New Record of Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) Parasitism of Black-

chinned Siskins (Carduelis barbata)

Author(s): Andrea Alejandra Astié
Source: The Wilson Bulletin, 115(2):212-213. 2003.
Published By: The Wilson Ornithological Society
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1676/02-086
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1676/02-086

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Wilson Bull., 115(2), 2003, pp. 205–208
Predation on Birds by a Cuckoo (Cuculidae), Mockingbird (Mimidae),
and Saltator (Cardinalidae)
Oliver Komar1,3,5 and Walter A. Thurber2,4
ABSTRACT.—We report three unusual cases of
predation in which birds of insectivorous or omnivo-
rous species preyed upon smaller birds in El Salvador,
Central America. A Squirrel Cuckoo (Piaya cayana)
fed on a netted Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea); a
Blue-and-white Mockingbird (Melanotis hypoleucus)
chased, killed, and carried off a probable juvenile Ru-
fous-collared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis); and a
Black-headed Saltator (Saltator atriceps) fed on a net-
ted Cinnamon Hummingbird (Amazilia rutila). Preying
upon birds has not been reported previously in any of
these species. Evidence suggests that the Squirrel
Cuckoo and the Blue-and-white Mockingbird may
prey on small birds or other vertebrates with some reg-
ularity, while the saltator may have consumed the
hummingbird due to non-natural conditions. Received
21 October 2002, accepted 10 March 2003.
The feeding habits of many Neotropical
bird species are poorly understood. During or-
nithological studies of birds in El Salvador
during the past 30 years, we have encountered
three odd instances of birds consuming small-
er avian prey. One of the three predators in-
volved, the Squirrel Cuckoo (Piaya cayana,
Cuculidae), is principally insectivorous (Stiles
and Skutch 1989). The other two predators,
the Blue-and-white Mockingbird (Melanotis
hypoleucus, Mimidae) and the Black-headed
Saltator (Saltator atriceps, Cardinalidae), are
presumed omnivores; although little is known
about these two species, most members of
their families are frugivorous and insectivo-
rous (Bent 1948, 1968). We present each case
below.
Squirrel Cuckoo preys on bunting.—On 28
February 1974, at Hacienda Los Pinos near
1 Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Re-
search Center, and Dept. of Ecology and Evolutionary
Biology, Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.
2 Cornell Univ. Lab. of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY
14850, USA.
3 Current address: SalvaNATURA, 33 Ave. Sur No.
640, Col. Flor Blanca, San Salvador, El Salvador.
4 Current address: P.O. Box 16918, Temple Terrace,
FL 33687, USA.
5 Corresponding author; e-mail:
okomar@salvanatura.org
205
Tierra Blanca, Usulután, El Salvador (138 209
N, 888 409 W; elevation 50 m), WAT flushed
a Squirrel Cuckoo from a netted Indigo Bun-
ting (Passerina cyanea) on which it was feed-
ing and which it may have killed in the net.
At the time of discovery the cuckoo had eaten
much of the bunting’s head. Feeding on netted
birds has been reported for other cuculids:
Greater Roadrunner (Geococcyx californi-
anus; Barclay 1977) and Smooth-billed Ani
(Crotophaga ani; Gill and Stokes 1971).
A Squirrel Cuckoo is about nine times larg-
er than an Indigo Bunting. In El Salvador, a
Squirrel Cuckoo collected by OK weighed
122.5 g. Indigo Buntings wintering there
weighed a mean of 13.6 g 6 0.9 SD (n 5 14;
OK unpubl. data).
Other observations suggest that Squirrel
Cuckoos regularly may take vertebrate prey.
On 2 May 1979, WAT saw a Squirrel Cuckoo
at Hacienda Los Pinos carrying a slender, pale
green reptile, either a young iguana (Iguana
iguana) or a snake, which hung down about
10 cm from one side of its bill; the cuckoo
paused briefly while it hammered its prey be-
fore flying away. Small lizards have been tak-
en by Squirrel Cuckoos across a wide geo-
graphic area (Wetmore 1968, Meyer de
Schauensee and Phelps 1978, Stiles and
Skutch 1989, De Vasconcelos 1998). On 21
March 1979, WAT saw a Squirrel Cuckoo
land beside an injured Melodious Blackbird
(Dives dives), but the cuckoo was frightened
away before any interaction took place. Birds
and birds’ eggs have been reported in the diet
of several cuculids (Bent 1940; Sick 1993;
Hughes 1996, 1997, 1999, 2001; Eitnear and
Tapia 2000), but not previously in the genus
Piaya.
