GOoMMoN QuEsTIONSS Why should the covjeai Flask vot le washed woth chowlall before the expenmort Lesique of chemical in the coujcal Aogk will affect tre vasats as more of the reacting solution from burette will be requived +0 neutrodive the solution tn the-feek + Qreciter vo: of woles of chemical th the contcal Flogk than expected atthe seart of the experiment. How wall] tre expenimert ve affected if the pipette vontained our bubbler ‘during the titration experiment? Lowev volume of shemica th pipette than expected :. lowey volume of Chemical ih burette requivert to neutiative Yue Solution: How will the experiment be offoctedt if the burvete Weg reod fram oun elevated prosle Cpardllex error) af the end of the-titiostion? Volume, OF Solution th burette thot voce reac woudl be lower than @pected Record o bWer yolume of chemical from burette requived for neralisotion . When titrating fMn0¢ anol FesOq , why Is om theticojor hot required 2 When Kunde Is reduced, yolution turns purple to colours. Ag KUO, hos a. OASiRCRpoRplercoleu, When it Is In excass, It votll turh the Jplution pink , qweticating the ex} of the veaction - Colour change th tolicotfor Is Orly hecassany to mdlicetenthe: end of thereacion Wher both reacting solutiory are edourlert Why is there a need 49 react exact amounts of each reoetaut? Toroletotn ov pure alt, exc amdunts Qre necessany . Excatt O ane feacfant will contaminate the Seat and rasult in on impure volt Why cant ammonium-chlovide be cited by evoporotion to dry hess Amorim clioide decompares agen heating to rm ammonia gos: REUIABILITY » ACCURACY ; FAIRNESS Reli ability + repeot tre experimet a {2 times 49 obtoin average Accuracy + vs[ng Appropriate measurement, e, Cleotrovie lo ajance FoIness + Ergure obly one Chahged variableAFC Sourcks oF ERROR" 9 ontetis chaulsy te wlan 9 MPRA codUIAg 10 alorge eceut + Titrowou: +» duets noture of expermenial U miguaging tre cojour of the Incticoror apie end point Chumon @rrov ' Uthermom Ot vtittation: recording temperoture to €or L8ING StyrOFOAM Cup instecal Seuautmed Rate of reoctou © Delag tn humon reaction twe leu sorting thedtopatth FAT Wh longer time fr reaction to Occur recorded © Inconsisteut wining rote of tre beaKer % results th reaching povhUer being Aistibuted af differant Speeds 8 Inccuurate results: SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: & wear goggles when heating & when heoting, face moth of test tube analy from yougelP andl others to prevent hot solution fiom. Out & Ensure transfer of bot liquias are carried out below eye (evel + OY Sludions wed are corrasive/ cause eye Imirtion. 1 L U62 Water both when voarmihg flammable ‘liquide v Ensure aivhole 1S olesed before. tuming bungeh burner on. L We test tube holder to hold tet tube when heat i L Lower burette te an appropriate level whan filllig.to ensure that chemical will not accidently exter the eye ' EXPERIMENT PRECAUTIONS: & Reading should be taken o¢ eye level to prevert poraliex ener U burrette Shodd be amped, of | Upright pastion 4 obtaln ooarete Yeading. & Funnel should be removed from burette during titration to prevent extror soludion 16 being added 1 re during, titrotion- L Divhon ould be added drop by drop nearing ahd pont © Apparotue Wo 40 be walled thoreuahiy before experiment 40 endure exact amount OF reactants IS prasent:PLANNING EXpERIMENTS FORMAT: Cay THe (Aim (Ce) Apparatus anol moterial (C) St-up of apparatus ad ctiagram (4) procedure — how toset up the appavaty ~ ‘how to ‘weasure avo paar’ dewicalsustanas itty apmprede conjainas. — Vanes Of Comcetntionien avolivolume Of the clemicals ~ Steps th covrectovler ~ Readings oF measurements recova eat — Spote physica spate of tre Wulsfances & powder / pieces ( HlutIan [Jal lees. (2) Caservortion [theory (explanation = Ieluate chewion equertion @) cotantortion If real values not given Use xy ank% @) covclusian EXAMPLE: OD Havble reacts with clilute hydro ovic ccf, to-Ram colciv clyoide) Wwoter and, cartoon clicxide GOS - Different sivas of Calcium coueate give a different rote of reaction - Pla an experiment to tnvestignte te: Cffect OF totcl Surface areAof CaCds on the rote Of reoctian. @) Tite laim: to Investigore 18 effect of tM unprce oven of Mave on the boxe of reaction (Cb) Appoverus |rmoterio: o Burette, © Meaguuing oglihol ey © eleotrovie balance © cov|cal Fjosk o delivery, Mbe wit topper © repHt stand with clove © bogin na cMtow wotch $06 large mavble chips ° $03. Swall movide chifs © ohilute HCL avid -0-2 mol fanG1) Procedure : 1- Add woter ttothe Wurette and invert it og uhow Intve diagram. Adjust wotev evel 4p the ou? mark: 2~ Sturate water ugeol with Cor vere the experiment 3~ Using a weaswig cylinder, meosure s0-00W? of citute hydvochloy, acict of concentration 0-2 md folm3 avd pour into _O coulcall flosk- 4>- Uslhg an electronic lalance, welgh S-og of calcium catcrote ancl orld it into the conical ask: Stoppeving the conical flose imme otictely and startivg we skpwotdh ivmedi 5 - The volume of carlon ctioide gag collected at intervals of 20 vecovds is recorded until the reaction stops 6 ~ Repeot Sep | tv Step 5 by replacing S09 of calcium concraie chips with S-0 g of powdered coloum cathnate @ Vescribe o ctifferert method by. whidrthe value of Kin the -Prwlo £200; x 120 can be detenvined- You can assume cull the apparactaP aha reagents normally und th oslo] lovavotany are available. You sould thelude the measurements you would, ate and explalh how you wold ge your rasats to calcate He value of K @) Tete (Aim: Determine the value of k ©) Appovows | material: Elechouvic bolance hayplrorteck porosm Cruable root Burgen baer Stop watds G) Sehup of apporetvs and diagram crucible wihe goure } tripod stand | I Bunsen amex aG1) Procequre '~ Use av electrane ealance, measure the mass Of Ah empty crucidle- Let tis mass be mg: 2- Use ah elechouic balance, meogure a fixeol mass of hyolroted potassjum carbonate ano transfer tt lo a crucible . Letts mass be Mag. o let up abuse bumer, and open the aiv hole competelly to OPIN aw non lUmivoLs fame - 4 - USE the nou-luminnd flame to heet te crucible with hydrated E603 for & minutes mouitoing time using & Step wortch - S- Let the cucible and ttl vouterts cool anol measure Hs weight Using On electronic olonce © ~ Repeat the heating and rewelphiug pocess until the moar of the Crucible remcing constant t- Dlculate ma-my 40 get the mass of ater of crystallization of the potasjum cavbovate §- Coloulate vo. of moles ov Kuy-wig)* My ef ator) and the NO- of moles of K2003 os [(My-m) > Ur OF 1k2(03] 1 Divide the vo- Of mols of woter by the humber OF moles of K2(Ds to fil the value of x. © Poper Chrovrot-onro tis planning, 1: lant procedure + '- Maric & pencil line near the lottOm of the chromotography papor 2- place one yma drop of the vY4Ne ample oh the pencil line d- Suspend the chromortogram uding O gloss rat and dip it th Jar contalning a Suitable solvent: 4 - LEt the paper vtond in the dolvert for (5 minute s- Affey [5 minutes ;meagure aro record distance travelled by each Solvent and each component th the sample 6 - Calculote Rf value of each component by using disiavce travelled by component distance +ravelled by Solvent 3 - Compare Rf value of Components inthe vvineuample with Rf value of pure Staro2lol If one of the componentf RF value ‘w the rine Sample Corresponds Lith the Rt value of pure Stanovlol, drug Sanorolol 16 prevent in vine sample. Badd