Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118

Conservation tillage and depth stratification

of porosity and soil organic matter
B.D. Kay*, A.J. VandenBygaart
Department of Land Resource Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ont., Canada N1G 2W1
Received 3 September 2001; accepted 11 December 2001

Abstract

Pores and organic matter take a multitude of forms in soil and their characteristics change in space and time following a
change in tillage practices as a new ‘‘steady state’’ is approached. Information on the variation with depth (stratification) in the
characteristics of pores and organic matter and the rates of change in these characteristics is vital to interpreting the short- and
long-term impacts of a reduction of tillage on the productivity and hydrology of agricultural soils. This information is also of
value in estimating the effect of a reduction in tillage on the sequestration of carbon in agricultural soils. Recent literature
comparing conventional tillage (CT) with no-till (NT) in temperate agroecosystems with varying soil textures and climates was
reviewed for the purpose of assessing rates of change in the magnitude and stratigraphy of bulk density, porosity, pore size
classes, organic matter content and organic matter fractions. The influence of tillage on bulk density, macroporosity and organic
matter content was found to be documented more extensively than the effects on pore size distribution, soil organic matter
fractions and their interactions at different soil depths. Many of the reports documenting tillage-induced changes in soil porosity
and organic matter were based on measurements at a specific time after initiating the tillage trial. Results obtained by different
investigators were found to be most consistent when measurements were made
15 years after initiating the tillage trial. Data
from different studies were used to generalize trends in pore and organic matter characteristics with depth and time. However,
few studies provided measurements that permitted accurate prediction of either the rates of change or the maximum change that
will occur following a change from CT to NT. Future research must enhance our ability to make these predictions if we wish to
garner a better understanding of the effects of NT on the quality and productivity of agricultural soils and their ability to sequester
carbon. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bulk density; No-till; Pore size distribution; Porosity; Soil organic matter

1. Introduction the infiltration, storage and drainage of water, the

Soil porosity and organic matter content play a
critical role in the biological productivity and hydrol-
ogy of agricultural soils. Pores are of different size,
shape and continuity and these characteristics influence
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1-519-824-4120;
fax: þ1-519-824-5730.
E-mail address: bkay@lrs.uoguelph.ca (B.D. Kay).
movement and distribution of gases, and the ease of
penetration of soil by growing roots. Organic matter is
composed of living biomass and materials that differ
in stage of decomposition and degree of association
with mineral material. These different forms of
organic matter collectively represent a reservoir of
nutrients that are critical to plant growth.
Soil pores and organic matter cannot be considered
as separate, independent entities. Pores of different

0167-1987/02/$ – see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 1 9 8 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 1 9 - 3
108 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
size, shape and continuity are created by abiotic
factors (e.g., tillage and traffic, freezing and thawing,
drying and wetting) and by biotic factors (e.g., root
growth, burrowing by earthworms). Different forms of
organic matter stabilize pores of different size and
therefore increase the persistence of these pores when
soil is exposed to different stresses. Pore character-
istics in turn influence organic matter dynamics
through their impact on the habitat of organisms
(e.g., the balance between air- and water-filled pores,
protection from predation and accessibility of sub-
strates) that are involved in the decomposition of
organic matter.
The characteristics of pores and organic matter
change in both space and time following a change
in tillage practices. Changes in pores and organic
matter primarily reflect changes in the form, magni-
tude and frequency of stresses imposed on soil, the
placement of crop residues and the population of
microorganisms and fauna in the soil. The impact
of these factors varies with depth and time and the
impact of changes in one factor in space and time does
not necessarily coincide with that of another. For
instance, much of the response of pore characteristics
to changes in stress from tillage and traffic occurs
during a relatively short time frame (seconds, days or
months), whereas changes in population and activity
of organisms and their impact on pore characteristics
occur within an intermediate time frame (months or
years). Changes in organic matter characteristics and
subsequent effects on pore characteristics occur dur-
ing a much longer time frame (years or perhaps even
decades). Consequently, assessments of the impacts of
changes in tillage practices on pore and organic matter
characteristics must clearly identify the depths at
which the impacts have been observed and the dura-
tion of the tillage treatment at the time the observa-
tions were made.
Answers to the following questions are vital to an
understanding of the impacts of a reduction in tillage
on crop growth and pertinent physical responses, such
as the redistribution of precipitation in the landscape:
1. How does a change in tillage practice alter total
porosity and organic matter, what pore size classes
and organic matter fractions account for most of
this change, and at what depths are the changes
occurring?
