194 Figure 8-19 Plants that produce feed for live stock can be genetically altered to increase the nutritional value. ¢ the challenge of e as feedstocks for ers mu! piofuels researchers TO. for us 11 walls make for genetically engineerin iP! tice reat fibers when Weare se make Sant cel val sae re di ton. Cellulose microfibrils oe woe Iangest available reservo'™ of sugar molecules gn Barth (thanks to photos hesis). The sugar mol- coules in cellulose are Very difficult to break apart, but aie gilable, they may be wsed py microbes as an energy ment biofuels, such 8 ethanol. Ethanol made ves or biomass is called cellulosic etha- Igae may also be engineered to produce ‘ed a5 biodiesel fuel. ing biofuels, researchers are research- facture useful proteins and indus- lly modified crop plants or on source to fer from crop residu nol, Plants and al oils that may be us In addition to mal ing plants that biomanu enetical trial precursors. Using g plant cell cultures, itis possible to produce a, number of veful proteins and oils, including plant-made pharma- veaticals. Human pro-insolin has been made in canola seed, tobacco cells have been used to produce vaccine’ and other medicines, and carzot cell cultures are used £0 make the complex protein treatments for Gaucher disease and Fabry disease. A wide range of pharmaceuticals can be bio- manyfactured by placing medicine-producing genes in'? plants. The medical benefits of plant biotechnology will bepave stacked traits. Monsanto and DowAgroscience have worked together to develop a varieties of soybean, maize, and cotton called SmartStax. These crops have been engi- neered with insect resistance, herbicide tolerance, and water use efficiency. Other Uses of Plant Biotechnology With the ability to custom-design plants through genetic engineering, the possibilities to produce food, feed, fiber, plant-made products, and biomass for renewable energy is Iimited only by our imaginations and our understanding of plant biology. Traits that increase crop yields or make crops less expensive to grow are called agronomic traits. Insect or disease resistance, herbicide tolerance, water and nitrogen use efficiency, and salt tolerance fall into this cat- egory. Quality traits are those that improve crop value to the consumer, whether the crops will be used to feed people or livestock (Figure 8-19). An example of quality trait improvement is increasing essential vitamins and nu- trients, as in Golden Rice or BioCassava. Oil seed crops have also been improved to have healthier omega-3 fatty acids, The most recent traits of interest are those that allow use of crops as renewable energy resources or for biomanu- facturing.Figure 8-17 Researchers have isolated genes that make plants drought resistant. This could lead to the development of plants that can be grown in harsh climates. food ogress in and dea Jo! opulation growth fy ma rte : the Green Revol has suppor ‘ood, feed, and fibey fiber production vats jowevel ent population Browth, ye with CUP jjds much more. over the last fs production is t0 keep OP ve cfOP : ie being taken through to IMP". ectio! scientists will have ght direc nts. Even in some of aa the # ‘A large steP ay modifi id, native plants BrOW and the use of genet ind rhe ed genetic tolerance the harshest climates ts have develop’ wich a8 drOughe tions, § , thrive. These = y tressful contin ‘Researchers have ironmen! sent-Po " of Soares orn trient-P' ¢ plants drought, resistant heat, cold, ance genes have to isolate ge” been able Tn some ants in order to stress tole crop P! cases, 8° neered into een successflly enginerTN esha Pank Cun arable land are lost each year acl Many thousands Of 7° ey, which may be caused by g soil s jeation and drainage. There are ja ee farmed because of nat- never ound saline aquifers and lack ound ey of salt marsh plants and because of increasint buildup of'salts from poo also many acres that urally high salinity from O70 of rainfall. By studying the OM tophytes, researchers have thse hata vst vip sale-sensitve crops survive highly a sons igure 8-18). These genes a plants to take up and store excess salts in plant cell vacuoles or tis- sues around the xylem, maintaining osmotic (water) balance and membrane potentials of the cells. Tomatoes, rice, wheat, and a number of other important crops are in commercial development. In many developing countries, lack of irrigation systems and unpredictable rainfall make drought-tolerant, or water use efficiency (WUE), crops a major benefit. Monsanto is currently testing water-use-efficient