suitable looting agentSev out methy} orange methyl ovange + red. orange yellow phetdyiinteiv . olowless byink Ahgned blues pik & Here Ttthation no- Final veacing / Low. Initial veading | 0-00 Cu? Volume of Q | Jews Dest tyation wyaridg— “) pn oicid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, Ht, in agireors Solution. — bommon olds - Ethavole acids CHLooH ut Cly(00” (aq) ©) > Hydrochfore Ovid HO, Ht C1" (aq) = Nitric aad HNO, Ht Nos” (aq) ) = sutturic add 1, 804 Ht $04 (aq) +) For example: HOLC am) > Ht (aq) + CC aa) HyS04(aq) FLH*( a9) + $04 (a9) Properties of Acids © Acids have a sourtoste ' eRetds dissdve in water 49 farm solutions which conduct electricity ’ Ohads turn blue {itmus paper red ) 2 Rcids year with reactive metals to frm a salt and hydrogen aps: Reds react with carbonates ard wplogen Cowoonates to form a soit | Water and carbon dioxide © Acids reaot with metal oxides ard nydrorides yo form a salt Ropes ond water only ‘ } AGA+ metal ASAlt + Hydrogen 95 Mg(sit H2S041aq) + Mg S04ii Hol 9) C How can W4dvoge gas le tested For) > Plact o liguted split at tre movith of 418 485t que . Hydrogen gas extinguishes te liguted splivt with a ‘pop! sound. ¢ _Now-veactive metals: & when unrendive metals such OS Copper avd silver are added to dilute acids, tneve is no reaction. & Lead appears not 19 veact with dilute hydrochloric avid ang dilute Sulfuric avid. The initio yeavtion etween jead ond dilute acid produces a loyer of lead (11) chforide ov lead (il) sulfate. This layer IS soluble iv water ond quickly pus a Looting avouvd the metal: This tomting prevents te metal from fur tie attack by tne acid Add + Carionate > Sailr + water + CO) Oz (5) + 2HCRaa) > CAE (Oa) + Hho +60 NOHCOZ (St HCV Cag) 3 Nacelaq)t Hl 2) t 0204) How cam carbon divxide We tested fov 7 > Bubble the gas Through limewarer. Co, forms 4 white ppt with limewater- A Wydroxides as well Acid t metay‘oxide 3» salt+ water MOIS) FH S04 (4a) F B54 (aq) + HO An(OW), (S)+ 2HNDz (aq) > ZNO3), (am) + 2H, 01) Qoje of water in aids? oAcid s only clisplny Heir properties when they ave dissolved in water © Rods produce hydrogen ions (Ht) ions only in water ° Hydrogen long give acids thely acid properties © For example, when o plece of magnesium ribbon is added to % solution Of hydrogen chioride in water ( aqueous nydrochione acid) bubbles of hydrogen ore produced: However, When pure hydrochloric acid is used, there is ho reaction. © When discolved in water, hydrogen ions Ht and Chloride ions Cee dissolve In waters allow hydrogen tons react with magnesiam «» ges of Acids ) etiavic acid ) > BUlfUViC AAA is IMpovtemt starfing worerial fov V2 production of ammonium sulfate and superplospbote the active ingredient in ) fertilisers ) 3 manufacture of detergents: concetvorted Hy SQ, is Used in the mouvfocture of detergevts to convert hydrecorous ivite orgamic : acids - The orgomic oride owe then rencted with Sodium liproxide 4° produce detergent- ) > Borttery acid iM COWS = vents With lead plotes amd (ead (Iv) oKige ) plates in the lanttery tv qenerote electrical Cvergy Which gets He Coy engine Mnriro. ) hyavrochione aida clean impuities Suck os rust oY Scale from metails Ethanoic acid 2 Used in vineapry te oct os m fou preservative Phosplrovic aca > added to food andl beyarages Py a Sour taste- ) , a, i lS — Basegand Alkalis ) + ony metal onide or Wydvoxide that reacts with acid 49 produce a salt and water oniy- J Common Bases: ) Sodium oxide + NAO Zinc Oxide =: Bu ) Cop} er(I|) oxide + Cud ” (i Magnesiv lydronide : fH), Base + Acid > solt + water Copper(\t) oxide + HOR > Capper(It) chloride + water cuO +2HCR 4 HO +Cuck, )Allealis . ‘Bowsethafi Soofiam oxide + wot_ey 2 Sodium heplreni4e NaOH + 4,0 7 2NAOH(R) Common Alois: lons 1s poe 1m 04, Sol Sodium hydrox & Nao Nat (aq) OH” Cam) Pofaissiuinn hydroxide Kou Kt Coq) OW” (aq) Calcium hydexide ColOH), Cat (oq) on” Cay) Barium bpteovide Ba(OH), Bar Can) OH- (nq) ide > Sofi ion + hydroxide lon Naoh Caw) => Natlag) + OW" (oa) Propertes of Algalis: ° Bitter taste and feel soy °Turn ted litmus paper tue 2 Peo with crcids te form salt and woter Deldstniitectimrment tne sratery Sodium hydroxide + HCE Coa) - sefivm chloride + vonter ae (aa) + HCR(am) > Nach+ HO (2) the hydregenions , Ht, from te acid eG the hydroxide ions, OH”, from tre altel reed fo frm water Ht+ OH > Hole) Ace yhonde + ammonium Bore 2 eee eieciet HO+NH; CoH), Cay) + DHHgCRS) A CoC Cag) F 2HOLL) + INKy(q)+) Sonia hydwxide + ivon(ll) sulfate > Sefiumm Sulfote + ton(l1) hydride -ANAOH(aq) —-+_- Fe S04 (a) > No S04 (aq) t FeO), (s) 5 Uses of bases and alkalis +) ° Moo 1s used as omtiociof fr relieving gpstic pain and for “ makin refractory bricks, , © Sodium hyptroxide and potassium hydroxide are veel nce’ ‘+ preparation of soap. © CoOH), Is used + reduce acidity tw soil. ) © Ammonia is used fo moke fortilisers ) : ; vir ) ) Strong ond weak Horde: - The term Strength refers 4 how easily an acid or an olkaly ) fonises when dissolved in watery. ) Strong avid : is ah acid Haat is completely tontsed in aqueous solution Nydicchloric acid: example of a strong aci4 -Al| the mojecuies ) will tonise in an aquecs solution Hel Cag) > UF (aq) t Car Cag) - Etensic avidiis © Weak Odd. Oly some of CHyCoolH molecule Will tonjse tw aqueous solution CH, COOH (aq) 2 CHyLOO-~Caq) + HY Cag) - i i) ° Strone) ond Weak refer te the extent of 1onisation of an acid © Concentrofed and dilute tell us how much of om add is dissolved in the solution J) Vv )oH ©) © t set of num pers from 0-14 which indicate . whether a sdution is aadic, neutval oy alkaline oftcids haye @ pH of less tron F oIRAlis have a pl value of grecter than + © A nenfral solution of exactly + ~The pH of a solution is related 4 the concentration of | byptrogen Jong oF hydwxide (wns present im a solution. ~ The Jower fre acid hos > pH, the Stronmer it is. more’ Yt lovs) ~ The hi gher the alkofine has o pH, the more alkaline it is (of) © chemical compound, called om ind{ Cater © pH sensor attached to data logger eo pt meter Univercal indicator: W couforive o mixture of dyes « 4 comesin solution or pH paper Importance of pl : > blood 1s Slightly alkaline as it has o tH of cloud 3-4 A Injection must have bl of around 4-4 if not person can die. pH of soil = A Con vary from 4 9 & > wmporfont + contro] the pt of soil Leause this affects the growth ond development of plants. How tocont ro} ecidity # soil? A Chemicals con be added. Quicktive, CoO) or slaked lime CoH ),. Raises the pH so fret plants aa grow healthily » adding foo much will Make it foo offaline 7 Unsuitable fev rant growth.