2. How rapidly do the changes in porosity and
organic matter occur and do the changes occur at
different rates for different pore size classes and
organic matter fractions?
3. Do the amount and rate of change in porosity and
organic matter vary with texture, climate and soil
order?
4. To what extent are changes in pore characteristics
and organic matter linked?
The objective of this review was to draw general-
izations from literature and recent unpublished
research to answer these questions. Where this was
not possible, we identified areas that needed further
research. We focused on the impact of changing from
conventional tillage (CT moldboard plowing plus
some secondary tillage) to conservation tillage (pri-
marily no-till, NT) in temperate agroecosystems with
varying soil textures and climate. Emphasis was
placed on tillage comparisons involving grain corn
(Zea mays L.), soybeans (Glycine max L.) and wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.). It is possible that other agroe-
cosystems might respond differently to tillage. Inter-
mediate- and long-term changes in the characteristics
of pores and organic matter are of the greatest rele-
vance to hydrology (e.g., water infiltration, storage,
transport and drainage) and the sustainable productiv-
ity of soils (e.g., their ability to supply water, oxygen,
nutrients and support root growth) and were empha-
sized in this review.
2. Pore characteristics
The variation in pore characteristics with depth and
time following a change in tillage practice reflects
short-term changes in the degree of fragmentation,
compaction and inversion in the tillage zone by tillage
equipment, compaction by traffic and coalescence of
the tilled zone during wetting events. In the inter-
mediate time frame, pore characteristics at the base of
the tillage zone may change due to persistent tillage at
the same depth (formation of a plow pan) and pore
characteristics throughout the profile may change due
to the activity of soil fauna (particularly earthworms).
In a longer time frame, pore characteristics may
change due to changes in the distribution of organic
matter. Research relating tillage to pore characteristics
 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
has focused primarily on total porosity; less emphasis
has been placed on pore size distribution and even
fewer data are available on pore continuity.
2.1. Total porosity
Total porosity is normally calculated from measure-
ments of bulk density. Total porosity varies with water
content in soils that shrink and swell and assessments
of the impact of changes in tillage practices on
total porosity of these soils requires an assessment
of the influence of tillage on their shrinkage curves
(McGarry, 1988). We use the terms bulk density and
total porosity interchangeably, although we reported
the variable that was measured in citations.
A reduction in tillage would be expected to result
in a progressive change in total porosity with time
and approach a new ‘‘steady state’’. However initial
changes may be too small to be distinguished
from natural variation. For instance, Logsdon and
Cambardella (2000) measured the temporal changes
in bulk density in medium-textured soils in the mid-
western US for 3 years following the introduction of
NT and found no significant differences between the
first and last sampling times in the NT soils. However,
bulk density in the top 2 cm varied from 0.91 to
1.20 Mg m3 during the seven sampling periods, with
the variation diminishing in the 2–4 cm depth.
Total porosity is often reduced under NT compared
with CT in comparisons of <10 years. Bulk density
was greater under NT than under CT at 4–8 and 14–
18 cm depths in three different soils (sand, sandy
loam and silt loam) from Denmark (Schjonning and
Rasmussen, 2000), in the top 25 cm of silt loam soils
in Ontario (VandenBygaart et al., 1999), in the top
8 cm of an eroded silt loam in southern Illinois
(Hussein et al., 1998), and in the top 30 cm of silt
loam soils in Berkshire, England (Douglas et al.,
1986). Bulk density was greater under NT than under
CT in the top 20 cm in a clay soil following the fallow
phase, but not different following the barley phase of a
crop rotation (Franzluebbers and Arshad, 1996a).
Bulk density was not different between NT and CT
to depths of 60 cm in six soils in eastern Canada
(Angers et al., 1997). Bulk density was lower under
NT compared with CT at a depth of 3–7 cm in a loam
from southeast Norway, but not different at a depth of
13–17 cm (Ekeberg and Riley, 1997).
109
Fig. 1. Bulk density as a function of soil depth at the end of 19
years of CT and NT in southern Ontario (from Yang and Kay,
2001b).