Blue-and-white Mockingbird preys on spar-
row.—On 29 May 1971, at Cerro Verde tourist
park, Santa Ana Dept., El Salvador (138 509
N, 898 389 W; elevation 2,000 m), a jay-sized
bird flew past WAT in pursuit of a sparrow-
sized bird. The pursuer initially was about 2
m behind and rapidly closing. Both birds sud-
206 THE WILSON BULLETIN • Vol. 115, No. 2, June 2003
denly dropped to a terrace of clipped grass 30
m in front of WAT. The smaller bird seemed
to drop of its own volition but may have been
knocked down. Moments later two more spar-
row-sized birds landed nearby, noticed the ob-
server, and flew away silently. WAT then no-
ticed that the larger bird was a Blue-and-white
Mockingbird, standing erect and alert. The
smaller bird, apparently lifeless, lay on its
side. It appeared to be a juvenile Rufous-col-
lared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis), a com-
mon species in the park. The mockingbird
picked up its victim, the body hanging limply
from each side of its bill, and flew to a nearby
low tree. As it flew, the mockingbird uttered
the melodious phrases typical of the species.
After a brief pause, it flew farther into the
woodland, repeating the same phrases. It was
not determined if or how the sparrow was
consumed.
Blue-and-white Mockingbirds are more
than four times larger than juvenile Rufous-
collared Sparrows. At Cerro Verde, El Salva-
dor, Blue-and-white Mockingbirds had mean
weights of 68 g 6 5.1 SD (n 5 20, WAT
unpubl. data). The mean weight of juvenile-
plumaged Rufous-collared Sparrows at that
location was 17 g 6 2.1 SD (n 5 4). In com-
parison, adult sparrows weighed 20 g 6 1.4
SD (n 5 85).
We found no published record of compa-
rable predatory behavior in the genus Melan-
otis. Skutch (1950) described the mocking-
bird’s food as small fruits and small inverte-
brates obtained from leaf litter. At Cerro Verde
the species feeds extensively on small fruits
(WAT unpubl. data). We also found no refer-
ence to similar predatory behavior (with birds
as prey) on the part of other mimids, although
Northern Mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos)
will catch insects on the wing (Derrickson and
Breitwisch 1992). K. C. Derrickson (pers.
comm.) once observed a Northern Mocking-
bird chase a Brown-headed Cowbird (Moloth-
rus ater), pin it to the ground, and repeatedly
peck at it. The cowbird was not killed, how-
ever, in that instance. In the Galapagos Is-
lands, endemic mockingbirds (Nesomimus
spp.) have learned to feed on seabird eggs
(Bowman and Carter 1971). Mimids occasion-
ally have preyed upon vertebrates, other than
their eggs; Bent (1948) listed tree frogs, small
lizards, and small snakes among the foods of
Northern Mockingbirds and Brown Thrashers
(Toxostoma rufum), and mentioned that Gray
Catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis) were
known to catch fish in shallow water.
The Blue-and-white Mockingbird displayed
impressive dexterity. We could not easily dis-
miss this instance of predation as atypical.
The swift pursuit, the sudden check, and the
quick drop to follow the prey resembled the
behavior of an accipiter or a shrike. The actual
kill must have been swift, perhaps the snap-
ping of the cervical vertebrae, in shrike fash-
ion. Moreover, there was no hesitation or fum-
bling when lifting the victim; the mockingbird
slid its mandible smoothly beneath the limp
body and raised it with the weight seemingly
well balanced. The prey was a juvenile spar-
row, probably fledged at most a few days ear-
lier, and thus may have been an easy target.
We report here some evidence, albeit weak,
that Blue-and-white Mockingbirds may prey
regularly on birds during the breeding season.
Several times WAT observed incubating
Green Violet-ears (Colibri thalassinus) react
sharply, craning and peering about nervously,
whenever a Blue-and-white Mockingbird vo-
calized nearby; this same reaction occurred
upon the approach of Bushy-crested Jays
(Cyanocorax melanocyaneus), which proba-
bly are nest predators. On one occasion a for-
aging Blue-and-white Mockingbird elicited
distress calls from a pair of Orange-billed
Nightingale-Thrushes (Catharus aurantiiros-
tris) and scolding notes from a pair of Plain
Wrens (Thryothorus modestus) that had nests
in the thicket visited by the mockingbird.
Black-headed Saltator preys on humming-
bird.—On 4 July 2001, at Finca Santa Isabel,
Cantón El Volcán, San Miguel Dept., El Sal-
vador (138 289 N, 888 179 W; elevation 750
m), OK netted a Cinnamon Hummingbird
(Amazilia rutila) in a shaded coffee plantation.
