CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Characterization and properties are the outcome of the interplay of pedogenetic

factors and prevailing in the area. A review of those factors and processes that have the soil

formation is necessary for a better understanding of the wide range. According to

(Onyekanne et al., 2012), understanding inherent characteristics of the starting point for

understanding our soils and how best they can be used. The coupling of soil characterization,

soil classification and soil mapping provides a powerful resource for the benefit of mankind

especially in the area of food security and environmental sustainability.

Soil characterization provides the information for our understanding of the physical,

chemical and morphological and microbiological properties of the soil we depend on to grow

crops, sustain forests and grasslands as well as support homes and society structures

(Ogunkunle, 2005). Soil classification, on the other hand, helps to organize our knowledge,

facilitates the transfer of experience and technology from one place to another and helps to

compare soil properties.

According to (Eswaram 1997), some different uses of soil characterization data

include to aid in the correct classification of the soil and enable other scientists place the soils

in their taxonomies and classification systems and to serve as a basis for more detailed

evaluation of the soil as well as gather preliminary information on nutrient, physical or other

limitations needed to produce a capability class. A soil characterization study, therefore, is a

major building block for understanding the soil, classifying it and getting the best

understanding of the environment (Esu 2005).

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1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

The absence of adequate information to rural dwellers within the university of Abuja

and the fact that the land areas has been subjected to many various agricultural uses without

having proper and prior knowledge of soils and their inherent characteristics could lead to

attendant consequences.

The inadequacy of proper information on characterization and classification of the

soil may limit their uses and this may hinder adequate plant growth thereby influencing low

food production and may increase degradation of soil. It is unfortunate that rural researchers

and farmers often subject the soil to different uses without taking into cognizance the inherent

physical properties of the soils in response to a particular type of soil.

This in turn does not allow predictability of soils response to a particular type of soil

management practice or usage on the long run, the negative effect for outright the immediate

benefits enjoyed. This has remained the primary factor in most soil quality degradation of

low productivity of our soil.

1.3 Justification of the Project

The University of Abuja is blessed with large floodplains lands that are exploited;

therefore this study will help to provide data for better agricultural management and

sustainability in the study area.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study is aimed at characterizing and classifying the agricultural potentials of soils as

they occur in the University of Abuja.

The specific objectives include;

i. To gather data on the morphological, chemical and physical properties of the soil

in the study area.

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ii. To assess the variations in their properties along the terrace and the back swamps

with depth

iii. To use the data collected to classify the soils using the FAO soil classification

systems (the USDA soil taxonomy may be referred to at some point)

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Review of Related Literature

Pertinent reviews have been carried out and revealed on project under the following

topics/headings;

2.1 Characterization

Characteristics and properties are the outcome of the interplay of pedogenetic factors

and prevailing in the area. A review of those factors and processes that have the soil

information is necessary for a better understanding of the wide range. According to

(Onyekanne et al., 2012), understanding inherent characteristics of the starting point for

understanding our soils and how best they can be used, (Foth, 2006) observed that all soil

studies are focused on understanding the nature characteristics and properties so that it will be

useful and meaningful predictions can be made, and its response to management. While this

is done the focal interest is in the constraints associated with a particular soil type.

Soils are made up of four basic components; minerals, air, water and organic matter.

Mineral represent around 45% of the total volume, water and air about 25% each and 2% to

5% organic matter. The mineral portion consists of three distinct particles classified as sand,

silt and clay.

2.1.1 Physical Characteristics of Soil

Physical conditions and appearance of soil is an important indicator of soil quality on

the field as there are so many behavioural response of the soil can be predicted as related to

nutrient, retention, workability, aeration, erosion and presence or absence of some important

properties in the soil (Duprieze and Deleener, 2008). The physical characteristics of soil are;

i. texture

ii. colour

iii. depth

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 iv. structure

v. stone content

Texture refers to the relative properties of sand, silt and clay. A loamy soil contains a

lance proportion of the three separates. A sandy loamy soil is a mixture containing a large

amount of clay and sand. Soil texture is determined by rubbing the moist between the finger

thumb. It is a subjective technique, but can be mastered with some experience. According to

(Ojo et al., 2009), the name of the texture class is that of mechanical analysis fraction or

textual fraction, whose properties dominate the soil properties, except that barns are soil in

which no fraction dominates. The proportions of the separates in classes, commonly used in

cribbing soil are given in the textural triangle. In the textural triangle, the sum of the

percentage of the sand, silt and clay at any appoint in the triangle is 100. The various soils are

separated from one another by definite linens of division. Their properties do not age abruptly

at these boundary lines, however, one class grade into the adjoining classes’ coarse or fine

texture. Their important soil characteristics is soil structure, it is distinct from soil texture,

structure to the size, shape and arrangement of solids and voids, continuity of pores and

voids, capacity to retain and transmit fluids and organic and inorganic substances, and ability

to support vigorous root growth and development (Lal, 1991).

Soil texture is classified on the basis of shape, size and grade of distinctness of peds

(Brady 2002). Types of soil structure include; blocky, platy prismatic columnar and granular

structure is developed through the action of soil biota such as microbes and earthworms.

Micro organisms help open up compacted soils so roots can move easily and penetrate the

soil. Soil crumbles easily. This is an indication that sand, silt and clay particles are aggregated

into granules or crumbs. Both texture and structure determines pore space for air and water

circulation, erosion resistance case of tillage, and root penetration, soil texture is related to

minerals in the soil, it changes little with agricultural activities. Soil structure on the other

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hand can be improved or destroyed readily by choice and liming of farming practice. Bioflora

products are formulated and designed to help create better soil structure and thus create more

particles (Brady and Weil 2002); (Esu 2004); (Foth, 2006); (Agbede, 2009) (Onyekanne, et

al., 2010) soil consistency or handling properties refers to the type and degree of cohesion

and adhesion between soil particles, i.e. the resistance of the soil to deformation.