Differences in total porosity between tillage com-
parisons
15 years have been more consistent. These
longer-term data provide information on the cumula-
tive effects on total porosity of fragmentation, inver-
sion, compaction, plow pan development, soil faunal
activity and organic matter distribution. In a side-by-
side comparison of NT and CT for 19 years across a
variable-landscape in southern Ontario, bulk density
measured before spring tillage was dependent upon
depth and tillage (Fig. 1). Averaged across soil tex-
tures varying from sandy loam to clay loam, bulk
density was greater under NT than under CT in the top
20 cm of the soil profile with the greatest difference
at 5–10 cm. Bulk density was lower at 0–5 than at
5–10 cm in both tillage treatments. Organic matter
content at 0–5 cm was greater under NT than under
CT, which probably helped diminish the difference in
total porosity. There was no evidence of a plow pan in
these soils. Tebrügge and Düring (1999) found that the
average bulk density from 0 to 24 cm was greater
under NT than under CT at five different field sites in
Germany that had been under a tillage comparison for
10–18 years. However, when only the top 3 cm was
considered, the bulk density was lower under NT than
under CT, which was attributed to the development of
an organic-rich mulch and possibly enhanced faunal
activity. Gomez et al. (1999) observed greater bulk
density under NT than under CT (15-year comparison)
in the 0–10 and 10–20 cm depths, but no difference
in the 20–40 cm depth in a vertic clay loam vineyard
soil in southern Spain. McGarry (1988) used indices
110 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118

obtained from shrinkage curves to assess the impact
of a combination of residue management and tillage
for 19 years at a depth of 0–10 cm on a Vertisol in
Australia. Total porosity of dry soil was 5% greater
when soil was tilled and stubble burned than when soil
was undisturbed and stubble retained. However, air-
filled porosity at the onset of normal shrinkage was
41% greater when soil was tilled and stubble burned
and the slope of the shrinkage curve in the region of
normal shrinkage was 6% greater.
Much of the data relating tillage to total porosity
have been obtained on sites that have experienced
seasonal freezing. A remarkable feature of data from
long-term NT sites is the persistence of higher bulk
density under NT than under CT during the growing
season in spite of ground freezing in the preceding
winter. Freezing of medium- and fine-textured soils
can result in the accumulation of ice as discrete lenses
in the frozen zone. The extent of ice lens formation
depends on the rate of advance of the zero degree
isotherm and the availability of water in the unfrozen
soil ahead of the freezing front, but can result in a
reduction in bulk density during winter as much as
0.5–0.7 Mg m3 at a depth of 0–15 cm (Fig. 2). The
effects of freezing can extend to 30 cm and bulk
density of CT and NT at these depths may not be
different in late winter (Kay et al., 1985). However,
many of the pores created by the ice lenses appear to
be unstable. Surface bulk density under both CT and
NT rapidly increases as thawing and consolidation
occur and differences in bulk density between tillage
treatments reemerge early in the growing season
(Fig. 2).
Changes in bulk density following a more modest
reduction in tillage such as that associated with chisel
plowing have been less dramatic. Bulk density was
similar under CT and chisel plow to a depth of 40 cm
at the end of 20 years in a silt loam soil from Ontario
(Yang and Kay, 2001a). Mahboubi et al. (1993) and
Lal et al. (1994) found no significant difference in bulk
density under chisel plow and NT in silt loam soils
from Ohio at 7 and 28 years. Bulk density was not
different in the top 10 cm under an intensive chisel-
disk system and NT on a silt loam and sandy loam soil
in northern British Columbia (a semi-arid frigid
region) at the end of 13 years (Azooz et al., 1996)
and 16 years (Franzluebbers and Arshad, 1996b),
although pore size distribution was altered.
The impact of a reduction in tillage on total porosity
may be influenced, in part, by the magnitude of axle
load of equipment, timing of traffic and degree of
control of traffic. Inconsistent effects of a reduction in
tillage on the variation in total porosity with depth may
be related to differences in traffic on different sites.

Fig. 2. Influence of tillage, freezing and natural reconsolidation on the average bulk density of the top 15 cm on a clay loam soil beginning in
the fourth year after the tillage comparison initiated (fall plowing to a depth of 18 cm occurred after measurements in November, secondary
tillage to a depth of 10 cm occurred after measurements in April) (from Kay et al., 1985).
 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
It is very difficult to assess this possibility since
researchers seldom report information on traffic during
the tillage trials. However, the importance of traffic on
porosity differences among tillage systems is illustrated
in traffic control experiments. For instance, Logsdon
et al. (1999) found no significant difference in bulk
density under chisel plow and NT when traffic was not
controlled in two fine silty loess soils in the mid-
western US during 1–3 years after tillage and traffic
were initiated. However, when traffic was controlled
and the non-trafficked areas were sampled, bulk density
was lower under NT than under chisel plow in the top
5 cm, but greater at 6–18 cm depth.