The hummingbird was found dead in the net,
with a crushed skull. The net also caught a
Black-headed Saltator, immediately next to
the hummingbird. Dissection showed that the
saltator ingested part of the hummingbird’s
head, including an eye and feathers. The sal-
tator and the hummingbird were preserved
(Univ. Kansas Natural History Museum cata-
log numbers 93751 and 94120, respectively).
The saltator weighed 80.0 g, and was an adult
male with enlarged testes. The hummingbird,
 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
a male, was not weighed, but conspecifics col-
lected in El Salvador had a mean weight of
4.5 g 6 0.3 SD (n 5 7, OK unpubl. data).
Although the evidence suggested the net en-
tangled the saltator while it attempted to prey
upon the hummingbird, it also was possible
that the saltator entered the net by chance,
within striking distance of the hummingbird.
We are aware of no other cases of cardi-
nalids feeding on other birds, and only one
instance of feeding on a vertebrate: a Northern
Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) was observed
eating a mouse (Bent 1968). Most cardinalids,
including saltators, feed on hard seeds, fruits,
insects, and occasionally flowers and leaves
(Skutch 1954, Bent 1968, Stiles and Skutch
1989, Munson and Robinson 1993, Bosque et
al. 1999). Skutch (1960) reported a Buff-
throated Saltator (Saltator maximus) near the
nest of a Royal Flycatcher (Onycorhynchus
coronatus) eliciting a fierce attack from the
male flycatcher, suggesting that saltators may
be recognized as nest predators.
In summary, we observed a Squirrel Cuck-
oo, a Blue-and-white Mockingbird, and a
Black-headed Saltator engage in opportunistic
predation of smaller birds, two of which were
caught in mist nets, and one of which ap-
peared to be a recently fledged juvenile. These
behaviors suggest that those species may be
broader omnivores than previously believed.
While traditional predators of birds, such as
raptors and carnivorous mammals, may attack
netted birds with regularity, we believe attacks
by cuculids and cardinalids on netted birds to
be rare, although we cited two previous re-
ports of attacks by cuculids.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We extend our thanks to the owners and managers
of the properties where studies were carried out, and
to the Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Na-
turales of El Salvador for assistance with permits and
logistics. E. Garcı́a-Trejo, A. Villeda, C. Zaldaña, and
K. Zyskowski helped with mist netting. We thank K.
C. Derrickson, D. A. Kluza, and two anonymous re-
viewers for providing suggestions for the manuscript.
LITERATURE CITED
BARCLAY, J. S. 1977. Roadrunner takes birds from mist
net. Bird Banding 48:280.
BENT, A. C. (ED.). 1940. Life histories of North Amer-
ican cuckoos, goatsuckers, hummingbirds, and
their allies. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 176:1–506.
207
BENT, A. C. (ED.). 1948. Life histories of North Amer-
ican nuthatches, wrens, thrashers, and their allies.
U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 195:1–475.
BENT, A. C. (ED., WITH O. L. AUSTIN, JR.). 1968. Life
histories of North American cardinals, grosbeaks,
buntings, towhees, finches, sparrows, and allies,
Order Passeriformes: Family Fringillidae, part 1:
genera Richmondena through Pipilo (part). U.S.
Nat. Mus. Bull. 237:1–602.
BOSQUE, C., M. A. PACHECO, AND R. B. SIEGEL. 1999.
Maintenance energy costs of two partially foli-
vorous tropical passerines. Auk 116:246–252.
BOWMAN, R. I. AND A. CARTER. 1971. Egg-pecking be-
havior in Galapagos Mockingbirds. Living Bird
10:243–270.
DERRICKSON, K. C. AND R. BREITWISCH. 1992. Northern
Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos). No. 7 in The
birds of North America (A. Poole, P. Stettenheim,
and F. Gill, Eds.). Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the American Or-
nithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C.
DE VASCONCELOS, M. F. 1998. Urban environment uti-
lization by the Squirrel Cuckoo, Piaya cayana: the
importance of urban trees. Ciencia e Cultura (Sao
Paulo, Brazil) 50:462–464.
EITNEAR, J. C. AND A. A. TAPIA. 2000. Red-billed Pi-
geon (Columba flavirostris) nest predated by
Groove-billed Ani (Crotophaga sulcirostris). Or-
nithol. Neotrop. 11:231–232.
GILL, F. B. AND C. C. STOKES. 1971. Predation on a
netted bird by Smooth-billed Anis. Wilson Bull.
83:101–102.
HUGHES, J. M. 1996. Greater Roadrunner (Geococcyx
californianus). No. 244 in The birds of North
America (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and
the American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington,
D.C.
