capillary walls into the blood. The blood transports these to the excretory organs for removal = Since blood capillaries are narrow, the red blood cells can only move through the lumen of the blood capillaries in a line, one behind the other. The red blood cells may become bell-shaped as they pass through narrow blood capillaries, The advantages of this are: - Diameter of red blood cell is reduced so that it can easily pass through the lumen of the capillaries. = The cell increases its surface area to speed up absorption or release of oxygen. = _ Rate of blood flow is reduced, giving more time for, and thus increasing the efficiency of, exchange of materials between the blood and the tissue cells. The Heart Structure of the heart = In human beings, the heart is about the size of a clenched fist. It lies in the thorax behind the chest bone and between the two lungs. = The whole heart is surrounded by a “bag” called the ;pericardium. The pericardium is made up of two layers of membrane. The inner membrane is in contact with the tissues making up the heart. Between the two pericardial membranes is a fluid which helps to reduce friction when the heart is beating. - The mammalian heart has four chambers. = Atria ~The atria have comparatively thin muscular walls since they only force blood into the ventricles and this does not require high pressure. ~ Ventricles ~ Ventricles have comparatively thick muscular walls especially the left ventricle, since it had to pump blood around the whole body and this requires high pressure. ~The right ventricle has thinner walls than the left ventricle since it only pumps blood to the lungs, which is close to the heart. + Median septum ~The right and left sides of the heart are separated by a muscular wall called the median septum. - The median septum prevents the mixing of deoxygenated blood in the right side with the oxygenated blood in the left side. - Mixing of deoxygenated blood with oxygenated blood will reduce the amount of oxygen carried to the tissue cells. 39Path of blood through the Heart 1) Deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body is returned to the right atrium. Blood from the head, neck and arims is returned to the right atrium by the superior vena cava. Blood from the other parts of the body is brought back by the inferior vena cava. The superior and inferior vena cava are collectively called the canae cavae. 2) When the right atrium contracts, blood flows into the right ventricle, Between the right atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid valve, which opens when the pressure in the right ventricle becomes lower than the pressure in the right atrium. It consists of three flaps. These flaps are attached to the walls of the right ventricle by cord-like tendons called chordae tendineae. The flaps point downwards to permit easy flow of blood from the atrium into the ventricle. 3) When the right ventricle contracts, the blood pressure forces the flaps of the tricuspid valve to close. This prevents backflow of blood into the atrium. The chordae tendinae prevent the flaps from being reverted into the atrium when the right ventricle contracts. Blood leaves the right ventricle through the pulmonary arch. The pulmonary arch leaves the heart and divides into two pulmonary arteries, one to each lung. Semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary arch prevent backflow of blood into the right ventricle. 4) The blood in the pulmonary arteries is at a lower pressure than the blood in the aorta. This slows down the rate of blood flow to give more time for gas exchange in the lungs. 5) Oxygenated blood from the lungs is brought back to the left atrium by the pulmonary veins. When the left atrium contracts, the blood pressure in the left atrium becomes higher than that in the left ventricle. This causes the bicuspid valve to open and blood enters the left, ventricle. The bicuspid valve separates the left atrium from the left ventricle. This is similar in structure and function to the tricuspid valve except it has two flaps instead of three. When the left ventricle contracts, blood leaves through a large artery, the aorta. 6) From the aorta, blood is distributed to all parts of the body except the lungs. The aorta curves upwards from the left ventricle as a U-shaped tube. It also possesses semi-lunar valves to prevent backflow of blood into the left ventricle. Blood entering the aorta is at a very high pressure. Two small coronary arteries emerge from the aorta. They bring oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles. The cardiac cycle 1) The atria contract, forcing blood into the relaxed ventricles. 2), After a short pause, the ventricles contract. The rise in pressure causes the atrio-ventricular valves to close to prevent backflow of blood into the atria. This produces a loud ‘lub’ sound. The semi-lunar valves open. Blood flows from the right ventricle and left ventricle into the pulmonary arch and aortic arch respectively. 3) As the ventricles contract, the atria relax. The right atrium receives blood from the venae cavae while the left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins. 4) The ventricles relax. The fall in pressure causes the semi-lunar valves to close to prevent backflow of blood from the two arches into the ventricles. This produces a softer ‘dub’ sound. The AV valves also open and blood flows from the atria into the ventricles, 5) The atria contract again and the whole cycle repeats. 40Pressure changes in the Heart Pressure (mm Hg) ‘Semilunar 120 valves close Semiuna XZ 100 valves open 80 Aortic pressure 60 Ventricular pressure oo AV valves AV valves Gel 20 / Atrial pressure o ist 2nd ard Heart sounds 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) “Lub" “Dub" Aslight increase in the ventricular pressure due to the contraction of the left atrium, forcing. blood into the relaxed ventricle, ‘The ventricle begins to contract, the bicuspid valve closes and the pressure increases. The pressure in the ventricle continues to rise as it contracts. The pressure in the left ventricle becomes higher than that in the aorta. The semi-lunar valve in the aorta opens. ‘The ventricle begins to relax. The aortic valve closes to prevent backflow of the blood into the ventricle The pressure in the ventricle continues to decrease as it relaxes. ‘The bicuspid valve opens as the pressure in the ventricle becomes lower than that in the atrium. The pressure in the ventricle gradually increases as blood continues to enter the ventricle from the atrium, ‘The cycle repeats. aMain Arteries and Veins of the Body Pulmonary systemic circulation Lungs: Pulmonary Pulmonary vein artery Vena cava Aorta Upper body Liver Hepatic vein Hepatic artery Hepatic portal vein Stomach, intestines I Vessels transporting ‘oxygenated blood Renal artery | gay Vessels transporting deoxygenated blood 1 Vessels involved in gas excange Renal vein Kidneys Lower body Coronary Heart Disease The most common