In summary, the introduction of NT can result in the
loss of total pore space as indicated by an increase in
bulk density. However, the loss of porosity is most
consistently evident after 15 years and is generally
limited to depths of 5–20 cm. There is some evidence
that the porosity in the top 5 cm of the profile may be
greater under NT. The extent of increase may be a
function of the build-up of organic matter at this depth
and enhanced macrofaunal activity. Evidence of
changes in bulk density following the introduction
of chisel plow is less compelling.
Data on the rates of change of total porosity after
implementing a reduction in tillage are limited. Much
of the work to date is based on comparison of tillage
treatments on a one-time basis after varying periods
have elapsed following the change in tillage. Systema-
tic analyses of rates of change in total porosity after
converting to conservation tillage are needed. Such
analyses should include a thorough characterization of
the site at the time of implementing the change in
tillage practices and documentation of the character-
istics of traffic during the trial. Much of the research
that has related tillage to bulk density has been focused
on medium- to coarse-textured soils. More informa-
tion is needed on fine-textured soils.
2.2. Pore size distribution
Total porosity of soils is distributed among different
pore size classes and different size classes fulfill
different roles in aeration, infiltration, drainage and
storage of water and mechanical resistance offered to
root growth. Numerous criteria have been used to
define pore size classes and their size class boundaries
are often arbitrarily defined. We present a relatively
111
simple system with three classes (macro-, meso- and
micropores) that are distinguished in their functional
relation to soil water. Pores with diameters >30 mm are
referred to as macropores. Water flows primarily
through these pores during infiltration and drainage
and consequently these pores exert a major control on
soil aeration. In addition, much of root growth is
initiated in these pores. Pores with an equivalent
diameter of 0.2–30 mm are referred to as mesopores,
and are particularly important for the storage of water
for plant growth. Micropores have effective diameters
<0.2 mm. Water in these pores is generally not avail-
able to plants and their small diameter precludes
microbiological activity.
2.2.1. Micro- and mesopores
The volume of micro- and mesopores in soils can be
determined by applying the Kelvin equation to water
contents of intact soil cores obtained during water
desorption (Carter and Ball, 1993) or to Hg contents
obtained during Hg intrusion (Pagliai et al., 1995).
Diameters of pores are normally referred to as ‘‘effec-
tive diameters’’, to acknowledge the failure of the
methods to distinguish between pores of uniform
diameter and those of variable diameter.
The literature on tillage-related effects on total
porosity would suggest that the magnitude of the
effects of tillage on micro- and mesopores would vary
with the duration of the treatment and depth. Unfortu-
nately, the impact of tillage on micro- and mesopor-
osity has been documented in much less detail than
that on total porosity. An additional complication
arises from the use of different size classes by different
authors making comparisons more difficult.
Measurements of micro- and mesopores in soils
with tillage comparisons 10 years have not produced
consistent results. Volume fraction of pores 0.2–60 mm
diameter in a coarse sandy soil from Scandinavia were
greater under NT than under CT at depths of 5–10 and
15–20 cm at the end of 6 years (Rasmussen, 1999).
Greater proportions of mesopores (equivalent dia-
meter of 0.2–10 mm) were found under NT than under
CT and chisel plow at a depth of 0–15 cm in an eroded
silt loam from Illinois (Hussein et al., 1998). Volume
fraction of pores >3 mm equivalent diameter were
greater under NT than under CT at 3–7 cm, but not
different between tillage systems at 13–17 cm depth
(Ekeberg and Riley, 1997). Volume fraction of pores
112 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
<30 mm diameter at a depth of 5–19 cm in a silt loam
from Maryland was not different between NT and CT
at the end of 10 and 11 years (Hill, 1990).
More research is needed on the impact of conserva-
tion tillage on micro- and mesoporosity, especially in
comparisons >15 years, where the most consistent
results would be expected.
2.2.2. Macropores
An assessment of the effects of tillage on macro-
pores can be facilitated by a consideration of the
processes that are potentially involved in the creation
and destruction of macropores. Disturbance of soil by
primary or secondary tillage would be expected to
result in a loosening of soil and thus an increase in the
macroporosity of the tilled zone. When soils are
converted to NT, macroporosity would be expected
to be limited in the zone that was formerly tilled due to
processes such as traffic-induced compaction. How-
ever, this compaction may be compensated by pro-
gressive creation of macropores from roots and faunal
activity with time. Macropores that are vertically
oriented are more persistent under traffic (Blackwell
et al., 1990). Many of these pores would be biopores
and would extend well below the zone of tillage.