~ ) ) : Types of oxides Many acids and alkalis are formed by dissolving oxides in water Acidic oxjqes | Aoidic oxides ore famed from Vion-motals and , 7 Most acidic ox 7 ) ) ) ) ) ) , Basic oxides ~ a) 8) a w waters igen . fur — dissolves im water te form covbeui dioxide tor sultuw tyoxide St phosphans oxide | P40, Acidic oxides dowt react with ovids lat react with alFolis ty form sejt and water: Sulfur diced t Sodium byplroxid & > sodium sulfoto + water SO,(4) + NAOH > Na, Sdgts) + H, 0 C2) for onary Silicon Aj oxide, > does not dissolve th water but reacts with Vo} coventroted sodium hydroxide & farm sodium silicefe + voter > SiO, Cs) + NAOH (aq) > Na, SiO;(aq)+ H,0(L) - Basic oxides ove formed from metals and oxygen - Most basic oxides ave insoluble im water ~ Basic ones that can dissolve in water fovmn oltalis ~ Solids at room fompermture ~ Basic oxides react with acids t form salt and water Calcium oxide t hitvic A¢(4 > calcium nitrate + water Cals) — £ JHNO;(am) > — Calo), jt H20 (4) Can)Types oF Basie entdes Basiv oxides that cnn dissolve In watov 9 Na sO (5) + HOC) 2 2NAOH (o9,) & CaOls) + H,0(4) > CoH), Ca) Basic oxides yeort withagds * Prim salt + water & CaOls) + HyS0q (aq) > Casogsrt 20 (2) & Mg0(5) + 21HNO, (ag) > Mg(NOz), + H, 0 Amphot@ric Oxides ~ mi co oxides that veact with loth acids and bases f frm salts and water. Foy example tive oxide: Zive oxide t Hydechlovic acid > give chloride + water WOort 2CL Lom) Sy Bnchlag) + HCL) Zing oxide + sodium hydroxide > Sodiven aimcate + water 2NaOK(ag) t 2nOls) > Nagno, (aq) + H,0(2) Other avaphoteric oxides: Alvin oxide AL203 lead (tl) oxide PLO Neutral oxides - metal oxides trot show ueltrer basic wor ajdic oxides ~ neutral oxides ave insol[uye In water txamples of neutral oxide: water 1,0 cavlon monoxide CO witric oxide No How -P classify unknown oxides? ~ Hoes it react wit acid Acidic ov neutral — || Bacio or amhoteriu oxide ~ Does ifreactwith alkali = Awiphotore [Basie [Acidic | Neutraly () Group £ avg Ammonium (Nat, Kt, NHAt) salts Solve Nitrate (NO3~) sats souble ‘) Sulfate ($04>7) salts soluble exctyt Pb, Ba > Halide ( Cf", Bro, 17) salts Soluble except Bat, PUY Carbonate salts ( 0037) insoluble except Nat, K\NI »\ Hydride compounds ( OH”) insolaige except Nat KiNK ) i) metal t acid > Saltt hy drogen gas ) carbonate t avid 4 salt t carbon dioxide + water alkali + Metal salt > metar hydroxide + anotner metal salt base + actd > Salt t water ss ) base t Ammonium salt > salt + water + ammonia ) ecrctivity sevies +) Pofassjum Poor Na Sodium Sly ) Ca Calcium COvidut Be Vg Magnesium Wantage AL Alunjuium a ) © Cylon ciyive tn dino Rony i Fe |ron “ —) Pe Lead Leany’s 4 Kuydvoren house Gu pats ) 4 Silver cannot root with fa Gold: Add A the y ave [ess reactive than IngahrogyePercentage wield + sete nee 4 * ool. Wass Of pe SYLAovLe Percentage purity 0 mess Of a too. Colows of salts: Hyptrateo| Coyjer(I0 svifare CuSdg-5H,0 Blue Palruplous Copper(tt) sulfate Cusog White tine White ppt ared cofourtess sojation ACH. Waite ppt av cofourless solution Lead(IJion — Whiteppt are colourless solution Colcium en LiofA Yue ppt fron (It) 1 Geeew wt fron(i) OH Reddish bros ppt Prnnvaniaus NHqt No pet» wjou leaf gives offerwonia 925 mw )., Cu Blue yt Mo Cwwiteypt —_f0" Gear ppt Cat Fest peddish Laat ba not oe [site pn Sein ceCurwl> ; Keaglivity inovegses with thevecsua potuvuwber oc it 1S eatiey ® lose the eledicn due 1 fle Werger faces of oiticction fo He Nutleut Moro veactive bologen will dispoce (es reactive Voyanpn Since X dlisyloces fartuth Y ool 2 it 1S the Wwost verctive- Coun Qroup VII , the vendtivity of loloqeus olecrentes K does vot Oleplace ¥ if His lest venctive faen Y-bres Coing dawn Grony (, the melting part ord baliny pout decreases Gore ofown Groappll , the weltig privy cud Lelivg pols! Heciedees The apne iv Seu 2 eld togetver wofellic lads os codkan [6a Geant metallic fice Suuchne Tees, tle elechasfaric forces of {keg dle the pteyes Sapien pre S19 ond lod + Lueck » flowever, Chlorine bes a cimple woleculy Sava wih (Wek iubonmclecow fortes of othaction tet liold {he atoun soge ter, Which 0 Cray Peak ond vaquive lester we Gy P oVeKane, heuce, chfovive bas a [ower bilo, goin} Od wolhug port then Sodium Devsiy ocourgats for Lott. Wass Gud Whine do Lot deperd ou only worss Why does Chieine Wave o faner davsify than Browne > Chlajue axis a5 PE obvile Dromive acts af fiquicl for the some teas, clatine bes abightr fine thon Brsuitre fins fe donsity is (ese.PREPARATION OF SALTS Aciat metal > Salt Hryelvagen ops acid t carvouate ~ Sait + water + covton dlioxide acid t vase > Salt + water acid + alkali 2 Salt t water SALT soluble insoluble \ Reaction of Seen, acid with insduye 4 . predatation Sulsjavce Ttroron Ly colt ot Salt crystals (eerctivg an id wifi Hota ngd-ble Bose or [nsquule converte U prepare coluule sit Ocil+ mefal | Hilt + hydrogen opis ) aciol+ imsquye ose 7 Sit + water acid + insdluiole carLarte 4 salt t water t carlondioxid e Lose ov coviovoite ) ¥ Metal must ve im excess’ sotiat all tne acial is used ue. If not tre ait prepared Will be coutaminoted with acid * Uetal , ase oF corbovrote imuist be insole in water So tot excess ) Starting material can be removed fram the Salt solution by fitrofion ) Preparation of 2nS04 coes from 80. Comes Tom Wt 12004 can come © tn 604 from 2, 2n0 oF 203 (a) suifuric neil t gine (6) sulfuric oie + eiuie ovide ©) sutfurie acia + zinc coreormate@) sulfuric nei +2ivc H,S04(aq) t 2u(s) —7 2uS04laq)t Kg) &) sulfuric acid + 2ivc oxide H,804(aq)t 2n0(s) > 2nSO4laq)t Hols) (4) suifuvic acjl + 2ivc comovarte HyS0q (aq) 7 2ncofs)> BnS04laq) + Hy0(L) + C029) Proceduve | Fill half a beaker with dilute sujfuye acid. With coustaut stirrive, add Zinc powder Until wo wore reaction occurs vith the acid OF MO More __effervesceince is deserved ——— ee 2 filter to vewove we excess (unreacted) zitrc jovuder- Collect the filtrare- This is the eluc culfote sfutio- 3: Heat the filtrate util saturated 4. tllow saturated solution to col so that the salt caw crysollise & Filter to collect the crystals . Then wash the crystals valtt a little odd water to remove impurities: 17) the crystals between o few sheets of filter pojper- Spetiale 23 eeV— ‘ gloss Oa powder Bing Sulfate \e Bute stoic Solution ca Biman soit twater acid + soludle Grbuncte 7 salt t water ¢ carbon dioxide gas + All stovting woterials ave cquvle Lif any Starting worterial is Iv excess , it Cannot be vemoved from the salt solution by filtration L volume of Starting material used must be exact: Preparation of sodium nitrate Nat can come fom _y Nos” comes NooH or Na No, fiom HNO, Na2C0z CO) Nitric acid + sodium hydroxide b) Nitro acl + Soolium carbonate (1) HNOz (aq) + Naot (aq) — NaNOseq)t #0) th HNO 5(aq) + Norc03 (01g) > 2NANO3 (aq) t H,0lL) + CorIg) Procedure: | Fill 9 laavette with dilute viitric acie| ond nofe the mitial bwette reading >. Pipette Iam? of sodium lyproxide WMafo or covlcal flosk + 3+ Peld ove ov two chops Of meting oroineje[indficator] to the sodium hydroxide The solution tums yells. 4- While swirling tre Conical flask, add dilute nitric acid from theburette Souly Urrtil the solution tums ovavge permauertty : Tuic Is the end point. Rewid the fival wweite veading CV, cms) 5 Find the vdume of acid vequived fov vieutralisation, whic iV_-Vi) cu? Dreparing a pure dry soumple of sodium witrate: | Pipette 25-0um> of Sodium hydroxide ivrp a conical flask. Then add (Va- V)) cm3 of alilute witic acid from the buvette- ¥ Do not aol wmethyl rave teicntor ais it sill moke the salt impure 2. Heat the solution until it 1s somuvated 3. Let the solution coof so that the salt can cvystollise 4: Filter 49 odleot the crysiols, then, wash the crystals with a ltHe ccbl Woter fo remove impurities “Dry the aytials With a few sheets of filter paper: Cowp lovette dilute uitvic add nical Flask = iuvm iudvoride, white tile sod tmethyl omnge [Cvecivitatioul} L involves wiring 2 sofrtions to form an Iusdulye soil that separates out from the reaction wixture Aqueous Solution , ooMeous sdution _, insoluble Aqueous eee t le FO caitay soletionxB CSOHS con le, separated frum the savfiva morerials by filtration jim Sul Preparing pines eset 800%" oe xR Cohn come ba 50 BachOs)> a i404 