heart disease is coronary heart disease. The coronary arteries branch out from the aorta to provide oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles to sustain it for contractions. Buildup of cholesterol and fatty deposits in the coronary artery wall results in atherosclerosis. Plaque narrows lumen of arteries, resulting in less oxygen and nutrients being supplied to heart muscles. Patients with coronary heart disease may experience angina - chest pain or discomfort in the area of heart that does not get sufficient blood. When the coronary arteries are completely blocked, myocardial infarction (heart attack) may occur. - When heart tissue does not get any blood flow, the tissue dies, resulting in damage to the heart. = Infarction may disrupt the conduction system of the heart and cause sudden death to the patient. a2Factors increasing risk of getting a heart attack Family history Being a male Age Smoker High intake of saturated fats and salt Lack of exercise High blood pressure Intake of excessive sugars High alcohol intake Preventive measures against coronary heart disease A proper diet is important in reducing the risk of atherosclerosis. Polyunsaturated plant fats should substitute animal fats as they do not stick to the inner surface of the arteries. Such a diet may also lower the cholesterol level in the blood. Proper stress management helps to reduce the risk of a heart attack, ‘Smoking is harmful to the body and should be avoided, Cigarette smoke contains nicotine and carbon monoxide that increase the risk of coronary heart disease. Regular physical exercise has long-term beneficial effects on the circulatory system. It strengthens the heart and maintains the elasticity of the arterial walls. The risk of high blood pressure or hypertension can be greatly reduced, 43Chapter 8: Transport in Plants Xylem Structure Function Structural adaptation for function Made up of long and hollow tubes. Made up of dead cells. Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves in one direction, Empty lumen without any cytoplasm, organelles and cross-walls/end walls (cell walls in between cells). This reduces resistance to the flow of water, Inner walls of vessels are strengthened with lignin deposits. Lignin can deposit in different patterns. Provide mechanical support for the plant. Walls are strengthened with lignin. Prevents the collapse of the vessel and allows it to provide mechanical support for the plant. Phloem Structure Function Structural adaptation for function Made up of sieve tubes (consisting of elongated and thin-walled sieve tube cells) and companion cells. Sieve tube cells after maturing, wil lose its vacuole, nucleus and most organelles. It now has degenerate cell contents. It also has a degenerate cytoplasm, Cross-walls have lots of small pores and are called sieve plates. Companion cells, which lie next to sieve tube cells, contain many mitochondria. Transport manufactured food substances (sucrose and amino acids) to other parts of the plant. Process of transporting manufactured food substances (sucrose and amino acids) in phloem is known as transportation. Pores in the sieve plates allow faster flow of manufactured food substances between cells. Mitochondria provides energy needed for active transport and for metabolic processes.Vascular Bundle Stem - Ina dicotyledonous stem, the xylem and phloem are grouped together to form vascular bundles, = The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around a central region called the pith. - The phloem lies outside the xylem with a tissue called the cambium between them. Cambium cells can divide and differentiate to form new xylem and phloem tissues, giving rise to a thickening of the stem. - The region between the pith and epidermis is the cortex. Both the cortex and the pith serve to store up food substances, such as starch. - The stem is covered by a layer of cells called the epidermis. The epidermal cells are protected by a waxy, waterproof cuticle that greatly reduces evaporation of water from the stem. = Ina dicotyledonous root, the xylem and phloem are not bundled together. Instead, they alternate with each other. ~The cortex of the root is also a storage tissue, ~The epidermis of the root is the outermost layer of the cells. It bears many root hairs. Itis also called the piliferous layer. = Each root hair is a tubular outgrowth of an epidermal cell. This outgrowth increases the surface area to volume ratio of the root hair cell. The absorption of water and mineral salts is increased through this adaptation. Entry of Water and Mineral Salts into the Plant in the Roots Water Each root hair grows between the soil particles, coming into close contact with the soil solution surrounding them, = The cell sap in the root hair cell is relatively concentrated with sugars and mineral salts. Thus it has a lower potential than the soil solution. Water enters the root hair cells by osmosis. The entry of water dilutes the sap. The root hair cell no has a higher water potential than the next cell in the cortex. Hence, water move from root hair cell to the next cell by osmosis. - Water then travels from cell to cell by osmosis until it reaches the xylem. ons and mineral salts = ons and mineral salts are absorbed by active transport, when the concentration of ions in the soil solution is lower than that in the root hair cell sap. - Ions and mineral salts are absorbed by diffusion, when the concentration of certain ions in the soil solution is higher than that in the root hair cell Adaptations of root hair cell = The root hair is long and narrow. This increases the surface area to volume ratio which in turn increases the rate of absorption of water and mineral salts by the root hair cell = Cell surface membrane prevents the cell sap from leaking out. The cell sap contains sugars, amino acids and salts. It has a lower water potential than the soil solution. This results in water entering the root hair by osmosis. 