HUGHES, J. M. 1997. Mangrove Cuckoo (Coccyzus mi-
nor). No. 299 in The birds of North America (A.
Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Academy of Natural Sci-
ences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the Amer-
ican Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C.
HUGHES, J. M. 1999. Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus
americana). No. 418 in The birds of North Amer-
ica (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). The Birds of
North America, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
HUGHES, J. M. 2001. Black-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus
erythropthalmus). No. 587 in The birds of North
America (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). The Birds
of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylva-
nia.
MEYER DE SCHAUENSEE, R. AND W. H. PHELPS, JR.
1978. A guide to the birds of Venezuela. Princeton
Univ. Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
MUNSON, E. S. AND W. D. ROBINSON. 1993. Extensive
folivory by Thick-billed Saltators (Saltator max-
illosus) in southern Brazil. Auk 109:917–919.
SICK, H. 1993. Birds in Brazil: a natural history.
Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
208 THE WILSON BULLETIN • Vol. 115, No. 2, June 2003
SKUTCH, A. F. 1950. Life history of the White-breasted
Blue Mockingbird. Condor 52:220–227.
SKUTCH, A. F. 1954. Life histories of Central American
birds: families Fringillidae, Thraupidae, Icteridae,
Parulidae and Coerebidae. Pac. Coast Avifauna
31:1–448.
S KUTCH , A. F. 1960. Life histories of Central Amer-
ican birds II: families Vireonidae, Sylviidae,
Wilson Bull., 115(2), 2003, pp. 208–210
Magellanic Woodpecker Frugivory and Predation on a Lizard
Valeria Ojeda1
ABSTRACT.—I report observations of fruit con-
sumption by Magellanic Woodpeckers (Campephilus
magellanicus) and an opportunistic predation on a liz-
ard (Liolaemus sp.) by an adult male. During normal
feeding activities, the woodpecker snatched from a
bark crevice of a lenga (Nothofagus pumilio) tree a
lizard, which he then beat until stunned or dead, before
flying off carrying the reptile. Frugivory, although un-
documented for this species, is widespread among pi-
cids. Conversely, this apparently first observation of a
Magellanic Woodpecker preying on another vertebrate
adds to a few known cases of vertebrate predation by
woodpeckers. Received 6 August 2002, accepted 22
February 2003.
Weighing 276–363 g, the Magellanic
Woodpecker (Campephilus magellanicus) is
the largest Neotropical picid (Short 1982). It
is restricted to the Austral Temperate Forests
of Chile and Argentina (35–568 S), where it
is found mostly in forests dominated by south-
ern beeches (Nothofagus spp., Fagaceae; Short
1970, Vuilleumier 1985). While it has been of
interest to ornithologists for several decades,
little research has been conducted on this spe-
cies, and knowledge of its natural history is
only rudimentary. Since 1998, I have been
studying the breeding biology and nest site se-
lection of this woodpecker in forests in north-
western Argentine Patagonia. While conduct-
ing this study, I made opportunistic observa-
1 Concejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y
Técnicas, Univ. Nac. del Comahue, Quintral 1250,
8400 San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina; e-mail:
campephilus@bariloche.com.ar
Turdidae, Troglodytidae, Paridae, Corvidae,
Hirundinidae and Tyrannidae. Pac. Coast Avi-
fauna 34:1–593.
STILES, F. G. AND A. F. SKUTCH. 1989. A guide to the
birds of Costa Rica. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca,
New York.
WETMORE, A. 1968. The birds of the Republic of Pan-
ama. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 150, part 2:1–605.
tions of unusual feeding habits of this species,
which, along with related data from other
sources, are reported here.
This species obtains its food at sites as di-
verse as tree trunks, small to large branches,
fallen logs, and even the ground (del Hoyo et
al. 2002), thus occupying a broad ‘‘wood-
pecker niche’’ (Short 1970). Although studies
of its diet are lacking, it had been assumed to
be composed exclusively of invertebrates
(Grigera et al. 1994, Rozzi et al. 1996), mainly
grubs and adult beetles (del Hoyo et al. 2002).
Other arthropods consumed include arachnids,
dipterans, and ants (pers. obs.).
Despite documentation only of arthropods as
food of the Magellanic Woodpecker, there is in-
creasing evidence of occasional frugivory in this
species from different geographical locations.