maize in Africa, and a number of similar public and private efforts are under- way. Conversely, flood tolerant varieties of rice have been engineered for regions of Southeast Asia that are prone t0 flooding. Other crops in development have a nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) trait and require less chemical fer tilizer, which is cheaper for farmers and better for the en- ealkawe Ultimately, many biotech crops on the market ill have some combination of useful genetic traits. Crops with more than one genetically engineered t 4 rait are said (loteot genetically engineered plants are im 0 as = to viral infection, and this strate climatic Tolerance M areas of the world have harsh climatic conditions that eate problems for crop production. There may be insuf faient rainfall, OF the average temperature may be too hot onditions. Often, there are or too cold for ideal growl sopulations of people living in these areas who could benefit Frehe food-producing capabilities of the od. Obviously, there is very little that can be done about the climate of an area, This means that the types of crops grown a were increa ust be adaptable to the region. In the past, a lot of progress was made in the breeding of crops designed for particular climates. During the 1970s, the Green Revolution included the development of crop eties that could be grown in specific climatic regions y other crop variet- (Figure 8-16). Wheat, corn, rice, and ma ics were developed that could withstand drought conditions ind a range of other conditions, such as cold temperature oF ine soil. Varieties of fruit trees were bred for production in ver been grown before. Indeed, sali regions where they had ne} i ! i i a otogy Wn Plant Sel 191 Figure 8-16 This variety of peanuts was devel- oped to be drought tolerant. Even with a deficit of water, the variety yielded fairly wellBiotechnology in Plant Science netic engineering, Several ‘d by means of ge onsanto developed a nop Po poundup. This herbicide re variety of unwanted vegeta ing a wide is environmentally safe, 1¢ see 4 substance. Pensive, and gate, which Works by stopping ane attion ofan slypho- enzyme that serves a vital role in the Production of that are essential to plants, The i he needed proteins and dies, a not affected by glyphosate. In tection Agency (EPA) has ra nontoxic” (Figure 8-13), Very effective at killin (nt ‘ON, 18 relative} eat humans included, are eat the Environmental Pro ed Roundup as “essentially ing the ae 4 blocked by glyphosate. The big advantage is that one herbicide (glyphosate) thet i relatively cheap and safe to use can control all the weeds in ¢ particular crop. Disease-Resistant Crops Plant diseases can be devastating to crops. Humans have dealt with these diseases for hundreds of years. In fact, history has even been changed as a result of plant pathogens. A prime example is a disaster that happened in Ireland during the mid-1800s.A main staple of the Irish diet was potatoes, The climate of the country was right for growing the crop, and many people depended on potatoes for their food. In the 1840s, a disease called potato blight almost wiped out all of Ireland’s potato crop (Figure 8-14). As a result, hundreds of thousands of people starved to death, and over a million others left Ireland. Countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia benefited from these immigrants. Many of the Irish immigrants were bright, talented people who made many contributions to their newly adopted countries. Another result was that disease-resistant varieties of potatoes were developed as a way of combating the disease. Potatoes are by no means the only crop affected by diseases. Almost all crops, from grain to citrus fruits, are susceptible to diseases caused by fungi, viruses, or bacteria. Each year, « $186 ate) ot ASSO FOS Petty Peay ed Figure 8-13 The EPA has rated glyphosate “essentially nontoxic.” This tist is preparing carrot sampl test for residue of the herbicii 185 Biotechnology in Plant Science got only Was expensive but also could lead to soil erosion Figure $11). Later, chemical herbicides were developed hae were very effective in killing weeds. If weeds are to be emoved from a crop, the chemical must do lite or no harm o the crop. It would do little good to kill the weeds if the trop plants were also killed, some herbicides are called nonselective or knock- gown herbicides. These chemicals kill all plants they are ap- plied to and are most often used where all vegetation is to be killed. Other herbicides are selective and only