Consequently, the variation in macroporosity in space
and time would be expected to be much greater than
that for smaller pores.
The volume fraction of pores >30 mm diameter can
be estimated from total porosity and water content at
10 kPa. Under field conditions, use of a disc per-
meameter at different negative pressure heads can be
used to measure the unsaturated hydraulic conductiv-
ity as well as estimate the density of pore size classes
(Coughlin et al., 1991). Alternatively, computer-aided
micromorphometric image analysis of soil thin sec-
tions can be used to calculate size distribution of pores
>50 mm (Murphy et al., 1977) and provide information
on pore morphology (Pagliai et al., 1989, 1995; Van-
denBygaart et al., 1999). Types of pores can be
analyzed by determining shape factors for individually
measured pores in the images. Pore morphometric
analysis provides an opportunity to attribute form to
process and origin.
Although total porosity is often less in NT relative
to CT, the decrease is associated with significant
changes in pore size distribution in the macropore
class. As the number of years in NT increased from 4
to 11 years, there was a decrease in the number of
pores 30–100 mm equivalent diameter in the top 20 cm
in silt loam soils from southern Ontario (VandenBygaart
et al., 1999). A red-brown earth in Australia under
NT for 8 years had more pores than under CT in the
990–1490 and 1490–2970 mm size classes, but fewer
in the 740–990 mm size class (Coughlin et al., 1991).
The top 5 cm of silt loam soils in southern Ontario
under NT for 7 years contained 2.5 times more pores
with 200–500 mm equivalent diameter than under CT
(Shipitalo and Protz, 1987). Soil under NT for 17 years
in a silt loam from Kentucky contained less total
porosity than under CT at each of three depths
(0–5, 10–15 and 20–25 cm), yet the average pore size
was significantly larger under NT (Drees et al., 1994).
At each of the depths there was a greater proportion of
pores >100 mm equivalent diameter under NT than
under CT, while at 10–15 and 20–25 cm depths, the
smaller pore size (<100 mm) dominated in CT. It was
concluded that a few large pores (>500 mm) under NT
contributed more to total porosity, but pores <500 mm
were dominant under CT.
Computer-automated shape analysis suggests dif-
ferent pore morphologies after a soil under CT is
converted to NT. Pagliai et al. (1995) evaluated the
macropore size distribution (>50 mm effective dia-
meter) in two alluvial soils at the end of 10 years
of CT (to 40 cm) and minimum tillage (disc harrowing
to 10 cm) at 0–10 and 20–30 cm depths. In a silt loam
there were no significant differences in total macro-
porosity between the two tillage treatments in the 0–
10 cm layer. However in the 20–30 cm depth total
macroporosity was 19% under minimum tillage and
9% under CT. There were no significant differences
between tillage systems in a clay soil at either depth.
However, pore size and shape analysis indicated that
in the 0–10 cm layer of the silt loam, there was a
greater proportion of porosity attributed to irregular
pores >500 mm equivalent diameter under CT relative
to minimum tillage. At 20–30 cm, greater macropor-
osity under minimum tillage was ascribed to elongated
pores 100–300 mm length, which corresponded with
greater hydraulic conductivity under minimum tillage.
At both depths in both soils, irregular pores >1000 mm
diameter made a significantly greater contribution to
total porosity under CT relative to minimum tillage.
However, there were no differences between tillage
systems in the elongated pores in these size classes at
 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
either depth in the clay soil. McGarry et al. (2000)
found that time to ponding, final infiltration rate, total
infiltration and deep drainage of Cl tracer on a Vertisol
in Australia were greater at the end of 18 years under
NT compared with CT. Binary images from soil
blocks provided evidence of intense earthworm and
termite activity under NT that was compatible with the
greater hydraulic characteristics of the soil under NT.
A greater proportion of elongated and rounded
pores in the 50–500 mm equivalent diameter size class
was found under NT than under CT at the end of 24
years in Chernozemic clay loam soils from Alberta
(Miller et al., 1998). The number and porosity in the
irregular shape 500–1000 mm pore size class were
lower under NT compared with CT in the top
10 cm, but were greater in the 10–20 and 20–30 cm
depths. This depth difference in large pores was
thought to favor the growth of roots under NT com-
pared with CT in this soil type. A greater proportion of
the porosity could be attributed to irregular and elon-
gated macropores >1000 mm under CT relative to NT.