Since 1998, I witnessed adults and juveniles of
both sexes opportunistically pecking the juicy
berries of saloll bushes (Berberis serratodenta-
ta) from the ground layer of lenga (Nothofagus
pumilio) forests at three different locations (38–
428 S) in Argentina. On April 1985, A. Ruffini
(pers. com.) observed five Magellanic Wood-
peckers eating the fruits of maitén trees (May-
tenus boaria, Celastraceae) in a maitén-ñire
(Nothofagus antarctica) forest at Isla Victoria
(418 009 S, 718 309 W), Nahuel Huapi National
Park, Argentina. The woodpeckers were ob-
served for 45 min, during which time they al-
ternated between eating fruit in maitén trees and
gleaning insects in ñires. During March 1999,
L. Sympson (pers. com.) observed four wood-
peckers consuming fruits of maitén trees in an
 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
ecotonal forest where mature maitenes were
dominant, in Los Alerces National Park (438 009
S, 718 709 W), Argentina. The woodpeckers fed
on fruits for nearly 30 min, flying from one mai-
tén to another and pecking the fruits, sometimes
by hanging from twigs. Meanwhile, they appar-
ently sought no invertebrate prey in woody sub-
strates. P. McBride (unpubl. data) observed dur-
ing late austral summer, 1996, Magellanic
Woodpeckers eating the berries of calafate bush-
es (Berberis buxifolia, Berberidaceae) by peck-
ing them from the forest floor litter in central
Tierra del Fuego (approximately 548 009 S, 688
009 W), Argentina. Willson et al. (1994, M.
Willson pers. com) consider this woodpecker an
occasional seed disperser in Isla Grande de Chi-
loé (418 559 S, 738 359 W), Chile.
Although not previously documented for
this woodpecker, frugivory is widespread
among picids, and even the very specialized
wood pecking species (i.e., Campephilus and
Dryocopus spp.) are opportunistic to some ex-
tent and may forage at times for fruits (Short
1982). Even though most woodpeckers do
feed on insects much of the time, most of
them have a diverse diet, and practically all
members of the Picidae for which adequate
information is available ingest some plant ma-
terial, just as other piciforms feed diversely at
times on animal as well as plant items (del
Hoyo et al. 2002). Conversely, reports of con-
sumption of food items other than arthropods
or vegetable matter are not common for pi-
cids. So far as known, these include a rela-
tively small number of picid species that oc-
casionally capture a lizard or frog (or mice,
by the extremely omnivorous Red-headed
Woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus),
and many picids that regularly prey on the
nestlings and eggs of other birds (del Hoyo et
al. 2002). Also, some members of the Picidae
opportunistically visit artificial bird feeders
and remove pieces of raw meat hung out to
dry (del Hoyo et al. 2002). Recently, the Pi-
leated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) has
been reported scavenging on carcasses (Servı́n
et al. 2001).
On 27 December 2001, while following a
solitary male Magellanic Woodpecker, I wit-
nessed the bird capture an adult lizard (Lio-
laemus sp.). The observation occurred at 6:50,
at approximately 1,450 m elevation, in pure
old growth lenga forest, 15 km southeast of
209
Bariloche city (418 159 S, 718 169 W), Argen-
tine Patagonia. This forest averages 20 m tall
and has an open understory.
After 20 min of normal feeding activities,
which usually include pecking and probing
the tree surface and scaling off bark, lichens,
and mosses, the bird found and seized with
his bill a lizard inside a bark crevice located
7 m from the ground on a lenga tree. Although
almost twice the length of the bird’s bill, the
lizard provided little resistance, as it was near-
ly immobile from the cold ambient tempera-
ture (28 C). When the Magellanic Woodpecker
secured the lizard with his bill, he began to
make a series of lateral head pecking move-
ments, similar to those used to deliver blows
from each side alternately when chiseling out
a piece of wood (typical of this and other spe-
cialized wood pecking Campephilini picids;
Short 1982). As the woodpecker climbed
down the tree, he repeatedly beat the lizard
against the trunk. Once on the ground, the
woodpecker dropped the apparently lifeless
lizard (which had lost its tail), looked at it for
a few seconds, and then picked it up and flew
off with it in an unsteady flight. The whole
sequence lasted about 50 s.
These are the first accounts of frugivory for
the Magellanic Woodpecker, and apparently
the first observation of this woodpecker prey-
ing on another vertebrate. Thus, this account
adds to the few reports of vertebrate predation
by woodpeckers, other than eating bird eggs
or nestlings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to L. Sympson, A. Ruffini, P. McBride,
and M. Willson for sharing their observations. I also
thank M. Kun, A. Trejo, and V. Cussac for other as-
sistance. I thank L. L. Short, K. Franzreb, and an anon-
ymous reviewer for constructive comments that helped
improve this manuscript.
LITERATURE CITED
DEL HOYO, J., A. ELLIOTT, AND J. SARGATAL (EDS.).