kill cer~ tain types of plants. It sometimes seems almost magical that a crop full of weeds can be sprayed, and only the weeds are killed. Although these chemicals are effective in controlling weeds, they present problems. Any application of pesticides can be expensive. Machinery, fuel, and labor costs can add up to a large part of the production cost on many crops. ‘The problem is compounded by the wide variety of weeds that infect crops. Selective herbicides are designed to kill certain weeds or types of weeds (Figure 8-12). For example, chemicals that kill only broadleaf plants will not kill grasses, and herbicides designed to kill grasses may not kill broadleaf plants. This presents a problem where fields are infested with both broadleaf and grass weeds (as mentioned previously, nonselective herbicides kill all types of plants—including the crop plant). { é i $ BE at i Reeve 8-11 Figure 8-12 Mechanical means of destroying weeds is expen- Selective herbicides kill only certain plants. The sive and can lead to soil erosion. Note the soil corn on the left was treated with an herbicide. blown into the air. The corn on the right was not.Figure 8-10 Weeds are a serious problem be- Cause they compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight. Note the weeds in this field. seta a i i and seriously reduce the amount of sunlight the crop plant can use for photosynthesis. This causes the crop plant to grow more slowly and to produce less. Weeds may harbor insects and disease organisms thet may spread to the crops. Many weed species attract pests that are harmful to the crops. With weeds growing among the crop plants, control of insects and diseases can be more dif- ficult since the producer must deal with more than one type of plant. Likewise, disease organisms can be spread to crop plants through weeds that serve as hosts to disease organisms Weeds cause impurities in agricultural products. Soy- beans that contain weed seeds are quite a bit less valuable than pure soybeans. Weed seeds can be poisonous to live- stock and may be so close to the size and shape of soybeans that it is difficult to sort them out. Cotton that 1s picks? among weeds will have trash in the lint. This reduces p15 because the trash has to be removed from the lint. For many years, humans battled weeds using only chanical means. A hoe and a plow were about the om! means available for controlling weeds in crops. This metho183 Biotechnology in Plant science Figure 8-9 _ Fietuse of Bt corn greatly recuceS damage from the European Cor borer. that grows on grains or other feedstuffs. The use of the ze gene helps in two ways. First, there is less insect damage to the Crop, which limits where the fungus may infect the plant. Fungi often enter a plant where there is an opening faused by a feeding insect. As the fungus grows, spores are released that give off poisons called mycotoxins. Second, the Be ¢oxins actually kill the fungus that produces the mycotox~ jns. In addition, stored feeds, such as grain and silage, have jess growth of mold and fungi if they are produced from genetically modified plants containing the Bt gene. Herbicide-Resistant Crops Another serious problem faced by producers are weeds that compete with crops for soil nutrients and space. Weeds are considered agricultural pests in addition to insects and dis- case organisms. Each year, millions of dollars are spent in the attempt to lessen the negative effect of weeds on agricultural production. Weeds damage agricultural plants and animals in several different ways. Weeds compete with crops for materials essential to growth (Figure 6-10). If allowed to grow unchecked, weeds get a large share of the soil nutrients that would otherwise go to the crop, thereby wasting these valuable nutrients. Also, weeds can compete with the crop for space and sunlight Weeds that grow taller than the crop will shade‘the plantsqinsect resistance why, mediate ‘all plant parts are py! de 1 nr ced by producers yj stems | aceelcals to where ee Hie, IP the insect is ey, ne fio} ther bene! : ving Pe d to sprayink AY najor P One of the major PN a ides 18 use chemical Por aing the coh Pe applied Over the «a ine loaves of the plant spray yen this can be a problery j ype lane ro cower EES ge dhe spray CANNOT rege see hge atthe plant is 3° th the roots of the plants, ang ee Tene, wets 2 SHAE Tre, Likewise, AM nsec all the leaves. In erage dil sad aeopial spot’ this makes e ster may burrow into the “h the pes Jot reac ft taken int tion of chemic a aden culled systesmics ae ue ett Certain