Invented in the mid-1960s, a glow stick is a temporary light source that uses

chemicals instead of electricity to create light. It is made up of a translucent, or

mostly clear, plastic tube containing two chemical solutions that are kept separate by
an internal glass ampoule, or sealed vial. When the outer plastic tube is bent, the
glass tube breaks, causing the two solutions to combine and create light. Also known
as lightsticks or snap lights, glow sticks are available in a variety of colours, sizes,
and light lengths. Traditional glow sticks are approximately 6 inches (15 centimetres)
in length and about 0.7 inches in diameter (1.8 centimetres). They typically have a
hook or hole at one end of the tube to which a string can be attached for ease of
carrying.

Glow sticks can only be used once, cannot be turned off, and have many practical
and recreational uses. The police, military, and other emergency personnel use glow
sticks as emergency lights that are especially useful in the presence of flammable, or
easy to burn, materials. Resistant to both water and pressure, glow sticks can be
used as nonelectric light sources by underwater divers. They have been made into a
variety of products and are popular accessories at concerts, parties, and nightclubs.

BRIGHT BEGINNINGS
Much of the original research on chemical light devices was conducted at the U.S.
Naval Weapons Center in China Lake, California, in the early 1960s. The U.S. Navy
believed that a flameless light would be useful at sea, especially for refueling ships.
However, it was Edwin A. Chandross, a young chemist at AT&T's Bell Labs in
Murray Hill, New Jersey, who finally discovered the chemical reaction that would
ultimately be used in glow sticks. Chandross shared his research with Michael M.
Rauhut and Laszlo J. Bollyky at the American Cyanamid Company, which became
the first manufacturer of commercially available glow sticks.
Because glow sticks are generally inexpensive, they have become a popular
accessory at nighttime recreation events.

© SOPHELE/GETTY IMAGES

Born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1934, Chandross studied organic chemistry as an

undergraduate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and as a graduate
student at Harvard University. As a freshman at MIT, he became interested in
chemiluminescence (the production of light through a chemical reaction) while
watching a demonstration of the chemical compound luminol.

In the mid- to late nineteenth century, it was discovered that luminol would glow
when it came into contact with blood. This discovery caused an increase of interest
in chemiluminescence during the early part of the twentieth century. In 1928 the
German chemist H. O. Albrecht discovered that adding hydrogen peroxide to luminol
produced a bright bluish-green glow. Within ten years forensic scientists (technicians
who investigate crimes by gathering physical evidence) began using the luminol-
hydrogen peroxide solution to find traces of blood at crime scenes. It is still used in
the early twentyfirst century.

Luminol inspired Chandross to experiment with chemiluminescence throughout

graduate school and his early years at Bell Labs. He wanted to know why
chemiluminescence produced light instead of heat like most chemical reactions.
Although his experiments with luminol failed, it led him to discover that oxalyl
chloride mixed with hydrogen peroxide and a fluorescent dye produces chemical
light. Unfortunately, Bell Labs decided not to patent Chandross's discovery.

CYALUME
Unknown to Chandross, the U.S. Defense Department was also conducting research
on chemiluminescence. While much of the research took place in California at the
U.S. Naval Weapons Center, the military also hired civilian chemists to conduct
research in their own labs. Rauhut and Bollyky at the American Cyanamid Company
were working under an Office of Naval Research contract when they came across
Chandross's published work on chemiluminescence.

Through discussions with Chandross and further experimentation, Rauhut and

Bollyky designed a chemical that gave off a powerful green light when mixed with
hydrogen peroxide and dye. They named the mixture Cyalume, which became the
trademark name for American Cyanamid's chemical light products.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The military became the biggest buyer of American Cyanamid's Cyalume products.
Chemical light devices have been used by the military to mark naval fuel lines, light
up helicopter landing zones, locate downed aviators, and mark targets. They have
also been used in nighttime parachute and paradrop (delivery of supplies by
parachute drop) operations and have been attached to person-overboard flotation
devices and vests. Called chemlights by the military, glow sticks were standard issue
for military personnel during the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991).

In 1986 American Cyanamid sold its chemical light division to Omniglow, an

American manufacturer. Omniglow began servicing military contracts for the United
States and other countries. The company also continued to develop new uses for
chemical light, including a luminescent intubating scope, which is used in medical
procedures to help physicians see inside patients' airways, and a lightstick that
would work in below-freezing conditions.

In addition to military applications, public safety personnel use glow sticks at crime
scenes and to help during evacuations, hazardous materials (HAZMAT) spills, power
outages, and motor vehicle breakdowns and crashes. Glow sticks are useful in many
industries, including the medical field, animal husbandry (the care and breeding of
farm animals), and even fishing. They have been used to light up the lines in the
longline fishing industry, and many anglers have noted that some deep-sea fish are
attracted to the glow.

In 2006 Omniglow sold its Safety and Military division to a company that became
known as Cyalume Technologies. As of 2015 it was the only provider of chemlights
to the U.S. military, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).

GLOWING PROSPECTS
There are glow stick manufacturers all over the world. Because the glow stick market
is crowded, many manufacturers attempt to set themselves apart by promising the
highest-quality glow sticks with the longest-lasting and brightest glow. Researchers
are continually experimenting with chemical concentrations, searching for new dyes,
and finding new uses for glow sticks in practical and recreational settings.

Because glow sticks are relatively inexpensive, they have become a popular
accessory at nighttime recreation events. Common at amusement parks, carnivals,
concerts, and nightclubs, glow sticks have been made into a variety of items,
including jewelry and eyeglasses. Some manufacturers have added glow sticks to
sports equipment to allow for games to be played in the dark. Parents use them as
light markers for their children during nighttime activities such as trick-or-treating or
on camping trips.