2002. Handbook of the birds of the world, vol. 7:
jacamars to woodpeckers. Lynx Edicions, Barce-
lona, Spain.
GRIGERA, D., C. UBEDA, AND S. CALı́. 1994. Caracter-
ización ecologica de la asamblea de tetrápodos del
Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi, Argentina. Rev.
Chil. Hist. Nat. 67:273–298.
ROZZI, R., D. MARTı́NEZ, M. F. WILSON, AND C. SABAG.
1996. Avifauna de los bosques templados de Su-
damerica. Pp. 135–152 in Ecologı́a de los bosques
210 THE WILSON BULLETIN • Vol. 115, No. 2, June 2003
nativos de Chile (J. Armesto, C. Villagrán, and M.
Kalin Arroyo, Eds.). Editorial Universitaria, Univ.
de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
SERVı́N, J., S. L. LINDSEY, AND B. A. LOISELLE. 2001.
Pileated Woodpecker scavenges on a carcass in
Missouri. Wilson Bull. 113:249–250.
SHORT, L. L. 1970. The habits and relationships of the
Magellanic Woodpecker. Wilson Bull. 82:115–
129.
Wilson Bull., 115(2), 2003, pp. 210–212
Male Brown-headed Cowbird Attacks and Kills a Nestling
Lawrence D. Igl1
ABSTRACT.—I observed a male Brown-headed
Cowbird (Molothrus ater) attack and kill a nestling of
an unidentified passerine in a grassland field in Day
County, South Dakota, in June 2000. The killing or
removal of nestlings by female cowbirds has been re-
ported by others, but this behavior has not been doc-
umented previously in male cowbirds. Received 8 Oc-
tober 2002, accepted 3 March 2003.
Female Brown-headed Cowbirds (Moloth-
rus ater) often remove and sometimes eat host
eggs (e.g., Scott et al. 1992). Female cowbirds
have been observed attacking, removing, or
killing nestlings (Du Bois 1956, Tate 1967,
Beane and Alford 1990, Scott and McKinney
1994, Sheppard 1996), and recent technolog-
ical advances in videography have provided
evidence that this behavior may be more com-
mon than previously believed (Averill-Murray
et al. 1999, Elliott 1999, Thompson et al.
1999, Pietz and Granfors 2000, Granfors et al.
2001, Stake and Cavanagh 2001). In some
cases, female cowbirds have been observed
destroying or removing entire host clutches or
broods (e.g., Beane and Alford 1990, Scott
and McKinney 1994, Elliott 1999, Granfors et
al. 2001, Stake and Cavanagh 2001, pers.
obs.).
Observations of male cowbirds exhibiting
interest in nests or nest contents are uncom-
mon (Sealy 1994), although males occasion-
1 USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center,
8711 37th St. SE, Jamestown, ND 58401–7317, USA;
e-mail: larrypigl@usgs.gov
SHORT, L. L. 1982. Woodpeckers of the world. Dela-
ware Mus. Nat. Hist. Monogr. Ser. 4:1–676.
VUILLEUMIER, F. 1985. Forest birds of Patagonia: eco-
logical geography, speciation, endemism, and fau-
nal history. Ornithol. Monogr. 36:255–305.
WILLSON, M. F., T. L. DE SANTO, C. SABAG, AND J. J.
ARMESTO. 1994. Avian communities of fragment-
ed South-Temperate rainforests in Chile. Conserv.
Biol. 8:508–520.
ally are observed in the vicinity of nests with
females (Du Bois 1956, Mengel and Jenkin-
son 1970, Strausberger 1998). Friedmann
(1963) described two male and three female
cowbirds destroying a Chipping Sparrow (Spi-
zella passerina) nest several days after two
cowbird eggs had disappeared from the nest
(‘‘mafia effect’’; Soler et al. 1995). Sealy
(1994) reported one instance of a male cow-
bird removing an egg from an Eastern King-
bird (Tyrannus tyrannus) nest. E. Greene
(pers. comm.) videotaped male cowbirds re-
moving and consuming eggs from both arti-
ficial nests and Lazuli Bunting (Passerina
amoena) nests in Montana. Despite these re-
ports, male cowbirds have not previously been
observed removing or killing nestlings. Here,
I report my observations of a male cowbird
attacking and killing a nestling in northeastern
South Dakota.