pestic dos get at che iNsec Pe cre plant and may be al rer nics. First, the plant may ng, cticide to be effective. Secong, ? problem with food crops since he plant system and may leaye a . Long withdrawa, ts of the plants period to ti ied before produce from plants treateg with jmem pesticides may be harvested and processed for iod is the time, from the a consumption. (A withdrawal perio i plication of the pesticide until harvest, required to render the produce safe to eat.) Third, systemic pesticides are expensive, One of the most dramatic examples of the use of Br in. sect resistance has been in maize (corn). One insect pest that causes the greatest damage to corn crops is the European corn borer. This insect is a very serious problem in most of the corn-growing regions of the country. Corn borer is dif. ficult to control because the larvae burrow into the cornstalk and cause severe damage to the plant (Figure 8-9). Because the pest is hidden and protected by being on the inside of the plant, topically applied Sprays cannot reach it once it has begun the damage. Corn plants carrying the Bt gene are toxic to the corn borer larvae, and this toxicity protects the are three problems with sys! take up enough of the inse systemic pesticides can be the pesticide is taken intoa a od Biotechnology in Plant Science © 181 for example, some toy xing illars, others may be toxic ouced by Be The spra reetles, and ¥ fies FAY is still gy, sand others may be to; sno believe that the wilable to Produ ead wl . I © of cers and garde issafer and more desirableTye tus MMS of pest ae js that they break down ve © iggest drawback Of Bt sprays 'Y when exposed to sun- are toxic to cater- insect dama The problem of pesticide bresh gee was partially solved by 8 | after a ly solv eatin .pplication Bt toxins. First, scientists stu Plants that manufacture environment, like that found in the insect digestive tract, order to work . Currently, there are millions of actes of Bt crops pro- duced all over the world, and the amount is increasing. Soy- beans, corn (maize), potatoes, tomatoes, apples, rice, and several vegetable crops have all been produced using the Bt gene. The potential exists to place the Bt genes into any crops that would benefit from the insect resistance technology. ‘The majority of soybean and maize produced in the world have been genetically modified for insect resistance. These are staple crops widely used in food production, and consumers in the United States have been safely eating Bt food prod- ucts for over 10 years. In Europe and elsewhere, anti-biotech activists and some consumers still believe that biotech crops may not be safe to eat, though their reservations are not sup- ported by science, Consumers still will not accept genetically altered potatoes (Figure 8-8). Producers who have an oppor- tunity to try biotech crops often see a great financial benefit and adopt this new technology, but other members of the community are slower to appreciate the benefits. Consumer nicerns are discussed in detail in later chapters. Figure 8-8 The public would not accept genetically altered potatoes.we Figure 8-8 Be spray Nas Deen Used Ky many WOOrs as BF organic pesticide gure 8-7 roillus thunngrensis (Bt) secretes loxin that disrupts the digestive item of insects. After only a few € of peanut leaves with built-in protection, this lesser cornstalk & larva crawled off the leaf and Scientists have known for many years that the bacteria ') Bacillus thuringiensis (commonly known as Bt) was ef- fective in killing insects (Figure 8-6). This soil-borne bacte- nia was first discovered in 1911 when scientists realized that the toxins secreted by these microorganisms disrupt the di- Bestive process of insects. It was further discovered that these toxins were nontoxic to mamm: animals such as birds, Br has been used for many controlling insects (Figure 8. ent strains of the bacteria, a different toxins. The differe; als and other warm-blooded 'y years as an organic means of 7). There are over 280 differ- ind many of the strains produce ‘nt toxins affect different insectsinsect-Resistant Plants perhaps the greatest impact that biotechnology has had on plants ‘occurred with the development of genetically altered crops that have a built-in resistance to insects. Not only has this innovation saved producers millions of dollars in pesti- cides, but the environment has also been made cleaner since fewer chemicals are used in crop protection. Labor costs, fuel expenses, and machinery operating costs are greatly reduced when