45,= The root hair cell contains many mitochondria. Aerobic respiration in the mitochondria releases energy for the active transport of ions into the cell, 46Moving Water against Gravity Root pressure The respiring cells around the xylem vessels in the roots use active transport to pump mineral salts into the vessels. This lowers the water potential in the xylem vessels, which causes water to move into the xylem vessels by osmosis. This pushes water into the xylem vessels and upwards. Capillary action Water tends to move up very narrow tubes (capillary tubes) due to forces of cohesion {forces of attraction among water molecules) and adhesion (forces of attraction between water molecules and the inner walls of the tube}. Transpiration Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from a plant, mainly through the stomata of the leaves, Transpiration pull 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) The evaporation of water from the leaves removes water from the xylem vessels. This results ina suction force which pulls water up the xylem vessels. Main force in drawing water and mineral salts up the plant. Water continuously moves out of the mesophyll cells to form a thin film of moisture over their surfaces, Water evaporates from this thin film of moisture and moves into the intercellular air spaces. Water vapour accumulates in the large air spaces near the stomata (sub-stomatal air spaces). Water vapour then diffuses through the stomata to the drier air outside the leaf. ‘As water evaporates from the mesophyll cells, the water potential of the cell sap decreases. The mesophyll cells begin to absorb water by osmosis from the cells deeper inside the leaf. These cells, in turn, remove water from the xylem vessels, This results in transpiration pull, a suction force which pulls the whole column of water up the xylem vessels. Importance of transpiration Transpiration pull draws water and mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves. Evaporation of water from the cells in the leaves removes latent heat of vaporisation. This cools the plant, preventing it from being scorched by the hot sun. Water transported to the leaves can be used in photosynthesis, to keep cells turgid, and to replace water lost by the cells. Turgid cells keep the leaves spread out widely to trap sunlight for photosynthesis. a7- Humidity - Higher humidity decreases the rate of transpiration while lower humidity increases the rate of transpiration = Intercellular air spaces in the leaf are normally saturated with water vapour. There is a water vapour concentration gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere. The Grier or less humid the air outside the leaf, the steeper this concentration gradient is, thus the rate of transpiration will be faster. Increasing the humidity of the air will decrease the water vapour and concentration gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere. Thus rate of transpiration decreases as humidity increases. = _ Drier air causes this concentration gradient to become steeper, increasing rate of diffusion of water vapour to the surrounding air, increasing transpiration rate, - Wind - Higher wind speed increases the rate of transpiration while low/no wind decreases the rate of transpiration. - Wind blows away water vapour that accumulates outside the stomata. This maintains the water vapour concentration gradient between leaf and atmosphere. Thus stronger wind results in higher rate of transpiration. = Instill air, water vapour that diffuses out of the leaf makes the air around the leaf more humid, making the water vapour concentration gradient less steep and decreasing the rate of transpiration + Temperature - Higher surrounding temperature increases the rate of transpiration while lower temperature decreases the rate of transpiration. = Assuming that other factors remain constant, a rise in the temperature of the surroundings increases the rate of evaporation of water from the cell surfaces. Thus, the rate of transpiration is greater at higher temperatures. + Light intensity ~ Higher light intensity increases the rate of transpiration while lower light intensity decreases the rate of transpiration. Wilting - Water lost via transpiration has to be replaced by absorption from the roots. Wilting occurs when the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of absorption at the roots. ~ If the rate of transpiration is less than the rate of water absorption, plant cells become turgid and plant becomes firm and upright. - Ifthe rate of transpiration is more than the rate if water absorption, plant cells become flaccid and plant wilts. Advantages of wilting - When the leaves fold up, the leaves droop and less leaf surface is exposed to the sun and thus the rate of photosynthesis decreases. Disadvantages of wilting - When the plant wilts, the leaves droop and less leaf surface is exposed to the sun and thus rate of photosynthesis decreases. 48Chapter 9: Respiration in Humans ~ Respiration is the breakdown of food substances with the release of energy in living cells. Aerobic Respiration = Aerobic respiration is the complete breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen with the release of a large amount of energy. Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products. Word equation: Glucose + Oxygen — Carbon Dioxide + Water + Large amount of energy released Chemical equation: C,H;,0, + 60, > 6CO, + 6H, + Energy Uses for energy in the body - Muscular contraction Protein synthesis, - Cell division ~ Active transport ~ Passage of nerve impulses Maintenance of a constant body temperature Anaerobic Respiration - Anaerobic respiration is the partial breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen. ‘Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic respiration. Word equation (yeast): Glucose — Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + Small amount of energy Chemical equation (yeast): C,H,,0, — 2C,H,OH + 2C0, + Energy Word equation (muscle cells): Glucose — Lactic Acid + Small amount of energy Chemical equation (muscle cells) CH J, 2C,H,O, + Enerey 49Effect of Lactic Acid on Muscles During Exercise Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells - During vigorous muscular contractions, the muscle cells first respire aerobically. = _ Breathing rate increases to remove carbon dioxide and take in oxygen at a faster rate. Heart rate will also increase so that the oxygen can be transported to the muscles at a faster rate. However, there is a limit to the increase in the rate of breathing and heartbeat. - _ Inssuch cases, muscle cells also respire anaerobically for short durations in order to meet the energy demands of the activity (in addition to the aerobic respiration still taking place). - The extra energy released by anaerobic respiration supplements the energy released by aerobic respiration to allow the muscles to continue contracting, - When anaerobic respiration occurs, there is a buildup of lactic aci = Since there is insufficient oxygen to meet the demands of the vigorous muscular contractions, the muscles are said to incur an oxygen debt. Lactic acid concentrations build up slowly in the muscles, and may eventually become high enough to cause fatigue and muscular pains. The body then needs to rest and recover. in the muscle cells. Recovery period = During the period of rest, the breathing rate continues to be fast for some time. - This is to provide sufficient oxygen to repay the oxygen debt. + Lactic acid is removed from the muscles and transported to the liver. = Inthe liver, some of the lactic acid is oxidised (using the oxygen that is taken in) to release energy. This energy is used to convert the remaining lactic acid back into glucose. - When all the lactic acid has been converted to glucose, the oxygen debt is repaid. = Glucose is then transported back to the muscles and the body is ready. 