On 16 June 2000 at 05:23 CST, while con-
ducting a breeding bird survey in an idle Con-
servation Reserve Program grassland field
(978 459 N, 458 199 W) in Day County, South
Dakota, I observed a female and a male
Brown-headed Cowbird flying about 0.5 m
above the vegetation. The male cowbird was
carrying a nestling of an unknown passerine
species grasped by the neck in his bill. The
nestling was flailing its legs, wings, and head,
and opening its bill. A male Red-winged
Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) briefly pur-
sued the cowbirds as they flew over the black-
bird’s song perch. The male cowbird alighted
 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
on a wooden fencepost at the edge of the field
(about 25 m from my observation point) and
dropped the still active nestling onto the fen-
cepost; the female cowbird landed on a barbed
wire strand near the male. While holding the
nestling down with its right foot, the male
cowbird repeatedly pecked the nestling’s head
until the nestling was motionless and bloody.
The male cowbird then flew off with the limp
nestling in its bill and dropped it in a nearby
pasture, about 100 m from the fencepost. The
female cowbird departed with the male cow-
bird. Although my presence may have influ-
enced the cowbird’s behavior, there was no in-
dication that the male intended to consume the
nestling. Upon searching the pasture, I was
unable to locate the discarded nestling in the
dense vegetation.
The species of nestling was not obvious,
but it appeared to be that of a larger passerine
(cowbird-sized or larger), based on its size and
age (i.e., recently hatched, largely naked,
sparse light gray down on head, eyes closed).
Several passerine species were recorded dur-
ing the breeding bird survey in the vicinity of
the observation, including Red-winged Black-
bird, Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglec-
ta), and Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus).
About 33% of passerine nests (n 5 143) found
incidentally during bird surveys in grassland
fields in this county between 1990 and 2002
were parasitized by cowbirds (unpubl. data).
Although I did not observe the male cow-
bird at a nest, the fact that the nestling was
very young and still alive at the beginning of
my observation suggests that it was removed
from a nest recently by the male cowbird or
possibly by a female cowbird. There is in-
creasing evidence that female cowbirds may
destroy or remove the contents of nests that
they do not intend to parasitize (Arcese et al.
1996, Granfors et al. 2001), but the motivation
of such predatory behavior in cowbirds re-
mains speculative. A number of researchers
have suggested that consumption of nestlings
is not the primary reason for cowbirds remov-
ing nestlings from a nest (Scott et al. 1992,
Sealy 1994, Ortega 1998, Granfors et al.
2001). Arcese and coworkers (1992, 1996)
speculated that cowbirds will destroy nest
contents late in the nesting cycle to induce
hosts to renest, thus enabling the cowbird to
synchronize their egg laying with that of the
211
renesting host. Cowbirds also may disrupt
nests in the vicinity of their hosts’ nests to
reduce competition for the cowbird nestling’s
food (Granfors et al. 2001) or to reduce com-
petition among conspecifics (Laskey 1950).
Elliott (1999) suggested that infanticide
rather than predation may be a more appro-
priate term to characterize the cowbird’s be-
havior of removing nestlings from nests, be-
cause cowbirds do not eat the nestlings and
because cowbird fecundity may be enhanced
by increased breeding opportunities from the
renesting hosts. Regardless of the intent of
this male’s behavior or the terminology used
to describe it, the killing or removal of nest-
lings appears to be rare among male cowbirds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank J. E. Austin, P. F. Elliott, D. H. Johnson, D.
A. Granfors, P. J. Pietz, and F. R. Thompson for pro-
viding constructive comments on earlier drafts of this
manuscript. I am grateful to E. Greene, Univ. of Mon-
tana, Missoula, for providing information on egg re-
moval and consumption by male cowbirds at artificial
and natural nests in Montana. A. Cox (deceased) pro-
vided access to her property between 1990 and 2000.
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ARCESE, P., J. N. M. SMITH, AND M. I. HATCH. 1996.
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Frequency of egg and nestling destruction by fe-
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LASKEY, A. R. 1950. Cowbird behavior. Wilson Bull.
62:157–174.
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sites. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson.
PIETZ, P. J. AND D. A. GRANFORS. 2000. Identifying
predators and fates of grassland passerine nests
using miniature video cameras. J. Wildl. Manage.
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SCOTT, D. M., P. J. WEATHERHEAD, AND C. D. ANKNEY.
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birds. Condor 94:579–584.
SCOTT, P. E. AND B. R. MCKINNEY. 1994. Brown-head-
ed Cowbird removes Blue-gray Gnatcatcher nest-
lings. J. Field Ornithol. 65:363–364.
SEALY, S. G. 1994. Observed acts of egg destruction,
egg removal, and predation on nests of passerine
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New Record of Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) Parasitism of
Black-chinned Siskins (Carduelis barbata)
Andrea Alejandra Astié1
ABSTRACT.—I present the second record of Shiny
Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) parasitism of the
Black-chinned Siskin (Carduelis barbata). The last re-
corded observation was in 1929. This also represents
the northernmost nesting record of the Black-chinned
Siskin. Received 6 August 2002, accepted 23 February
2003.