VandenBygaart et al. (1999) found that pores 100–
500 mm equivalent diameter increased in number after
only 4 years in NT, primarily due to the rounded pore
morphology class. They speculated that the increase in
this size class and type was due to the maintenance of
root channels created by wheat and maize, whose
modal size tend to lie in this size class. A greater
proportion of macropores oriented in the horizontal
direction in the 5–15 cm depth under NT than under
CT was observed, which they attributed to the forma-
tion and thawing of ice lenses. In CT these features
would be destroyed annually with tillage.
Biopores can be confidently defined by rounded
pores >500 mm in thin sections. By thin section ana-
lysis, it is assumed that this measure is an under-
estimation of the true total, as the thin section may be
cut obliquely across biopores that are oriented vertical
to the thin section. Shipitalo and Protz (1987) manu-
ally determined biopore numbers under NT and CT in
silt loam soils of southern Ontario from intact soil
blocks and found 2–9 times more biopores at depths to
40 cm under NT for 7 years than under CT. Vanden-
Bygaart et al. (1999) found that, although the total
number of pores >1000 mm were much greater under
CT regardless of number of years in NT and depth,
biopores >500 mm equivalent diameter at a depth of 0–
15 cm increased sharply from about 0.02/cm2 at 4
113
years to 0.5/cm2 at 11 years of NT. The numbers were
consistent with those found at the end of 20 years of
NT in Coshocton, OH (Edwards et al., 1988). They
attributed this to the maintenance of root and earth-
worm channels under NT through the year, which
would have been destroyed annually under CT.
In summarizing the influence of conservation tillage
on macropore size distribution, the following general-
izations can be made. Regardless of depth stratigra-
phy, morphology and time, there is generally an
increase in pores 100–500 mm diameter when soils
under CT are converted to NT or minimum tillage.
More research is needed on the rates of change in
macropore size distribution after implementing con-
servation tillage. Changes in the morphology of pores
>500 mm reflect changes in the processes that create
these pores. Irregular and elongated shaped pores
>1000 mm in diameter and length, respectively, are
greater in number in CT relative to minimum tillage at
a depth of 0–20 cm and can be attributed to the annual
mixing and homogenization by the plow. However,
biopores (rounded pores >500 mm) increase as the
number of years in NT increases. Biopores can be
created by roots and fauna such as earthworms and
maintained at a depth of 0–20 cm due to a lack of
annual tillage. Little can be concluded regarding the
effects of texture on the changes in pore size distribu-
tion based on the existing literature.
3. Organic matter
3.1. Total organic matter
Soil inversion by moldboard plowing tends to con-
centrate plant residue at the bottom of the plow layer
(Allmaras et al., 1996); however annual inversion
results in a progressive homogenization of soil organic
carbon (SOC) in the plow layer (Yang and Wander,
1999; McCarty et al., 1998; Wander et al., 1998).
Shallow tillage will also homogenize SOC within the
depth of tillage (Franzluebbers and Arshad, 1996b),
but may result in some stratification of SOC with
depth (Yang and Wander, 1999). The degree of stra-
tification is usually a function of intensity of disking
and plowing, with the amount of surface residue
remaining after tillage acting as the most important
variable (Duiker and Lal, 1999).
114 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
Fig. 3. SOC concentration as a function of soil depth in NT and CT
at the end of 22 years in a silt loam in southern Ontario.
Conversion from CT to NT results in an immediate
change in the placement of aboveground crop residue
and the reduced fragmentation of the soil matrix may
also slow the mineralization of SOC. Crop residue that
was mechanically distributed throughout the tillage
zone under CT remains at the soil surface under NT.
Leaching of organic solutes and redistribution by soil
faunal activities become the primary physical trans-
port mechanisms under reduced tillage. Initial changes
in SOC under NT would be expected to primarily
reflect changes in the placement of C, with C being
gained in the vicinity of the soil surface and lost at
lower depths. The balance between the two processes
could change with time.
In a silt loam from Ontario, SOC under NT for 22
years was greater than under CT at a depth of 0–5 cm,
but not different below 5 cm (Fig. 3). Tillage-induced
changes in bulk density extended to 10 cm and calcu-
lations on an equivalent mass basis resulted in sig-
nificant accumulation of SOC (3 Mg ha1) to a depth
of 10 cm (Yang and Kay, unpublished data). During
the first 3 years of converting a silt loam in Maryland
from CT to NT management SOC increases at 0–5 cm,
but decreased at 12.5–20 cm (McCarty et al., 1998).