50Human Gas Exchange System ‘Nasal Cavity Phatyms Epiglottis Trachea Intercostal Muscles Bronchus Alveouls Lung Bronchiole Pleaural Bietaan Nembranes Nose = Airenters the body through the two external nostrils. - The walls of the nostrils bear @ fringe of hairs. The nostrils lead into two nasal passages which are lined with a moist mucous membrane. = _ Breathing through the nose has the following advantages: = Dust and foreign particles, including bacteria in the air, are trapped by the hairs in the nostrils as well as by the mucus on the mucous membrane. - _Asair plasses through the nasal passages, its warmed and moistened, - Harmful chemical may be detected by small sensory cells in the mucous membrane. Nose to trachea = Air passes into the pharynx from the nose. From the pharynx, air passes into the larynx and then into the trachea through the glottis. 51Trachea - The trachea (windpipe) is supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage. The cartilage keeps the lumen of the trachea open. The membrane next to the lumen is the epithelium. ~The epithelium consists of: = Gland cells = Secrete mucus to trap dust particles and bacteria = Giliated cells ~ Contain hair-like structures called cilia on their surfaces. The cilia sweep the dust-trapped mucus up the trachea. Bronchi and bronchioles ~The trachea divides into two bronchi. Each bronchi carries air into the lung. The bronchi are similar in structure to the trachea. Each bronchus branches repeatedly, forming numerous bronchioles. Bronchioles are very fine tubes that end in a cluster of alveoli Alveoli = Gas exchange takes place through the walls of the alveoli. Numerous alveoli are found in the lungs, providing a very large surface area for gas exchange, Adaptations of the Lungs ~The numerous alveoli in the lungs provide a large surface area, + The wall of the alveolus is only one cell thick, This provides a short diffusion distance for gases, ensuring a faster rate of diffusion. - Athin film of moisture covers the surface of the alveolus. This allows oxygen to dissolve in it ~The walls of the alveoli are richly supplied with blood capillaries. The flow of blood maintains the concentration gradient of gases. Gas Exchange in the Alveoli - Gas exchange in the lungs occurs by diffusion. Blood entering the lungs has a lower concentration of oxygen and a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than the atmospheric air entering the alveoli in the lungs. = Aconcentration gradient for oxygen and carbon dioxide is set up between blood and alveolar air. Oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air into the blood capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction. = Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients between the alveolar air and the blood are maintained by: - Continuous flow of blood through the blood capillaries, = Movernent of air in and out of the alveoli, caused by breathing, 52‘Absorption of oxygen in the lungs 2). One cell thick alveolar wall that separates the blood capillaries from the alveolar air is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide 2) Since the alveolar air contains a higher concentration of oxygen than the blood, oxygen dissolves in the moisture lining the alveolar walls and then diffuses into the blood capillaries. 3) Oxygen combines with the haemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin. This reaction is reversible. The direction in which the reaction takes place depends on the amount of oxygen in the surroundings. 4) In the lungs where the oxygen concentration is high, oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin. 5) When the blood passes through oxygen-poor tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen, which will then diffuse through the walls of the blood capillaries into the cells of the tissues. Removal of carbon dioxide from the lungs 1) Tissue cells produce a large amount of carbon dioxide as a result of aerobic respiration. 2) As blood passes through these tissues via blood capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood and enters the red blood cells. 3) The carbon dioxide then react with water in the red blood cells to form carbonic acid. This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase which is present in red blood cells. 4) The carbonic acid is then converted into hydrogencarbonate ions which diffuse out of the red blood cells, Hence, most of the carbon dioxide is carried as hydrogencarbonate ions in the blood plasma. A small amount of carbon dioxide is also carried and dissolved in the red blood cells. 5} Inthe lungs, hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse back into the red blood cells where they are converted into carbonic acid, and then into water and carbon dioxide. 6) The carbon dioxide then diffuses out of the blood capillaries and into the alveoli, where itis, expelled when the body breathes out. Breathing Mechanisms in Humans = Inspiration or inhalation is the taking in of air. + Expiration or exhalation is the giving out of air, Thoracic cavity (chest cavity) = The chest wall is supported by the ribs. The ribs are attached dorsally to the vertebral column in such a way that they can move up and down, - The ribs are attached ventrally to the sternum. Humans have 12 pairs of ribs but only the first 10 pairs are attached to the sternum, The remaining pairs ar free ribs that are not attached to the sternum. - Two sets of muscles, the external and internal intercostal muscles, can be found between the ribs. They are antagonistic muscles. - The thorax is separated from the abdomen by a dome-shaped sheet called the diaphragm. The diaphragm is made of muscle and elastic tissue. When the diaphragm muscles contract, the diaphragm flattens downwards, and when they relax, the diaphragm arches upwards again. The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm change the volume of the thoracic cavity. 53Inspiration 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Diaphragm muscle contracts and diaphragm flattens. External intercostal muscles contract, while internal intercostal muscles relax. Ribs move upwards and outwards, Sternum moves up and forward. Volume of thoracic cavity increases. Lungs expand and air pressure inside decreases as volume increases. ‘Atmospheric pressure is higher than the pressure within the lungs. This forces atmospheric air into the lungs. Path of air into lungs Nostrils + Nasal Passages + Pharynx — Larynx —* Trachea —* Bronchi—> Bronchioles > Alveoli Expiration 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Diaphragm muscle relaxes and diaphragm arches upwards. Internal intercostal muscles contract while external intercostal muscles relax. Ribs move downwards and inwards. Sternum moves down to its original position. Volume of thoracic cavity decreases. Lungs are compressed and air pressure inside increases as volume decreases. Pressure within the lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure. Air is forced out of the lungs to the exterior environment. Inspired vs expired air Component Inspired air Expired air Oxygen ‘About 21% About 16.4% Carbon dioxide ‘About 0.03% About 4.0% Nitrogen ‘About 78.0% ‘About 78.0% Water vapour Variable (rarely saturated) Saturated Temperature Variable About body temperature (37°C) Dust particles Variable but usually present Little Breathing stimulus High concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. No lack of oxygen. 