Dancing with glow sticks, known as glowsticking, became a significant part of the
youth rave culture in the 1990s. Glow sticks have even found a place in the art world
due to the amazing effects they produce when photographed.
The light produced by glow sticks typically lasts between six and eight hours.

© BLUESNOTE/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM

RAW MATERIALS
Although each manufacturer uses a slightly different recipe and varying
concentrations of chemicals, the three main ingredients inside most glow sticks are
phenyl oxalate ester, hydrogen peroxide, and fluorescent dye. Dimethyl phthalate is
often used to stabilize the hydrogen peroxide, and butyl benzoate keeps the dye and
phenyl oxalate ester flowing. Some companies, such as GlowGranny, have stopped
using dimethyl phthalate because phthalates have been linked to slowing down
sexual development. The outer tube is made of clear plastic, and the internal
ampoule is made of brittle glass.
When the glass tube inside a glow stick snaps open, the chemicals inside the tube
mix with the hydrogen peroxide solution in the outer tube. A chemical reaction
between the two solutions causes the stick to glow.

ILLUSTRATION BY LUMINA DATAMATICS LTD. © 2015 CENGAGE LEARNING

DESIGN
Glow sticks come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colors, but the basic design is
the same: an outer plastic tube filled with a hydrogen peroxide solution and an
internal glass ampoule filled with a solution of phenyl oxalate ester and fluorescent
dye. The design can also be reversed, with the hydrogen peroxide solution inside the
glass ampoule. Some manufacturers coat the inside of the plastic casing with dye.

The size of the internal glass ampoule depends on the size of the outer tube and the
amount of solution needed to create the desired chemical reaction. In a 6-inch (15-
centimeter) glow stick with a 0.3-inch (0.8-centimeter) diameter, the internal glass
tube might be 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 centimeters) long and about 0.2 inch (0.5
centimeter) in diameter.
When the glow stick is snapped, the glass tube breaks, releasing the phenyl oxalate
ester solution into the hydrogen peroxide solution. The reaction of the two chemicals
produces 1,2-dioxetanedione, an unstable chemical that quickly decomposes,
releasing energy in the process. The energy is absorbed by the electrons in the
fluorescent dye molecules. When the electrons fall back to their ground state, they
lose excess energy in the form of light.

The color of the light depends on the dye used. Green is the cheapest and easiest
color to produce. Most lightsticks used for emergencies are green, the easiest color
for the human eye to see. The light produced by glow sticks typically lasts between
six and eight hours. Military-grade glow sticks can last twelve hours or longer. Some
manufacturers add salt to the glow stick to speed up the reaction and strengthen the
glow.

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Think about It!

When chemiluminescence occurs in living things, it is called bioluminescence.

Bioluminescence can be seen in fireflies, algae, and jellyfish and other deep-sea
creatures. Humans have been interested in bioluminescence for thousands of years.
Ancient Greek and Chinese records tell of bioluminescent observations. There have
been a number of experiments investigating bioluminescence and its potential uses
(for example, self-illuminated Christmas trees). Can you think of any other ways this
natural phenomenon could be used in the future?

SAFETY
Glow sticks are safe as long as the chemicals are kept inside. Most glow stick
packaging warns against cutting open glow sticks. Although the chemicals are
nontoxic and nonflammable, they can lead to skin irritation. If the glow stick leaks, it
should be thrown away, and the chemicals should be thoroughly washed off the
user's skin and other surfaces using soapy water. Cutting open a glow stick can also
cause the broken shards of glass to fall out. Glow sticks should be kept away from
children under the age of three and from pets. Never put a glow stick in a microwave
or oven.

THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

With the exception of Cyalume Technologies and a few other companies, most glow
stick manufacturers are located outside of the United States, typically in China. Each
manufacturer uses a unique process for producing glow sticks. Some may purchase
the plastic and glass parts from outside sources. Others, such as Omniglow, make
their own casings in-house. Omniglow makes, fills, and seals many sizes of glass
ampoules in their factory in Mexico. Machines are often used to manufacture the
glow sticks, but workers may also help with assembly.

1. Before production of the glow sticks begins, the glass ampoules and plastic
casings must be made. Glass ampoules are created using machines that heat
and pull the glass into the desired shape, thickness, and length. The plastic
cylinders are made using plastics extrusion, a process in which raw plastic is
melted and moulded into the desired form. An opening is left at the end of
both the glass ampoule and the plastic tube so they can be filled with liquid
later.
2. Next, a solution of phenyl oxalate ester and fluorescent dye is created. Butyl
benzoate may be added to the solution to keep the chemicals flowing
throughout the tube.
3. The solution is poured into the glass ampoule, which is sealed using heat.
The solution-filled glass ampoule is placed inside the plastic cylinder.
4. The hydrogen peroxide solution is prepared. Dimethyl phthalate or another
stabilizing agent is added to the solution to prevent the hydrogen peroxide
from activating too early.
5. The solution is poured into the plastic cylinder, which is then sealed with a
tight-fitting cap at the bottom of the tube. Thinner, more flexible glow sticks
are sealed by pinching the plastic tube closed. A connector may be added to
this type of glow sticks to allow the two ends to join, creating a bracelet or
necklace.

Glow sticks are safe as long as the chemicals are kept inside.Although the chemicals
are nontoxic and nonflammable, they can lead to skin irritation. If the glow stick
leaks, it should be thrown away, and the chemicals should be thoroughly washed off
the user's skin . Cutting open a glow stick can also cause the broken shards of glass
to fall out.