There was no detectable change in SOC content to
20 cm on an equivalent weight basis. From six dif-
ferent cool, humid soils of eastern Canada, SOC
was not different between CT and NT comparisons
of 3–11 years at a depth of 0–60 cm (Angers et al.,
1997). Soil organic C in the top 10 cm was greater than
under CT, but was lower at a depth of 20–40 cm and
not different at a depth of 40–60 cm. At a depth of
0–15 cm, SOC increased significantly in a silt loam
from Ohio between 18 and 32 years after implementing
NT, but decreased slightly at 22.5–30 cm (Dick and
Durkalski, 1998). Total SOC to a depth of 30 cm at the
end of 32 years was significantly greater (1.7 Mg ha1)
under NT than under CT.
Variability in processes across landscapes may alter
the storage potential of SOC with conservation tillage.
VandenBygaart et al. (2002) found that erosion/
deposition within landscape units on several farms
in southern Ontario had a very strong influence on the
dynamics of SOC. At shoulder slope landscape posi-
tions where there had been a history of soil loss during
CT, there was primarily a gain in SOC stored in the
profile at the end of 15 years of NT. However, in
depositional, concave landscape positions where there
was evidence of soil deposition during CT, a majority
of the sites had lost SOC since NT had been imple-
mented. Therefore, SOC dynamics under conservation
tillage are affected by previous soil loss and redis-
tribution and extrapolations beyond research domains
should be minimized.
The storage potential of SOC with conservation
tillage may also be influenced by management deci-
sions made in previous years. In a side-by-side com-
parison of CT and NT for 19 years on a private farm in
southern Ontario, SOC in the profile (on an equivalent
mass basis) was 70 Mg ha1 greater under NT than CT
(Yang and Kay, 2001b). Tile drainage had been
installed 7 years before the tillage comparison had
been initiated. Soil organic C was declining in both
tillage treatments at the end of 6 years. The remark-
ably large difference in SOC was not due to seques-
tration of SOC, but rather a reduction in the rate of
SOC mineralization under NT.
Research indicates that SOC accumulates near the
soil surface and is lost at lower depths soon after a
conversion from CT to NT practices. More informa-
tion is required on how the balance between these
processes changes with time in soils of different
texture, drainage and under different climates. In
addition, more information is required on the depths
at which these processes are dominant. Information
on how these processes interact with processes that
vary across landscapes will be particularly critical to
estimations of C budgets arising from widespread
adoption of conservation tillage.
 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
3.2. Organic matter fractions
Recently the influence of tillage on various fractions
of soil organic matter has been investigated. Effects
of tillage on organic matter fractions have been based
on segregation by particle-size (Angers et al., 1993),
particle density (Alvarez et al., 1998), fractions in soil
aggregate size classes (Beare et al., 1994; Bajracharya
et al., 1997), and in biological (Angers et al., 1993;
Franzluebbers et al., 1995; Needelman et al., 1999)
and chemical (McCallister and Chien, 2000) fractions
of soil. A reduction in tillage would be expected
to initially affect microbial biomass and relatively
undecomposed crop residue. Soil microbial biomass
C in the 0–5 cm depth under NT for 4 years increased
10–23% compared with shallow tillage, but this
increase was gradually offset with time by a decline
at lower depths (Carter, 1986). Needelman et al.
(1999) found that NT affected the vertical distribution,
but not the overall amount of SOC and particulate
organic matter (POM) under NT for 5 years compared
with CT in soils from Illinois. Concentration of SOC
and POM in the upper 5 cm of soil was greater under
NT than under CT, but lower in the 5–15 cm depth.
Similar results were observed by Wander et al. (1998).
Yang and Kay (2001b) found there was about twice as
much total loose POM and occluded POM in the top
5 cm of a soil under NT for 19 years compared with
CT at a private farm in southern Ontario. However,
at 10–20 cm depth POM was lower under NT than
under CT.
Texture may have a significant effect on the protec-
tion of organic C fractions when soils are converted to
NT. At the end of 19 years, sequestration of SOC
occurred primarily in the POM fraction in a sandy
loam (Yang and Kay, 2001b). However, in the clay
loam portion of the field, sequestration of SOC was
dominant in the heaviest or humic fraction of the soil.
POM tended to accumulate more under NT than under
CT in soils with higher clay content in northern
Alberta and British Columbia (Franzluebbers and
Arshad, 1997).