54Effects of Tobacco Smoke on Human Health Chemical Properties of chemical Effects on body Nicotine Addictive drug that causes the release of the hormone adrenaline. Makes blood clot easily. Increases heartbeat rate and blood pressure. Increases risk of blood clots in the arteries, which leads to increased risk of coronary heart disease. Carbon Monoxide Combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin. Increases the rate of fatty deposits on the inner arterial wall, which leads to increased risk of coronary heart disease. Reduces ability of blood to carry oxygen. Narrows the lumen of arteries and leads to increase in blood pressure. Tar Causes uncontrolled cell division. | Increases risk of cancer in lungs. Paralyses cilia lining the air Dust particles trapped in the Passages. mucus ;ining the air passages cannot be removed, increasing risks of chronic bronchitis and emphysema Irritant Paralyse cilia lining the air Dust particles trapped in the passages. mucus lining the air passages cannot be removed, increasing risks of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. 55,jc bronchitis Prolonged exposure to irritant particles that are found in tobacco smoke may cause chronic bronchitis. The epithelium lining of the air passages become inflated. Excessive mucus is secreted by the epithelium, The cilia on the epithelium are paralysed. Mucus and dust particles cannot be removed. The air passages become blocked, making breathing difficult. Persistent coughing to clear air passages, in order to breathe. This increases the risk of, getting lung infections. Emphysema Persistent and violent coughing due to bronchitis may lead to emphysema. Partition walls between the alveoli break down due to persistent and violent coughing. Decreased surface area for gaseous exchange. Lungs lose their elasticity and become inflated with air. Breathing becomes difficult. Wheezing and severe breathlessness result. Lung cancer Risk of lung cancer increases when a person smokes tobacco. Cancer is the uncontrolled division of cells producing outgrowths or lumps of tissues. Apart from lung cancer, smoking also increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, throat, pancreas, kidneys and urinary bladder. 56Chapter 10: Excretion in Humans Excretion - Excretion is the removal of toxic materials and the waste products of metabolism from organisms, - NOTE: Excretion # Egestion ~ _ Egestion is the elimination of undigested material from the alimentary canal. Need for excretion - Chemical reactions take place in living cells to keep the organism alive. The sum of all chemical reactions in the body is called metabolism. Metabolism consists of catabolic reactions and anabolic reactions. - Catabolic reactions break up complex molecules into simpler molecules. + Hydrolysis = Digestion in the alimentary canal + Respiration = Glucose broken down to release energy, producing waste and carbon dioxide - Deamination Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver to produce urea. - Anabolic reactions consist of chemical reactions which build up simpler molecules into complex molecules. = Condensation reaction Synthesis of proteins from amino acids. = Photosynthesis, - Carbon dioxide reduced to glucose in the presence of water and sunlight. - Metabolic reactions produce waste products, which can be harmful and prevent the maintenance of a steady state in the body if allowed to accumulate. Excretory waste products in the human body Excretory products Excretory organs Excreted as Carbon dioxide Lungs Gas in expired air Excess minerals and salts Kidneys Constituent of urine rogenous waste products: - Urea Constituent of sweat, but only = Uric acid skin in small quantities for - Creatinine nitrogenous waste products. Kidneys Main constituent of urine Excess water Lungs Water vapour in air Bile pigments liver Constituent of faeces 57Right Left kidney kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra Kidneys - Contain kidney tubules which remove urea, excess water and mineral salts from blood to form urine. - Responsible for osmoregulation - the process of keeping the water potential of the body fluids constant. Ureter + Tube that connects the kidney to the urinary bladder. Urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through the ureter. Bladder - Amuscular bag which stores urine. Urethra ~ Amuscular tube through which urine flows from the bladder to the exterior. 58Cortical —— blood vessels Arcuate blood vessels Interlobar ————— blood vessels Minor calyx. Renal vein ys Major calyx. Renal pelvis Renal filum Pyramig Papilla Renal column Ureter eo Cortex Cortex + The outer dark red region. Nephron - Responsible for urine formation. Medulla - _ Inner pale red regions consisting of renal pyramids Renal pelvis, = Enlarged portion of the ureter inside the kidneys. Renal pyramid = Conical structures consisting of nephrons.Bowman's capsule Each nephron begins in the cortex as a cup like structure. Proximal convoluted tubule = Ashort convoluted tubule which straightens out as it passes into the medulla. Loop of Henlé + Inthe medulla, the tubule extends into the renal pyramid and makes a u-turn back into the cortex, called the loop of Henlé, Distal convoluted tubule. = When the tubule enters the cortex again, it begins convoluted again, known as the distal convoluted tubule. Collecting duct = Duct that runs straight through the medulla and opens into the renal pelvis. Path of blood in nephron 1) Blood enters the kidney by the renal artery, which branches out into arterioles. 2), Each arteriole further branches into a mass of blood capillaries in the Bowman's capsule. This mass of blood capillaries is called the glomerulus. The bowman’s capsule with its glomerulus is called the renal corpuscle of Malpighian corpuscle. 3) Blood leaving the glomerulus enters blood capillaries surrounding the nephron. 