of any Slate} Borin nitrate + sodium sulfate lerjvm Sulfete + soium nitote BolNO), (oq) + Noi, Sog (aq) 1 Ba SOgIs)+1NaNO3( 9) ) 5 Procequie : b+ Pour about sccm? of boy nitrate solution ivfo asmoll Leakey . Add ) sodium sulfate solution (iv excess) and stiv antil uo more precipitate forme 4. Filter to collect precipitate \ 2+ Wash prectpitete with » little distilled water 4 vewove tmpuvities 4: Hllow wedyitote to dry on a piece OF filter paper. f waste Sodjum suitate Xe vortle : eS rela ASS wen ee = i Sulfe J ile sot tate a ipepate) . Aste, - Solution borin borivin witva te Solution st filter poper - re J PM ooriven SulfateSolubility table : 0 all Sodium sol ts call potassium salts call chfoudes Except Ag, Po oall sulfates Except Ba, Plo, Ca © All carbonates Except No, kK) NHgQUALITATIVE ANALYSIS AP ldeutifies whether a substance is present + tests cavvied out by adding certain reagents to the solution and observing fa changes [EST For CATIONS: Upon odeting NaOH Aluminium Ae 3t ue Soluvle IM mea Pe) b white pot -9 ‘exces tne Sot ‘EXCEPT calcium caldum Caw Copper cu* light biue ppt 2 insoluble in excess tron It Feu green ppt —-® IhSoluble In excess \von Il Few Reddish -brown ppt > Insoluble In excass Ammouium NHgt ammonia produced upon warming with Naok (upon adding aq Nts leag pet White ppt soluble in excess tine wn EXCEPT pb and AL’ Calcium caw NO pot produced Aluminium Ag%* Copper cuw ligut blue ppt -~ Soluble in excass 1 produce dark blue Solution fvou It teu green ppt —- thsoluble in excass tron ttl fet veddish brown ppt © insoluble in excess Ammoulum NHqt = TEST FOR ANIONS Carbonate Coy" add dilute add > effevvese nce (C0 produced) Chlovd € Ctr acidity with HNO; ~p white pet onserved then add a9 AgNO, CAgce) lodide r adidlty with HNO), yettow ppt deserved then odd AqN0; Cagr) Nitrate NOs” add aa Naod then p aramovia produced aluminum fil and warmSulfate S0g>" TEST FOR _GASE addity with HN — _» White ppt produced then ole ng BAND (BASF) = Ammovia gas o turns damp ved litmus paper blue Carbon aloxide W, Pwhite ppt with limewarer 0 ppt dissolves (hn excess Lor Chlovine gas Ce, o turns damp Wue litmus paper ved © GUbsequ ently bleaches it * pungent yellowish bvowm gas Hydrogen 4, 0 Eetinguishes a lighted splint with a pop sound oxy gen Or o Relights a glowing splint Sutfuy dioxide 0, Wate vapour HO o turns aq additied potassium mangonate Wil) from purple to colourless © Aphydvous Cusog from white to blue OLoUR OF COMPOUNDS)» kt Nat Cat Mgt Aut me Pit Feut Feo aus souyo Aqeoussait sel Metal oxide White Pecans wnite dolid i jour: golld lution ha i a eto ae PLO: Yellow Pale green lolack Reddish bowh brown Blue nies green black Culoy)SPEED OF REACTION, = @ speed Of reaction Or rote OF reacho tells ee how st or slow a reaction taKes place itow clo we determine the speed of reaction? & meoguling the amount of product formed in a certain time emerging the cimoutt of reaciautt ugeot Up th a certain time MEASURING SPEED OF REACTION: © Volume of go¥ produced Inthe reaction @ Mass of reactamt that remaing © Measuring the volume of 909 produced “DIF one of the prodincts In a Chemitcl reackou Is a gas © Example: calcu comavoie veacting with hydiechiovicadd © one of the proctuct Is Corbon cliokide gor caldum, allute ocho calcu picsoieess heya Hickam + woter + Con CaCoycs) + HC2(Gq) — Cal 2ifag)+ Hr0(2) + COrlg) 0 As the reackon procteals, total voluwe of covbon dioxide. 9? produced reyes eel |. Set up apparotus = 2+ Record volume of Co. L-+ Sapte, ot halt -minvte intervals 3. From the rests, plot a graph | of the volume of Coz produced agenst time O The gradient of thegrapl. is the G greatest or the Start + rare of reachonts the bLighe st @ AS the lite of reaction proceeds, the gractiet of the graph decreqge: “0 Speed of reaction deci esses 5 ® Graotiert 15 zero which meavs no te ) mote cdz 6 produced - reaction has stopped oe@ Meosuring He chonge,In MASS ne eg on ow ® L example: veaction letean colcivim caveonate ql Lupliachioic agit 09 CD, escapes aga gos, there is odecrecgeih meas. cotton Wool Oser Up the apparotus = place cotton Wool to prevent otic spray, prevent atict from sploguiig ot ee @ kecopal the moss Of tre caticnl Flosk Hyptrathiovio. ano Its coutents oad © kelecse the tread artutake te L (Ceo 0g | conical flogkto mix the Marble days ——— and the acid Stat Stopwortch * ® Recordi he mass of the conical Fesk at ohe-min tervals © fromthe results plot a graph of the conic Flask ove lis Coliienits agoist tine. WOS5 of Feachou SD 1s THe gvadlent of Yue graph is the largest o at the beginning of We reaction» speed Of reqoich 'S the greatest @ 2+ The graolleut decrenges with time i. +9 reaction stows alah agit puccoats — fe 3: Thegwatieut wecomes zero 4 reach Stops. ~ hwel tip FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF REACTION © Lr a reaotion te oar the readtaht particles must collide with each other L trey must collide with energy thot Is equal to or greater than activation energy L when collislohg between particles fufl these conditions, product particles formed «> Effective collision & Frequency of effective collisions belween reactant pauties affect the speed of reaction -» ttreq of collision -9 Pspeed of reactiory talllsion ‘tap is reactart — renotant e qrcdacrlencndeFACTOKS THAT AFFECT THESPEED OF A CHEMICAL REACTION — concervtation of the redotants ® pressure ottwich te reotction ccours C gaseous reactants) O powtivie SITE oF Surface oven of the remctants C Solid reactors) & temperature of wid “the veaction occuKsS -P presence of a cotalyst Effect of conceviiation ob the speed of reackon. L When the Loncertrottion of a recctant is thoreased , the Speed of reaction Is Increoged U At @ (ower Loucentration-» reactant pavtictes ove far apart L At lighey “oncentrotion 9 more reactant partides inthe Jame volum & [2] 7 At higlev conceutration , tere are wore veactalt poviices available to wllide with each eter. * collisions between reacting poviicle Leome more frequent + frequency of effective collisions Increases amd speed of reaotivh is higher. luvestigotling effect of covcentuaition on ued of reaction — L measuring time taken Pr c reaction ts complete © Setup one beaker with Socm of 2.0 md/dm?3 of HCE add abd avotiey beaker with Soom? of +O mol/dm> of HCe acid @ Remove oxide layer on magnesium ribbons before sing them © Put one mognesium viblon Into each beaker, bot of Some thick nerf And lengt.. @ Using % Stepwerrh, measure ‘the tme taken for exch plece of rognesium to reout completely @ Time taken ev moguesium in the beaker with wore caxartroted aad 79 react IS Shorter & measuring the volume of gov evolved + TWme taken br rylvogeh gos to be produced wihg different voncevtrations of HC2 add: | + Recor volume of hydioyen produced ct reguior sme intervals and plot @ grap. of volume of H, gev produced against te fy both expewimenits oh the Somme aes.Vol of hydiagen Com?) o” hey conc of oad» fnal volume of th juceo oo ——k nO ee Oe ee ani a @ Og moss OF moguesmn used / © lower wove of add ig he ame 4 Magnesium 6 the limiting veactout groaievt decreoges oF rancho paceeds- ReActon Sows dowh oy cone of HCL decrees aol \ moss of Ug jecreayes: — tne is | : © Reaction th experiment | is Completed in 33 Secorols While feorkion th experivnent 2 1s completed In o4Sevonds elnitial gradiet of experiment | is greater than thet of expeinest 2 © Spead of reaction LiQhev whe o more concentrated