Based on this review, POM and total SOM become
concentrated near the soil surface in NT systems,
presumably due to the lack of incorporation of crop
residue by tillage. The distribution of microbial bio-
mass C may be related to the placement of crop
residue. More research is needed on the changes in
115
forms of organic matter that are most humified or most
closely associated with the mineral fraction following
a change in tillage practices. This information is
critical to understand SOC dynamics and potential
sequestration upon conversion to conservation tillage.
More information is needed on the influence of texture
and climate on the changes in SOC fractions with
conservation tillage.
4. Porosity and organic matter
There is limited information available on the influ-
ence of a reduction in tillage on the links between pore
and organic matter characteristics and their variation
in space and time. The studies that have examined this
relation have focused on total porosity (or bulk den-
sity) and total organic matter; the links between pore
size distribution and forms of organic matter remain
unexplored.
Bulk density was measured in a side-by-side com-
parison of 11 years of NT and CT that extended across
a landscape in southern Ontario (da Silva et al., 1997).
Clay content varied from 6 to 42% and organic matter
from 1.4 to 11.6% in samples from 5 to 10 cm depth.
Additional measurements at this site at the end of 19
years indicated that the effects of tillage on bulk
density were the greatest at this depth (Fig. 1). Bulk
density was measured in the row and inter-row posi-
tions. Multiple regression analyses yielded the follow-
ing equation:
rb ¼ 1:573  0:0640T þ 0:367P þ 0:0686T  P
 0:0725SOM  0:0311Cl þ 0:0012SOM  Cl;
R2 ¼ 0:83; N ¼ 144
where T is the tillage (assigned 0 for NT and 1 for CT), P
the position (assigned 0 for row and 1 for inter-row 1),
SOM is organic matter content (%), and Cl is the clay
content (%). The T term would include effects of tillage
on processes influencing bulk density such as soil
fragmentation and macropore formation by macrofauna.
The lack of a significant tillage  textural variable
suggests that the decrease in bulk density in CT from
that in NT is not strongly influenced directly by texture.
Although there was no interaction term involving tillage
and SOM, any increase in SOM due to a reduction in
tillage would be reflected in a decrease in rb through
116 B.D. Kay, A.J. VandenBygaart / Soil & Tillage Research 66 (2002) 107–118
the SOM and the SOM  Cl terms. Any effects of
texture on tillage-related changes in bulk density would
be indirect and reflect the effects of texture on the tillage-
related changes in SOM levels and the effect of resulting
SOM levels on bulk density.
The links between porosity and organic matter
under different tillage treatments and their variation
with depth would be more readily understood from
data on pore size distributions and organic matter
fractions. However, we are not aware of any studies
that have considered these relations.
5. Summary
Some general conclusions can be made regarding
the influence of conservation tillage practices on
porosity and organic matter distribution in soil:
(1) Soil under NT generally has higher bulk density
within the plough layer than under CT. However,
in the top few centimeters under NT, bulk density
may be lower due to SOC accumulation.
(2) The loss of porosity in converting from CT to NT
is also associated with changes in pore size
distribution. The volume fraction of pores 30–
100 mm may account for much of the decrease,
whereas pores 100–500 mm may increase.
(3) Although more information is required on the rates
of change in total porosity and pore size distribu-
tion at different depths following a change in
tillage, the effects of tillage appear to be most
consistent after at least 15 years has elapsed.
(4) Stratification of soil organic matter begins soon
after soils are converted to NT from CT with
increases in the top 5 cm of the soil profile and
losses at depth. The balance between gains near
the surface and losses at depth may vary with
time; some data suggest gains near the surface
might persist longer than losses at depth.
(5) Stratification of SOM fractions occurs when soils
are converted to NT, with greater amounts of
POM near the surface due to lack of incorpora-
tion, and lower amounts at depths relative to CT.
(6) The interrelationships between the rates of
change in SOM (and its fractions) and porosity
(and pore size fractions) when soils are converted
to NT are poorly documented. An understanding
of the processes that account for these relation-
ships will be critical to the development of
accurate predictions of the long-term impact of a
reduction in tillage on soils of different texture.
(7) Processes that occur over large distance and time
scales (such as the redistribution of SOC by
erosion) interact with processes arising from a
reduction in tillage. However the impact of this
interaction on pore characteristics and SOC
dynamics is poorly documented. This limitation
must be removed before we are able to predict
with any accuracy the amount of C sequestration
that will arise from widespread adoption of
conservation tillage.
(8) The maximum change in pore and organic matter
characteristics as steady state is approached
following a change from CT to NT cannot be
predicted with confidence from current data.
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