4) These blood capillaries then unite to form venules, which join to form a branch of the renal vein. 60Urine Formation Ultrafiltration 1) 2 3) 4) 5) Ultrafiltration is the removal of small molecules from the blood in the glomerulus and the formation of the glomerular filtrate in the Bowman's capsule. {As blood flows through the glomerulus, ultrafiltration of plasma occurs through the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule. itis a non-selective process. Both useful substances and waste products are filtered into the Bowman's capsule. Blood enters the kidney by the renal artery. The renal artery splits into numerous arterioles, each leading into a nephron. The arteriole splits into a network of capillaries known as glomerulus. Most of the blood plasma is forced out of the glomerular blood capillaries into the bowman’s capsule. The lumen of the afferent arteriole that brings blood into the glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole which brings blood away. This creates high blood pressure in the glomerulus. a) Blood can enter the glomerulus more readily through the wider afferent arteriole than it can leave through the narrower efferent arteriole. As a result, blood dams up in the glomerulus, creating a high blood pressure. b) This pressure forces blood plasma out of the glomerular blood capillaries into the Bowman's capsule along the entire length of the glomerulus. The basement membrane that wraps around the glomerular blood capillaries has very small pores that only allow water and very small molecules to pass through. Blood plasma that is forced out contains water and small molecules and it forms the filtrate in the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells, platelets and large molecules such as blood proteins and fats remain in the glomerulus. Selective reabsorption 1) 2) 3) 4) Selective reabsorption is the transport of useful substances (glucose, vitamins, amino acids and water) from the glomerular filtrate to the bloodstream. These useful solutes are reabsorbed back by active transport and diffusion. Water is reabsorbed back by osmosis. Selective reabsorption occurs at the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henlé, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Selective reabsorption of most of the useful substances is completed at proximal convoluted tubule. In a healthy person, all glucose, amino acids and vitamins are absorbed through the walls of the nephron into the surrounding capillaries. Most of the sodium ions, chloride ions and water are reabsorbed. The active transport of sodium and other ions into the blood increases the water potential in the nephron, causing water to leave the nephron into the capillaries by osmosis. ‘Some water is reabsorbed at the loop of Henlé ‘Smaller concentration of sodium ions, chloride ions are reabsorbed at the distal convoluted tubule. Remaining water as required by the body is reabsorbed at the collecting duct. 61Water Salts (mainly Urea Nitrogenous Total sodium chloride) substances 96% 1.8% 2% 0.2% 100% Composition of urine will depend on: A patient with diabetes mellitus excretes large amount of glucose in the urine. A protein rich diet will result in more urea being present in the urine. Urea is formed When excess amino acids are deaminated in liver, Taking in more liquids or water-rich food increases the water potential of the blood. Larger volume of urine is excreted. Taking in more salty food will result in the excess salts being excreted in the urine. Glucose can appear in the urine after taking in large concentration of sugar-rich food. The diabetic patient is unable to convert excess glucose into glycogen in the body. Hence, there is high concentration of glucose in the blood. The glucose is filtered off in the glomerular filtrate. Since the nephrons are unable to reabsorb all the glucose fast enough, a lot of glucose passes out in the urine, 62Osmoregulation = Osmoregulation is the maintenance of a correct balance between water and dissolved solute in the blood to maintain constant water potential in the body. - The volume of water in the blood is controlled by the anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. The target organ of ADH is the kidney. Negative feedback * . Osmoregulation mechanism stimulus Increase in water potential in _ | Decrease in water potential in blood blood - Large volume of water |- Small volume of water being ingested being ingested = little sweating = Increase in sweat secretion = Low salt intake = Large concentration of salts ingested Receptor Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detects the inerease/decrease in water potential and sends signal to the hypothalamus. Control centre Hypothalamus in the brain sends signals to the pituitary glands Effector Hypothalamus produces less | Hypothalamus produces more ADH ADH. Pituitary gland releases less _| pituitary gland releases more ADH. ADH, Walls of collecting duct Walls of collecting duct become less permeable, less | become more permeable, water is reabsorbed. more water is reabsorbed. More urine produced, urine | Less urine produced, urine becomes less concentrated. | becomes more concentrated. Norm Water potential decreases _| Water potential increases back back to normal to normal Anegative feedback is sent to. | A negative feedback is sent to the hypothalamus viathe | hypothalamus via the osmoreceptors to prevent | osmoreceptors to prevent further corrective actions. _| further corrective actions, 63idney Failure - _ Kidneys are important organs as they are the major excretory organs and osmoregulators in the body. Common causes of kidney failure include: - High blood pressure - Diabetes = Alcohol abuse - Accidents or infections to the kidney. Dialysis 1) Blood is drawn from the vein in patient's arm and is allowed to be pumped through in dialysis machine. 2), The tubing is bathed in specially controlled dialysis fluid with no waste products. The walls of tubing are partially permeable. 3) Small molecules such as urea and other metabolic waste products diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. Blood cells, platelets and other large molecules remain in the tubing 4) Blood is then returned to the vein in the patient’s arm, Features of a dialysis machine - Tubing is narrow, long and coiled - To increase surface area to volume ratio and to speed up the rate of diffusion, = Direction of blood flow is opposite to the flow of dialysis machine - _ To maintain the concentration gradient for the removal of waste products. ~ _ Dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of essential substances as blood - To ensure essential substances will not diffuse out of the blood to the dialysis fluid. = Dialysis fluid does not contain metabolic waste products = _ Sets up suitable concentration gradient for waste products to diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. - Maintains the correct solute concentration and water potential of blood. 