plants have a built-in resistance to insect damage. These economic factors have a great impact on modern producers in the United States and other developed countries, but the most dramatic effects may be in Third World countries. Here, producers are most often not able to purchase the pesti- tides necessary for plant protection. Even those few produc- ers who may have the financial means to buy pesticides may not have a readily available source for the chemicals. If plants were available that provide a built-in protection, the purchase of pesticides would be unnecessary (Figure 8-5.) The insect resistance came about as a result of the development of transgenic plants. Remember from a previ- ows chapter that transgenic organisms have genetic materials hat were inserted from a different species. In this case, the netic material came from an entirely different kingdom of isms. Cassy of ARSASOA EBT Py Fey i Figure 8-5 These scientists are examining wheat plants that are resistant and susceptible to Hessian fly. Both plants are the same age, but the ‘one on the left has had its gr stunted by Hessian flies.ing biotechno]- way, using duction. A very effect aie insects Over th ie le their reprodus ds of sterile is are treated w thousan ogy, is to release ; : infected area. In a laboratory vender them infertile Th Je to mate. The wild tments to ill be ab’ males, and no offspring are f several years of saturating ¢ pest can be eradic radiation or other treal . process allows the males ws females mate with the steriié produced. Through a period o: the area with sterile males, an insect Te of ihe most successful uses of this method was that of eradicating the boll weevil in the southeas: " United States. For much of the twentieth centur boll weevil devastated cotton crops all across the So: Each year, millions of dollars were spent on pesticides Kill this insect. In the latter part of the twentieth cer a concentrated effort was made to saturate the enti South with sterile male boll weevils, The method was so successful that the boll weevil has for all practical purposes been eradicated from the South (Figure 8-4). Other pein he have also been eliminate Mithey each Y does this save huge amounts o y year, but the environment is k, 2 using fewer pesticides. ept cleaner byBiotechnology in P The process of selective breedi able plants is directly respons ply We enioy today. Although e ecessful over ¢ . succe’ ; housands of Years, it is sh 1 ki compared (0 new meth low and painstaking hods of plant improvement through and other for, 7 chapter di : ‘Orms of plant biotechnoloy This chaprer deals with some of the changes beached by genetic engineering that are alteady iB ught about in use. & t© produce edible, farm: OF the abundant food sup- lective breeding has been Insect Control through Biotechnology Over the thousands of years that humans ha ¢ ve been grow- ing plants for their own use, i one of the greatest problems ouring much of the crop. Until common practice was to plant twice as much as needed because insects will get half the crop. In fact, even with the advent of today’s highly effective pesticides and management techniques, it is estimated that about 40 percent of the world’s food supply is lost to pests, diseases, and spoilage (Figure 8-2), relatively recently, Sterile Male Insects People have known for many years that a very effective way of controlling insects is to interrupt their life cycle. This can be accomplished in a number of ways, all involvingperiods * herbicides bicides tion ce siency (WUE) ficiency When you have finished studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain why insect control is so important in plant production. Describe how bacteria are used to create insect resistance in plants. List the advantages of plants that have been genetically modified to make them insect resistant. Explain how Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) kills insects and remains harmless to humans. List crops that have been engineered to contain the Bt gene. Explain how Bt crops help alleviate mycotoxins. Explain the reason for making crops herbicide resistant. Describe the problems caused by weeds in crops. Describe how plants are genetically engineered to prevent viral infections. Describe how crops can be made tolerant of climatic conditions through genetic engineering. Describe how crops are being engineered for biofuels production and plant-made products. List the ways in which biotechnology, such as genetic engineering, is currently being used in producing plants.