avid |S “ped. Effect of Pressure ov the speed of reaction L When the pressure of a gaseov? reactant is increased , the speed of Yeachon is increased L slwilov 1 Ihcreeging concecttation L At lower pressures, the parti cles of goseou reactants are ypread far yout . & At Ligher pressure, the particles ot gogeott renctants ave closer toyethor + At higher pressures, the callisions between the partices of gareory reactants become more frequent 9 Frequency of effective collisjous increases and speed of reaction higher 2 In many Indusmial processes ; high prasures ave useol toupeed up chem co} reactions LManutacre of ammonia from nitrogen and hydwgen wes a high pressure of 250 atm Effect of Particle sive on the speed of reaction LIE @ Solid reactant is broken ulp Iuto Snallor pieces, Its total wurface avea thot Ss exposed Increqyes & When the surface avéa of a Solid reaofant is increased ; the speed of he reavtvn 1S Increased: Wueh agdid reojant 1s Uckeh Up Into smaliey pieces into Jwallev pieces, its tolalsuuface avea 6 Increased~» Thebe ave more surfaces expased for other reactant portides to collide into: The collisions between the reacjaut particles become more frequent © This couse s av Weyease inthe frequency of effective collision, lncrecsing the speed of reaction: ° ole 7 Qa ° r3 ° y \ is, ete SR cute Lad 23 6 cy Invest geting the effect of povticle sive on the speed of reaotion using 4 fixed concentration and volume of HCL with large movyle Chips and crushed marble chips O Using & Axed vor and conc of HeQadd in exp | react log of lavge Mavble chips and record the volume of 2 gas produced of one-minute Infewaly @ Inexp 2 react 10g of Gushed marble chips avd record the volume of C02 geg produced at one-minute intervals » Exp | takes fougey to complete thon exjod % Initial Qrootent for exp 215 Qreoter tron thot of ep | PT SOE the speed of reactions Liguer in experiment 2. Effect Of tempercture onthe speed of reaction ULwnen the temperature of oa reactant ls increased , tne soe! of rez0ton Increases ‘ UL At low tamperoture tre reactaut pavtides move slowly because Hey have Inttle energy P When the temperoture is Increased, the reactant particles galu energy, move faster and cdlide with ech other more often % At highev temperotures wore pavtivles poses energy equal 10 ov highev thon aotivatian energy 0 ligher frequency of effective Callisiont , thus | the speed of reaction is vigher CATALYST Chaya ctevistcs of 4 vatalyst ~ only required Ih Small amounts — lowers the activetton energy of a reackon = increases the speed but not the yield of @ reaction - chemical properties remain unchanged ofter a reaction= vot used up oluving the reaction — Impuvitias Com prevent coralysts from working ~ | Sleotive Ih oxtion - Catalyst speci fv to tre type OF veowtion it speeds up. Gatoiysts and Activartion energies: 9 cotalysts Increase the speed of reaction by providliing am alternative pathway for ne reaction to proceed « ~% catalysed reaction has a lower Qotivation eneigy thatthe reaction witlout rhe catalyst Energy uncaraiysed reaction A= | OH= negortive OATS: Progress Of reaction + catalysed reaction: activation energy is lower Lore colliding partides possess energy equal to or greater tan the activation energy L Frequency of effective collisions increases @ higher rate of formation of product pavtides Invest gating the effect of a catalyst on the speed of reaction Lundev normal conditions , hydogeh peroxide decomposes very slowly to give water and oxygen © Prepare two test tubes critainline, (ov? of H20,- Label the test tubes A ond B @ held half a spotuia of manganese lV oxide to the ution In test tube B @ Place a glowing splht at the mouth of eadh test tube ard recprel the olafervations # in By bubbles ob oxygen are quictly produced - Glowing splint Is rekindled and bums bi gutly > Und, Femail uncharged at the el of the reaction -. it Is a catalyst * ChemicallygUses of catalysts iv tolustry ~ iron & manufacture of Qmmumiac Haber process) — ptatinum or rhodium L catalytic converters = aluminium oride ov silicon diokid & © production of iron Ih the cracking press EN2YMES + bidogical cotalystr 9 MNeywes are sulstames that catalyse tne chemial reactions in plants ahd onimais: % biological catalysts: Characteristics of ensywes; \ They ave potelus. D. Specific iv their action 3. Sensitive totemperoture changer & temp too low: enzymes are inaotive & tempteo high: enzymes become denatured 4. Sensitive ty pH changes L most en2ymes hove a certain pit which they work best in L denatured Leyoud optimum pH: USes of Creymes th tholustiy — manu facture of aleoldlic dinkS © sugew ov starch YEMT> erranol + Carkon diokide - modern detergents vontain eneymes L effective th removing stains caused by) proteil loved Substances such a9 Rod avd Uood.PER JoD\C TABLE Q divides the elements inte periods 1n4 groups Y Arranged iv order of tneveadug proton number Group + AWertical colvmn of elements. 2 Periodic tale cousists of eight groups of elements Unumbered from | to Vil and 0 4 Group 0 sometimes called Vill + Qroups un from top to bottom Perio : > Horizontal row of elements 3 periodic table consists of + pertods of elements GQ humbered from | to + + TUN From Loft to vight METALLIC AND NON-METAUL¢ PROPERTIES L Elements im te periodictable can lve classified based on their metallic and von-yvetallic properties © Imaginary diagonal line which divide metnis from now métols © Elements tet ave iacated next to Huis [ine are\metolloids 4 have properties Of loot») metas) ard non-matas How ofo. merallic. properfits..of elements. clave e.a1cress. 0, pevjod 7 & Mora|s ave qrovyed ov the \lett- hav sifé of each peyor. © Nou-metals owe grouped on te Halt hae side & Chauge from metal to yefm| across the periods results in change) Of properfies in elements. © From lett te right mwss o perjorl , thera is a decreace in metallic properties and Ivereace in non-motallic properties-How do metalic properties chovge dam agioupy? © Golng dow o group tere Is an increase in metal properties and a decrease in non-metallic properties, 7 Golng down a grove, the valence eléctous of ov element will be\furtuer away fom the atnorctive force of the nudeus as tro atom size increases: G +, will lose, its valence electrons \easier as it goes blown the guup- EIECTRONIG STEVE TURE! © can obtain electroule structure from its poten number & Mole to feduce period number ane group number How ave elements jm tie some weriad similar ju terms of tiv electronic Structure? The numiser of electron sells Is the some ds the period nuuboer of the element How ave-elements im the Some granp similew in terms OF their electron Structure? © The number of valence electrone is the sume as the group number of the element CHARGE OF LON Group 1, and tv L Type of 10M formed + positive & Metals L Tend to [ose electrous to fowm positive lous Group tv, Vv L Type of ion formed : Elements tend te form covoyent instead of ionic compounds L Examples : Clg and PORe L Shave electvous to foum covalent bands | Lo maximum oridation state that {s same Os th greny number OF the element.Oronp ViVi “Tope of 101 formed : negptive © Example: 077, F © Nonyetals & Tend to geiln vlectrous to fom negptive ious Group 0- L Type of lon formed» elements oo not form Compas L have stable electronic shuctures QeOvP | ELEMENTS : Arai: Heras [Elements in Group | of the poriodic taije ave colled Alkali Metals © Uthinm (ci) , Sodium (Na), potassium (K), Mbidinm (kb), Caesymnics) Ove Froviciuwn (Fr ) + Soft and con be cut easily 7 low melting owe boiling poivits 7 low densities. ( Lithium, sodium and potascium float on water) 4 melting ond beiling polutts decvease > densities generally ivcrense Chighly reactive metals L Going foun grey | the site of the atom increases 4G Easier ty lose the valevce electron fom bleger atoms © Renctivity increases going ofown Group |Q Lithia + L Reacts aqui i. L 2Ui(s) t 2H,0C2) > 2LIOH (aq) + 4,(g) & Sodium : L Kencts vigleutly -Renction may be explosives L ANa(s)+ 2H,000) > INaoH lag) + Hyg) G Potassium: L Reacts very violentiy- Lenction is explosive & 2k¢s) + 2HAOCL) A KOH (aq) + H,(9) | Since the alkali giveaway the elechousivendlily - The behave OS powerful reducing oe in all their yeactous- QROVp VILELEMENTS -Haloyens © Elements in GroupVil are called halogen L Fluoryme CF), Chforine (C4), Bromine CBr) , lodine (1) , Astotine C At) Physical prjoorfies: 7 Hojoqjens aye now metals that exist as covejent rolectles > Have low melting ond belive) poivts + Coloured [Element |Mettinaport| aati port | Aipy eovonce Chionne} “ore | -34°C oveenisy gellar Tedetich brow Liou Browne | - #6 sac purplish block Soll lodine | 4-0 I84ec Coiney fos tre gees A Melting povts ord soiling Pots of halogens incregses > Glours of bajogevs bevome doverClremico| properties of Hoops: 3 keactive von-metals A Each halogen has % valence electrovs + only ove move elertrou ic needed to AOMElVe Stalde valewce Electronic confiquintion of a Loble gars YF Hajogeve veoct With most metals to form sotts cofjeol holiofes 2 Halogens Undergo ‘displocemet veactious with halide solufious: & Displocemment reaction: move veactive rologen will displace o lecs vearttve halogen from its lilide « solution. Chlorine t Sofivm bvomide a sodium bwownde t browive Ccofoures) Ceofourjess) Creddisty- brown) Cligut yellow) A, (a) t NABy (aq) 4+ NaCllag) + By2(aq) Order of re aetivity * LUnlike alkali metals, reactivity of halogens ofecrease o¢ it apes down the gewr & Size of electron jvereaser as it ques down Qvoup-> -. harder to ottract one move elections ° Halojens are powerful oxdising agents © During Chemica) reactiovs, Afovus of halogens readily ain electrors to forum Lnalide iovs of charop “I © Displacement reactions between lofoojevs oad otter lidlidle lous Cn oso le clrssifieo| as redox reactions reduce. CR, Coq) $UBr- CoQ) —) 2CeCaq) + Br, (a9) o oF fs eof ‘oneislve vedo Group O E OWLS: Norte doses © Element itr Goup 0 oF Group Vill qreGlled uoble gages or inert gases © Holimmbie), Meonl Ne ,Proon (Ar), Krypton (kr), Keron (Xe) ard Radow! Xu) Properties : A mouatowic* Colevrles gas at room temperature 2 aye low melting ond boiling point 2 lusoluble in water + ubreactive b other than helivim, Noble gases Lave 8 vojence ofectrous L Full electrovic struure make the vole arises vovenctive & do wot lose, goin ov shove electrone ses PiMactive [I not movies © used 4 provide an inert atmosphere © helm used for filling weather oF advertisment balloous © Argon used torfill tungsten bulls Transition Elements © Block of nete|s for between Crops Il ano ttl © @wmor frausition metals: Chromium (Cv), manganese (Mr) aol ivoulfe) prperti es: > high welti4g and bailine) poutts ave} high densities Trausition metals have variable oxidation states L Foy example: Mavrgouest (Mu) aUnce, 42 Mu Or +4 4KUnoq +9 » Form colouyed compounds & fov example: Feso4 9 Poje green CrCe, 4 green Fe Ct, 4 yellow K Cry 03.9 oromge CuO 2 Red Und, > Black CuO % Block KMui0g > purple Colour Of hydrated comparnda may ve different from thet of onlydac Compote 3 Anhydrous Loloaitll!) cLiowep? blue Hydlrated cobalt (i) cherie? pink9 Trowsition metals ane thelv compounds ave good cotalystt Ljncreases the speed Of achewmlua| veactou aud vewoins chewiccdig undauged at tre ebol of the reaction © nickel : Manufacture of morgavine fem vegetovle off \ ) 5 5 )ELECTROLYS[S© . > precest of using eleoticity to break dom or decomp ee a compauind Cusually an jonjc:compaund in molten or aqueous spate > important fv extracting pure elemenit from compounds Eleetyca| conductor = Metal - Carbon Cihevt electrodes) A Blecrolyte . ‘ey ~ Molten onlo compounds i 4 presence of free moving eppesitely ebiarged tons i - Aqueous solutions & water mixe d in with other compourds 4 wmftalus tous available te conduct electricity » X Soll tonic compounds i 4 CANNOT conduct electricity as. oppositely dravged. ons held = by strona, electrostatic forces’ of! traction’ in giawt- oo tedtice |. Structure. | evecteovytic CELL connecting wire ¢ negatively anode cathode charged positively + Charged electrolyteKe ctvol ytiv ce consists of hoes Fw we & aww 2 2 8 t Battery: : ow Acts as an'e(eofren pump! anol avaws electrons away from the anode 4 Anode vecomes positivety cravged © Electvons enter the positive tewminal of the battery and ave ‘pumped out/at the negative terwinal & These electrons are supplied tothe cathode, cathede lecomes lregattively charged : Aectvolyte: ocondvcts electricity © Free Wroving lous allow electricity te Row trough 2 Molten iic compound | aqueous solution © Ejectrolyte decompos €d to form positive ons and negative ions 0 Eq: dilute wulvic ald, molten sodium chloude , 1queous: copper Al) sulfate ertvedes : couduct erectvicity © cAroou~ graphite vods ov metal wds @ Electrode commected to neg tevmitnol-) negatively chovyed - attract cations 4 coled the CATHODE © Glectrode connected 49 positive terminal is positively chovged :. attracts negative ious, anjous -+ called the ANODE Howfoess eJooqrolysis wort? chrans flow framthe positive terra] Ge ee connor termina] of the borteny During etectralys|s th Faw of lous dons towards the Clectrode constitutes the flow of 2{ecwicity cathode Avions move tower} ™ Ycatiows move te the the qvode conttrode Anjous lose oattions gai electros electrous at the at the cathode anode Reduction occurs Ox1q orton Ocd4rs, ————— long ore discrorged _——_(Ejectrel ysis of Maten [onjo compounds © Molten sodium chlovide + Wheu in molten state, sodium ious and Chlovine lous are free moying as theve is vo longer any Strong electrosatic forces of attraction between trace oppositely clavged long Battery ' Inert coven electrode: prevents c+ reactive element formed ot the ancte fom rarctivy covhou with the elecivoe- Cathode motten Nace (2) Heat ~ te maiutoin wolten sore At the anode: At the cathode: 9 Ce" anious Move towards It o Nat cations movetowardes it ¢ It loves efectrous and IS oxiqived 0 It gai hs electrons and ts reduced to form chojne gas to Sodivmumejal ree CL) > Canlg) tre Natcg)te~ 4 Nats) electrolysis overall equ: 2Nace (2) - 1NaCs)tCer¢g) Ffeopraysis OF Aqueous Solutious of Compounds? SELECTIVE. DISCHARGE: Fin an aqueous Solution, more than one type of cation and anjon ove prasent: tt the electrolyre 7 Only one cation ary ovjon ove wefereutially discharged & called selective discrovge | selective discharge of cattous.: othe more reactive o merell ; the higuer the tevelency to form ios o lons of less reactve metals ovAl hydrogen occept electrovs move readily and get dischargedThe ease of discharge of Cofions depends on the pesition of the metal | iv the veactvity Sayes: potassium kt Sodium — Nat Moving down te veautivity seues, calcium = Cat 2 veactiuity deweases Magnesium lg 7 €0sg of discharge increases une tnt trou ret During efectrd ysis Lead PL >t ~ (ass