64Chapter 11: Homeostasis - Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. ~ Internal Environment refers to conditions within the body of the organism - Homeostasis ensures that the composition of the body fluids is kept within narrow limits. = Homeostasis allows an organism to be independent from changes in the external environment. Importance of constant body temperature - Enzymes in our bodies can only work within a certain range of temperature. - Changes in body temperature may result in enzyme inactivation or denaturation Importance of constant pH and water potential in blood - Drastic change in pH of tissue fluid will affect the enzyme reactions in cells, Drastic changes in water potential will also affect our cells. Homeostasis involves negative feedback - Inhomeostatic control, the body reacts to bring about an opposite effect to the changes detected. This is the negative feedback process. = _ Ina negative feedback control loop, there must be: = anorm or set-point to be maintained = asstimulus, which is a change in the internal environment = arreceptor that can detect the stimulus and sends signal to the control center = acorrective mechanism, which brings about the reverse effect of the stimulus = a feedback to the receptor when the set-point is reached. This causes the corrective mechanism to stop. Examples of Homeostasis in Humans Regulation of blood glucose concentration = Cellular respiration provides cells with energy to perform their vital activities. A drastic change in the blood glucose concentration can thus be dangerous. 65= When blood glucose rises above the normal level, 1). Stimulus: Blood glucose concentration rises above normal 2) Receptor: Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas stimulated 3) Corrective mechanism: Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin into the bloodstream Blood transports insulin to the liver and muscles ~ Insulin increases the permeability ofthe cell surface membrane to glucose. Glucose is absorbed more quickly by the cells. - Insulin causes the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles. 4) Feedback Blood glucose concentration decreases. This provides a feedback to the receptor to reduce insulin production, = When blood glucose falls below normal level, 1) Stimulus: Blood glucose concentration falls below normal 2) Receptor: Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are stimulated 3) Corrective mechanism: Islets of Langerhans secrete glucagon into the bloodstream. Blood transports the glucagon to the liver and muscles. = Glucagon causes the conversion of stored glycogen back to glucose. From the liver, glucose enters the bloodstream. 4) Feedback Blood glucose concentration increases. This provides a feedback to the receptor to decrease glucagon production. Regulation of water potential in blood Stimulus Water Potential of blood decreases Water Potential of blood decreases below the norm above the norm Receptor Hypothalamus stimulated Corrective - More ADH released by pituitary | - Less ADH released by pituitary Mechanism gland into the bloodstream gland into the bloodstream ~ More ADH transported to the = Less ADH transported to the kidneys kidneys ~ Cellsin the walls of the - Cells in the walls of the collecting ducts become more collecting ducts become less permeable to water permeable to water More water reabsorbed into - Less water reabsorbed into the bloodstream the bloodstream - Less water excreted - More water excreted ~ Urine is more concentrated = Urine is more diluted ~ Lessurine produced + More urine produced Feedback Water potential of blood increases Water potential of blood decreases 66Structure of the Human Skin ~ Skin is composed of two parts, an outer part called the epidermis, and an inner thicker part, the dermis. The upper part of the dermis is thrown into ridges or papillae. The dermis has a rich supply of nerves and blood capillaries Structures Involved In Temperature Regulation Blood vessels in the dermis layer = Body temperature can be regulated through contraction and dilation or the arterioles = Dilation of the arterioles is called vasodilation. ~ Constriction of arterioles is called vasoconstriction - The Malpighian layer of the epidermis sinks into the dermis, forming a hollow tube called the hair follicle. Each hair grows inside the hair follicle. ~ Atthe base of the hair follicle is a mass of tissue called the hair papilla, which contains blood capillaries and nerves. - Hair erector muscles are attached to the hair follicles. When these muscles contract, the hairs “stand on their ends” and the skin around the hair is raised, producing “goose pimples” in humans, Sweat glands = Each sweat gland is a coiled tube formed by a downgrowth of the epidermis. It forms a tight knot in the dermis and is surrounded by many blood capillaries, Secreted sweat flows through a sweat duct to a sweat pore that opens at the skin surface. = Secreted sweat is mainly made up of water, dissolved salts and small amounts of urea. - Sweat is secreted continuously. The amount of sweat secreted varies on the external and internal environmental conditions. Sensory receptors = Sensory receptors are structure in the body that detect changes in the environment. - They enable us to sense pain, pressure and temperature changes. Receptors that detect temperature changes are called thermoreceptors. Subcutaneous fat - Beneath the dermis are several layers of adipose cells where fat is stored. The fat in these cells also serves as an insulating layer, reducing heat loss. 67Temperature Regulation - Heat is produced within our bodies as a result of metabolic activities such as cellular respiration. Heat is distributed to the rest of the body via the bloodstream. Methods of gaining heat ~ vigorous muscular exercise ~ consumption of hot food = being in warm environment Methods of losing heat ~ radiation, convection and conduction + evaporation of water in sweat ~ excretion of faeces or urine ~ exhalation of air ~ dilation and constriction of shunt vessels Regulation of body temperature - Hypothalamus in our brains monitors and regulates body temperature - Hypothalamus receives information about temperature changes from two sources: = thermoreceptors in our skin which detects temperature from the environment = Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus which detect temperature of the blood When temperature rises, = _ Dilation of arterioles in our skin and constriction of shunt vessels allow more blood to flow through blood capillaries in your skin. This allows more heat to be lost through our skin by radiation, convection and conduction. - Sweat glands become more active, resulting in increased production of sweat. As more water in sweat evaporates from the surface of our skin, more latent heat of vaporisation is lost from our bodies. = Decreased metabolic rate, to reduce the amount of heat released within our bodies. When temperature falls, ~ Constriction of our skin arterioles and dilation of shunt vessels so that less blood flows through blood capillaries in our skins. Tis reduces the heat lost by radiation, convection and conduction. - Sweat glands become less active, resulting in decreased production of sweat. As less water in the sweat evaporates from the surface of our skin, less latent heat of vaporisation is lost from our body. - Increased metabolic rate, to increase the amount of heat released within our bodies, = When the above reactions arde not sufficient to prevent a drop in body temperature, shivering, a reflex contraction of our body muscles, occurs. This spasmodic contraction of the skeletal muscles increases the amount of heat released and helps to raise our body temperatures to normal. 