Brood parasitism is a breeding strategy in
which parasites lay eggs in the nests of other
species (hosts) which incubate eggs and pro-
vide parental care to the offspring. The Shiny
Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) is a gener-
alist, obligate, brood parasite. The Black-
chinned Siskin (Carduelis barbata) was re-
ported to be a host of Shiny Cowbirds in the
Cape San Antonio, Buenos Aires province,
Argentina (Gibson in Friedmann 1929). This
record has been cited in several works (Fried-
mann 1963, Friedmann and Kiff 1985, Ortega
1 Dep. de Ecologia Genetica y Evolucion, Facultad
de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Univ. de Buenos Aires,
Pabellon II Ciudad Universitaria, C1428EHA Buenos
Aires, Argentina; e-mail: aastie@bg.fcen.uba.ar
birds at Delta Marsh, Manitoba. Can. Field-Nat.
108:41–51.
SHEPPARD, J. M. 1996. Nestling Kentucky Warblers
and cowbird attacked by Brown-headed Cowbird.
J. Field Ornithol. 67:384–386.
SOLER, M., J. J. SOLER, J. G. MARTINEZ, AND A. P.
MøLLER. 1995. Host manipulation by the Great
Spotted Cuckoos: evidence for an avian mafia?
Evolution 49:770–775.
STAKE, M. M. AND P. M. CAVANAGH. 2001. Removal
of host nestlings and fecal sacs by Brown-headed
Cowbirds. Wilson Bull. 113:456–459.
STRAUSBERGER, B. M. 1998. Evident nest-searching be-
havior of female Brown-headed Cowbirds while
attended by males. Wilson Bull. 110:133–136.
TATE, J., JR. 1967. Cowbird removes warbler nestling
from nest. Auk 84:422.
THOMPSON, F. R., III, W. DIJAK, AND D. E. BURHANS.
1999. Video identification of predators at songbird
nests in old fields. Auk 116:259–264.
1998) but no new records have been reported.
Here I present new information related to
Shiny Cowbirds parasitizing Black-chinned
Siskins.
The Black-chinned Siskin occurs only in
South America. The known distribution of this
species includes Chile, except for the North
Atacama Region, and Argentina, from the
provinces of Neuquen and Rio Negro to Tierra
del Fuego (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Shiny
Cowbirds historically were confined to grass-
lands and open woods of South America
(Friedmann 1929) and, more recently, expand-
ed their range into areas that have been trans-
formed for agriculture or animal husbandry
(Post et al. 1990). Presently, Shiny Cowbirds
occur in the central and southern areas of
South America, excluding the High Andes,
south of Patagonia, and unexploited areas of
Amazonia (Ridgely and Tudor 1989).
On 25 October 1999, I found a Black-
chinned Siskin nest containing one host egg
and one Shiny Cowbird egg in San Carlos,
Mendoza province, Argentina (338 449 S, 698
 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
079 W). The nest was located in a poplar (Po-
pulus sp.) inside a small, open poplar wood
(,1 ha). During a second visit 2 days later, I
found the nest empty, probably depredated.
Two Black-chinned Siskin adults, a male and
a female, were perched near the nest and gave
alarm vocalizations.
One of the main costs suffered by Shiny
Cowbird’s hosts is the loss of eggs through
punctures made by the parasite (Hoy and Ot-
tow 1964; Mermoz and Reboreda 1998; Mas-
soni and Reboreda 1998, 2002). In addition,
parasitic eggs can reduce the hatchability of
host eggs (Blankespoor et al. 1982, Petit
1991), and parasite chicks can outcompete
host chicks for food (Post and Wiley 1977).
As the eggs I discovered did not hatch, I do
not know if the Black-chinned Siskins would
have incubated the cowbird’s egg and raised
its young, or if their own young would have
hatched or fledged.
This observation also is significant because
San Carlos is located more than 500 km north
of the known breeding range of the Black-
chinned Siskin. As Shiny Cowbirds are ex-
panding their range into new areas, Black-
chinned Siskins may become more frequently
parasitized. Further studies are needed to de-
termine which species are being parasitized in
regions newly occupied by cowbirds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank M. E. Mermoz, V. Ferretti, P. E. Llambı́as
and J. C. Reboreda for helpful discussion and com-
ments on the manuscript. I was supported by a stu-
dentship from the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Cientı́ficas y Técnicas.
213
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