yeadtive Catou \s discharged Hydvogen Ht Coppev' cu* Silvey Aa Gold Aut 1 Selective dischoige of aujars Suifare $04” 1 cutate and vitiate ious Nitvate No,~ ave never disthavged Chovide chs Bromide br- | oolid @ tt Hydvoride OH" —Y OH” lols give up electrenc mos reorlily 40 form worter avd oxygen 2. Effect of covceutrortion one selective dischorge of anjons 7 Avion iv greater comcertration Is more veoidlily tis UAavged > Halides ave selectively discravged over lydvoricle lous at the anode only ih a Concerifrated: wdution 3 ln @ Concentvated solution, the conc of halide jons 6 liighey than of” jous. © dilute sodium chlovide solution Or gas Ha gas dilute Nacdlaa) ° Anode CathodeAt the anode ie Z a "At the Cottrode: © CQ™ OMS cine OH- fous Wiove + © Nat and Ht ious move towards sowards it if . ° OK” lous Is selectively discharged © Ht ions Is Selectively ali at the anodeas ih o diluted sol, at the Cotlrode of if is less OH™ ions ave th higher coucentcition reactive than Nat thon ce- tous © Ht los goin. electrons ave i6 © OHM lols (ase electroms ahd ave reduced oxidi ved OH" (aq) —F 2H,0C2) t0Lg)t4e~ LHtCaq) t2e~ —F H«g) overall eqy: 2H,000) > 2H,Cg) t Orly) Ly lect ysis of worter Pvesultiug sdution increases th Couceutortion o¥ Wworter IS enicved by decomposition ih Hi ahd Or gow © Concentrated Joolium citovide volution At the mvode : Atthe cathode: o CL" joms ahd On” ions move 0 Nat anol tf ions move towards toward s- the cathole © CR ious ave preferentially 0 Ht ions ane selectively distort clischarged os they Are ot the cathode of it © less higher I concentration veactive than Nat © CL” jons tase electrans 2 Ht lors gain elechore 40 form to form C2; gov Hy gow Creduced) 2CL- 9 Chg) t 2€° out+re- + Hr (9): overall e459 : NOC tH 0 4 (2, Hp t)Na oH + resulting Voution become move olltclie 8 Ht 1-9 ave vernoved frow the Solution. Na dk Is AtAline Electrolysjs of wotev: products 2H2(g) + 0119) 2 poor worter is % poor Calutoy of eleccitty because it Casists ajnest euplvely of molenrfes With» Very few [Og © FF OU] Mount of Qn Iaric Arnpous! is adel eob -p e000 crolader> USE Of Copper efecodes % electrlyss of Cusog sation ~ Electolys|s of Coppev(il) sulforte solution Using reactive copper electvores At the veactive copper quode: Arthe reactive copper cathode 0 S0g and Ott” ious migrate © aut and HT ions are crtrocted to the cathode towaids It © However, Copper iS not Inert 2. dassolves To form Cat lod Cucs) 4 Cu + 2¢@- © Anode decreases In Mags 2 cu* ons are discharged in preference to Ht tons because it ls lower than Ht iad iv the reactulty cevies cut +2e- - cacs) © Coloma becomes cooted cotth Copper Creddtish vow) 0 Cotthode inweases in moss > clown ot a9 CuSog solution coas Lot cliouge cg no net Loss of Cu* from te Copperlil) suleate Solution % Curt tag cUscloigedt oc cotvode moduly fom anode - Impure copper rehued ly elecholysis: © Impure copper is made the anode © Twin street of copper wed o8 cathode ° Electtyte: equears Sclution of Copper © IMipunities Such oy Silver cmdt plodinum fall to +a bottom of +12 cell formyy ‘anode sime! ® Elects ploding PD processing o loyer of metal on avottor vubstence Sivo, aedvolgis % USES: ecorodive frig, prevent wasting % Olaject to be electeplorted: coioole PONEde IS thevouice OF plotting mortenoy 9 eectalyre: solution of plotive retebattowy At the cottiode: Siwer Ree ported © Ay * lous are metal distrorgect to At the anode: Aq AgNo3 form silvevweto 0 Silvey auede Agr te- - Agis) dissolves 1 form © Silver metal coors Agt lore wn a9, the spo. Dutiow device thot couverts chew col evrergy into electrical energy > ceric cell 2 made by plorciia 2 different metals im coutadt voit ab eeorlyte: > metals met of te efectroda for tle Simple cel\ % potential differerce ow voltage is cet up beween tLe metal plates. - renisrera tag var meter At the inc ejecvode: alee oq ® Buc came give Atte copper elechade: Up efectrors avo Phyalrogeniors th ctilute tH S24 dssolve to form accept eecrers ty fom ty ops ant jong % Keduciion occas cs) Burt +2e- > Elecha de into wukh elects % Electrode from wich Flow ts the positive Mectole electrons How out is the negptive eectode Dove veaciive metal give up Leclvolg arol -form 1OLS Wore Veodlily thon less renctive metalsRenctivity Reet» eerrycol Pcumount of energy produced In oa simple Cell is determined by hoo tov apart Lo electrodes ove + the further apart 2 metals Cetectrodtes) are th te reactivity series, tle greater tte voltage prceluced. vy no wiwent flow tt both metalcare te sume Celectiates),AMMONIA. ‘keversiele reactions Lean go both Rrward and lackword atthesame time L indicated by double arrowsign = & Reaction from left to Yght forward eachon © Reaction from vight 40 left * backward reaction L Reaction Letween nitrog elas andl huplrogen to frm ammonia is a reversible reaction P nitrogen + hydrogen = ammonia Nx) + Hylg) = NijCg) | Manutactuling ammonia by te Haver proces Nitrogen obtained from the liquid distillation of ait © Hyslrogen produced from the cracking of petroleum OON DITIONS: QP vigh tumperature relatively) t high pressure 2 cotalyst ~ ad nitrogen molecule is generally unreactive :. and nitregen at room temperature = QS reoIdion between nitrogen andhydlrogen iS reversible, Some of Ammonia foymed may devomprse and convert lack Ito nitrogen aud hyelageh :. conditions have + carefully coutaled. for maximum yield of ammonia. ot minimum cost no veqotion between hy dagen HOW AKE THE GoNDITIONS CoNTHDUUED 7 0 Ophmum, pressure > higher pressure phigher yield OF Ommonia higher pressure > foster speed oF reavtion > however, high prasure requires expensive equipment and Is dongerg og well 3 Thus, there Is limit to Amount of pressure tharcan be uged. 0 optimum temperoture > At lower temp = yield of Armonia is higher oF decomposition oF ammonia IS reduced. However at tow temp, rate of reaction is very Stow > at bigh temp = yleld of ammuia's low oy rite of decomposttion s High despite rate of reoction being ster.hence velotively high temperoqure ot 450°C 1s wel i © o Catalyst “, 2 despite coveditions like Ligh temp + high prasure, yanction' is Still stow > hence catalyst is syed to speed up the reaction + Finely divided iton used as a Catalyst OPTIMAL CONDITIONS IN THE HABER propery fy itid of ammonia. o pressure of 2S0atm 450 °C 0 temp ot 450'0 0 presen of Ion cotalyst | ben Eon ¢ > prejsuve Na 3H (rm) 2 © ber O Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed Inthe rotiOOfelnd by volume @ Uixtuve OF gver IS ComprededsorterbO.atm @ Gas 15 veatted..to.45bi¢ aha posed over Finely clivideolitan Liteh acts oy aconalyst Inthe reaction U reaction is exothermic & only abort (0-I5': of the nitrogen and hyclrogen is converted to amm onla @ Lixture Of ammonia nitrogen and hydregens Is obtained qua ecled © Ammonia Wvolenses to formiliquid ammonia © onreacted bylregen and nitrogen are pumed back Into the Converter UW recyetect Displacement of aramonla from seats © ammovium soit + alkali —) ammonia t Sault + woster ammonium chlovide t Sodium hyphexide 4 ammonia + wotert Sodium dlovig e wilgce Cs) + NaodGay) — > WHY Ly) tHOC2)+ Nacetag)KINETIC PARTICUE TrEory odesovibes the ates of matter J 0 explolus the differences in Ye properties of vols, liquids ond gos | ¢ etpladint tHe chonges in vjote of matter Soup STATE. BREE = partivler ave cfasely packed in om ovdedy manner Re } > palticles ave leld togethey by Very send Prles of oftraction - have