68Chapter 12: The Nervous System Sensitivity = Aliving organism is able to react to changes in its surroundings. Any change in the environment that causes an organism to react is called a stimulus. An organism's reaction to a stimulus is called a response. ‘An organism usually responds to a stimulus by moving in a way that benefits itself. - Plants need light for photosynthesis, so they grow towards the light. This response occurs over time. Euglena, a single-celled organism, makes food by photosynthesis. Euglena swims towards light. = Some organisms, such as cockroaches, move away from the light. They hide in dark areas during the day. Role of nervous system in humans - The nervous system consists of a well-developed brain, spinal cord, spinal nerves and highly specialised sense organs. Sense organs: = help the body to adjust rapidly to any changes in the environment - enable the various parts of the body to coordinate with one another quickly ~ Activities that not controlled consciously are called involuntary actions Activities that are controlled consciously are voluntary actions. Human Nervous System Components of the human nervous system Nervous system is made up of: - the central nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord = the peripheral nervous system consisting of the cranial nerves, the spinal nerves and the sense organs, = Sense organs receive stimuli and are also called receptors. They inform the central nervous system of any changes in the surroundings by producing electrical messages called nerve impulses. These nerve impulses are carried or transmitted to the central nervous system by nerves. - Nerve impulses are transmitted within a fraction of a second, - Muscles are called effectors. 69Nervous tissue ~The nervous system is made up of nervous tissue. Nervous tissue consists of nerve cel called neurons. 1) Sensory neuron (receptor neuron) Transmits nerve impulses from the sense organs or receptors to the central nervous system. 2) Relay neuron (intermediate neuron) Transmits nerve impulses from the sensory neuron to the motor neuron. They are found within the central nervous system. 3) Motor neuron (effector neuron) Transmits nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors. Structure of a Motor Neuron Cell body = The cell body contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell surface membrane and organelles. The cell body of a motor neuron is irregular in shape. Dendron = The nerve fibres that transmit nerve impulses towards the cell body are called dendrons. A motor neuron has many dendrites. The dendrites of a dendron of a motor neuron receive nerve impulses from other neurons. Axon ~The nerve fibres that transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body are called axons. ‘Axons in motor neurons are usually long. Myelin sheath - The layer of fatty substances enclosing many nerve fibres is the myelin sheath. It insulates the axon, just as a rubber sheath would insulate an electricity-conducting wire. Node of Ranvier - The regions where the myelin sheath is absent are called nodes of Ranvier. Nerve impulses cannot be transmitted through the myelin sheath, so they “jump” from one node to the next. In this way, they help to speed up the transmission of impulses along the nerve fibre. 70‘Axon terminals = The axon terminals of a motor neuron transmit nerve impulses to the effector. Motor end plate - The junction between the axon terminal and the muscle fibre is the motor end plate. Nerve impulses are transmitted across the motor end plate by chemicals which stimulate the muscles. Structure of a Sensory Neuron = The sensory neuron has a circular cell body. It has only one long dendron and a short axon. Direction of impulse Denies Nucleus CoH body Axon terminals Dendrite 4 \ neti cll Myelin sheath Synapses A synapse is a junction between two neurons, or a junction between a neuron and an effector such as a muscle or a gland, - Ata synapse, impulses are transmitted from the axon of one neuron to the dendron of another neuron across a tiny space. Nerve impulses are transmitted across the synapse by chemicals called neurotransmitters released by the neuron, Nerves Anerve is a bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue. Nerves may emerge from the brain (cranial nerve) or spinal cord (spinal nerve). They may contain: - Sensory nerve fibres only. Such nerve impulses from sense organs. = Motor nerve fibres only. Such nerves conduct nerve impulses to effectors. = Both sensory and motor nerve fibres. Spinal nerves contain mixed fibres. m1Brain, spinal cord and spinal nerves = The spinal cord passes through the vertebral column (backbone) which protects it. The brain and the spinal cord consist of two distinct regions, grey matter and white matter. A central canal is present in both the brain (inside the white matter) and the spinal cord (inside the grey matter) White matter Dorsal root ganglion cray wane Dorsal root Motor neuron’ Ventral root soma Cross Section of Spinal Cord Grey matter - Grey matter consists mainly of the cell bodies of neurons. It forms the outer layers of the brain and the central parts of the spinal cord. White matter - The white matter consists mainly of nerve fibres. It forms the central parts of the brain, and the outer layers of the spinal cord. Central canal - The central canal contains a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid that brings nutrients to the spinal cord. Dorsal root = The dorsal root joins the dorsal part (towards the back) of the spinal cord. it contains only the nerve fibres of sensory neurons that transmit impulses to the spinal cord. Dorsal root ganglion = The dorsal root ganglion is a small swelling in the dorsal root that contains cell bodies of sensory neurons. 2Ventral root = Ventral root joins the ventral part (towards the front) of the spinal cord. It contains only the nerve fibres of motor neurons that transmit impulses from the spinal cord. Spinal nerve = The dorsal root and ventral root join to form the spinal nerve, The spinal nerve contains both sensory and motor neurons. Processing of Information by the Nervous System Sensation - When touching a piece of ice, a temperature receptor in our skin is stimulated. Impulses are produced, Impulses are transmitted to the forebrain. The brain interprets the impulses, and a sensation of coldness is felt. = Receptor in skin — sensory neuron —relay neuron in spinal cord — forebrain Voluntary action = Avoluntary action is a deliberate action. + Impulses are produced by a forebrain. Impulses are transmitted by a relay neuron from the forebrain, down the white matter of the spinal cord, and then into the grey matter. In the grey matter, impulses are transmitted to the motor neuron which transmits the impulses to the effector muscles. The muscle contracts, and an action is carried out. + Forebrain — relay neuron in spinal cord —* motor neuron — effector B