enough energy tp ouly vibrate and rotate about their fked positions = Cannet mow about fey = solid ag a Red volume og it Cannot We compressed olue to tts particles alverdy beira von clase to each other UiQuid STATE - parnoles Of a liquid ave arranged In o disovdeny manney = have weaker Rrces of ottwution thah the particles of a solid ~ mold kinetic Cvergy Hah powticlts Of the ome Wulastornce at solid state - not held im &xed positons = can move beady Hrrougiout the liquid ~ liquids have a fixed volume a3 the pavtivler ave packed Absely togetiew hence cannet be compressed: GASEOUS STATE = paroles of Agog are upead far oyart - have weaker frees of attraction than the particles of a liquid ~ have o lot of Hnetc energy and are not hold ilnfixed posiviolys ~ Can move rapidly in any olivectou : ~ Javge spaces between the partiues afows the, gs bbe oily compressed when a force If appli@d- .. no xed volume- OHANGES IN STATE OF MATIEIRY v particles of A matter ave in constant .motion +.have Fiuetiv everoy & Gases have tre most energy Pllowed by liquids. Solids bave the. (east en & when’ mortter Is heated ov cooled, heat energy is faren in or giveh art CAUSING tineky Evelqy OF paves to chauge P Change In stateHing ~ eo ope sae a substande chon ges from solid to liquid, Mit 4 2 Melting pout tedperoture ot which solid Wecomas 0 Uquid 1) eat energy 6 alsovbed by the partner of the solid Heat energy is canverterl to Mhetic anergy The partoles start t vibrote faster avout their fixed positions 2) When the tempetortue Is high erough-, the ulratious of the parties become wuffideut 40 overcome the frees of attraction between then Parties begin to break away from their fixed postions 3) Particles are uo longer iu they fixed positions Subspace iS now w liquid Pariies can wove freely touglot tHe uiquid Boiling, ~ 0 SUDSTAULE CHAUGES trom Liquid t goF > © boiling polur: temperature at olich liquid becames a gee 1) o treat energy is absorbed by the povticer of a liquict ° teat energy \s converted wt? netic , energy © The parkeles stavt to viblote taster af the temperature die When tne tempercture Is high enough . tre particles lowe enough energy 10 everwome the forces of attraction holding them” togetiner 3)6 partides ave now Spread far apart 2 Subsinvce is now a gos 2 Partdes can wove aleovt tn any oivection Cov eusartion 8 process by which goy changesto uquid : o wheh wter yapour teuches a coblsurface; conde asation occare 0 Heat energy is giver out by the parties tuning condensation 2) As the temypeloture drops particles loses enormy ard wove sory 5) Movement of pavicles bevomes slow enoligh tor the far the gap + Change 1 a liquid Freewng ° process by Which liquid chang es +e Solid i 2 Freeing pout: temperotare at bicin liquid becomes solid 1 Brrerg Is ojvern out by the povtictes OF the (4 uidd Portines Iase energy od begin te wave more Joly D) WhOn the temperntu Is [ow enovalh Partides no | Lave enova eres to Triad deeln & cenie 4 avstle tL their Rvod vatkoucS)Rllte paviides havevetted ivviixed positions Tre Uulsfance 1s WOW 9 Soli Partdes can only Vibrate olout Hreiv fixed positions Eval vou 2 process by which a liquid dhonges 10 a 53 at a temperotule lowor than HS balling privet: © OLUK beCcawe Some particies have enough euerny fo escape oF a get foi the Surface of the liquid © Liquids that evaporote quickly ave ailed volatile liquids @ Voletile liquids? Wave, boiling poiuts [St alove wowm-tomporodurer Bolling vs Evayoratiouy Boling, Evayoropou | + OCCOKS ouly at bailing pout | - occury at temperatures befor boillt ot + ocoug oly af treyenface of the liquid + OCUAKS rapidly octaig sjowly HEATING CUVE Hrompuratureto * OcaKs Hrangnoud tue liquid Soliol + iq During melting, the temp does not not vise even though heating continues Heat energy fakeh in by the pareicles is ufed te overcome the forces of attraction holding the PArhvies ih tre fixed positions Uixture of solid and liquid exists. imme TraSUBLIMATION: » process by which solid changes direoty into a apg voltant sping tren liquid state 9 OCCULSLECAWIE pavtcles at the Surface of the Jolid Lowe erough energy to break auiay from tre volid and escape af » got o by. cAmmonum bchlovine U lodine DIFFUSION oprecess by which particles move freely to fil up any available vpace ic calllec diffingon Effect of moleclay mass on the rote of Aiffyion: — Gases with lowen viojeculay mags diffuse foster than thoe with higher moleajar mass © Diffusion is the movement of parties tom o region & Lighey couc wa vegion Of lower couceutration Effect of tempetoture on the Rate of Diffusion of Goses - the higher tle temperoqure, the higher the tote of diffasion v parteles goin wove Fivetiv energy og the temperwture lncreages # wove, LAKH -~ lncvenfe vate of diffu Sloun.Noble genses > heli, Neon, Argon ete ~ monatomic and exlst a8 individual atoms ~ Stable and unreactive ~ Helium vas o oduplet eecrouiv configurerion ~ Rest Of the novle goses Love an octet etectraric confquintion - UNVerIuiVe loecose It ras Oo fully filled outer suel| Atoms qurieve stabie-eleotroviy confi guiction by. ~ losing outew electrons : goining out ev electrons i tale ~ Swanng outer electrons } covalent Fovmiltg ions % otto loevomes Gulon When It gous ov loses electrons to achieve @ Stable Hectrovic structure % can carry either a positive oy negative Charge & Metals form portively chaiged ious — cottons & Nou-metals forms hegatively charged ions ~ anions Goins ~ otoms of metals tend to have. only afew outer electrons ~ tend 40 10s electrons tv obtain Mable electroviv Wurkg uration > Cation @ move proteus than electrons -. paltively charged > positive lous | cattour ave formed wheh atom laret efecto? Anlous ~ atoms Of von~metals tend to have move thon + outer electrons ~ tend ty gal electous to olfain srable eectrouly configuration ~_ Rulou 2 move glectrous than protons -. negatively charged ¥ Negative ios! Auious ave formed wien atoms lofe electrons Poly orpomiy Long vNHgt buoy + Sog> ett: - composed Of L ovmore Wvaleutly bonded ortomr° Strong electrostatic faces of orttractiOn between postive ald negative. tons 2 Eq. Sodivva chlovide , Nace f = beaend: x: Bote @ +: 6 of NA i 2 Giant Lottice Structure - Sodium and unjovide ave arnuged in 4 giant forrtoe structure - dnvee Aimeusional network of ions ~ 10S are Vreld in place by ioniv ouds ~ longs are paved in a Veguiar and repeating porttern = glant lattic Structure hela pat te due to Strong forces of attraction peer oppositely charged ios Slaieaal i 2 igh meting and leoiling powits . © strong electrosany tores of cittraction Wetweel osttive avd eget lous vequive a large amount of energy +0 brea L duet Vigh melting and boiling poiuts - solids at voom tempernture — Soluble in water and lnsoluple In organic solvents L (only compounds are usually soluble in water with the exception of silver chiovde, baum Julfate etc- & Why are tuey soluble iM water ? owatev molecules are attracted to tows o weakens electrastativ foes between the lous 0 IONS Are pulled away from their lative structure & why are they insolulé in organiv Lompound s? @ No Wattav ii orepdleasAteit hence lous Kercil tiguity Weld in their aystal lottive structure & cations and auions ave freeto Move iv walten or A4ueDLy stare & Hevce mobile ions Canact as charge carriers of electricity + AT slid state: Cannot Covduet tleavicty ag it does not lenmim thanlete, ietace IOC Weld in biomce lu love vtvuGure