For soil boundaries, a change in colour is the principal and most easily observed property

that is used to delimit horizon boundaries, but in many cases other properties such as

structure, texture and inclusions are used. The vertical change from one horizon to the other

varies in distinctiveness and outline.

2.1.2 Chemical Characteristics of Soil

Chemical properties of soils include the following aspects: inorganic matters of soil,

organic matters in soil, colloidal properties of soil particles and soil reactions and buffering

action in acidic soils and basic soils. The chemical side of a soil is extremely important of

course and is about the correct balance of the available nutrients in the soil. This is largely

determined by the organic-matter content and its humus percentage; this is the ‘store house’

of nutrients on any farm. The extent to which minerals have a dominant presence or not,

affects the release of specific nutrients. Supplementing shortages is important, but the right

balance is even more important. The soil only produces nutrients if you have the right

balance. Chemical and physical properties impact biological properties. Optimal chemical

and physical properties will lead to optimal biological properties and soil functions i.e.

nutrient and water cycling.

Chemical properties of the soil are important to soil fertility, plant growth and

reproduction. That is why it is important to understand how chemical properties of the soil

interact to affect the soil’s capacity to store and release nutrients, and how soil chemistry can

affect soil structure. The soil fertility status found within the soils at the main campus arte

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variable low. The soil fertility parameters such as organic matter content, total nitrogen,

available phosphorus, and total exchangeable bases of the area are very low. The nature of

the soils are acidic in reaction and mobility of most elemental; nutrients in the soils. As a

result of its low fertility status in the soils, the soils would require a heavy application of both

organic and inorganic fertilizer (mostly single phosphate) to moderate the acidic level and

enhance productivity and good yield of crops.

The soils are young by way of classification (inceptisols) with low developed

horizons and partial weathering of parent materials especially in the subsoil. Also, saprolites

are common features of the soil profiles studied. This means that the soils are still maturing.

Soil pH is perhaps the single most important aspect of soil chemistry, because it affects the

availability of nutrients to plants and the activity of microorganisms in the soil. Soil pH is a

measure of the number of hydrogen ions (H+) present in a solution. In more common terms,

it is a measure of alkalinity and acidity. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. Seven is neutral, 0 is

the most acidic value possible, and 14 is the most alkaline, or basic, value.

While many plants can tolerate pH ranges between 5.2 and 7.8, most plants grow best

in mineral soils (soils with less than 20 percent organic content) when soil pH is between 6.0

and 7.0 (slightly acid to neutral) (Rosen, 2014).

2.1.3 Morphological Characteristics of Soil

Soil morphology is the field observable attributes of the soil within the various soil

horizons and the description of the kind and arrangement of the horizons. Soil morphology

deals with the form and arrangement of soil features. Soil morphology is ordinarily first

observed, described, and studied in the field, but investigation can be continued in the

laboratory with optical and electron microscopes.

Field observations with the unaided eye or with a hand lens are considered macro-

morphology, whereas observations utilizing a microscope are considered micro-morphology.

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2.1.4 Other Soil Properties

These are major soil characteristics that relate more specifically to soil fertility and

evaluation and assessment they are basically considered as soil chemical properties and may

relate to the potential or current fertility status of soils.

2.2 Diagnostic Characteristics of Soils

Three major diagnostic features of soil are often been referred to those that are

organic soil, epipedon and endopedon (Esu, 2010).

2.2.1 Diagnostic Characteristics of Organic Soils

According to Onyekanne et al., (2012) organic soil are those soils in which more than

half of the profile thickness is composed of organic soil materials. On the other hand, organic

soil materials are piece of plant tissue of fibres which are saturated with water for prolonged

period unlike artificially drained and contain 18% organic carbon (by weight) if the minerals

fraction contains more than 60% clay or >12% organic carbon if the minerals fraction is

between 0 and 60% Esu, (2010). According to (Eswaran, et al., 2010), organic soils materials

are also fibres which are never saturated with water for more than a few days and having

more than 20% organic carbon. There are various kind of organic soil materials which are

diagnostic for the classification of organic soils and described soils as follows (Esu, 2010);

i. Fibric Soil Materials

These are organic soil materials that contains three fourth or more (by volume) of

fibres after rubbing, exchanging coarse fragments. These are also called peats.

ii. Hemic Soil Materials

These are intermediate (50% in their degree of decomposition of organic soil

materials between the less decomposed frbric and the more decomposed sapric materials.

Their morphological features give intermediate values for fiber content, bulk density and

water content. They are referred to as muckey-peat or peat-muck.

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 iii. Humilluvic Materials

This is alluvial humus which accumulates in the lower parts of some organic soils that

are idle and have been drained and cultivated. It has very high solubility in sodium sulphate

and renews very slowly after drying. Most commonly it accumulates near a contact with a

sandy mineral horizon.

iv. Limmic Materials

This includes both organic and inorganic materials that were either deposited in water

by precipitation or through the action of aquatic organisms such as algae or diatoms or

derived from under water and floating and aquatic plants and subsequently modified bay

aquatic animals. They include corpogenous earth (sediment peat), diatomaceous earth

(geologic, iceous diatoms) and marl (soft unconsolidated CaCO3).

2.2.2 Diagnostic Surface Horizons and Epipedons

Epipedons are horizons that are found at or near the surface and which most of the

rock structure has been destroyed, it is darkened by organic matter or shows evidence of

eluviations or both (USAD-NCRS, 2003). An epipedons is not synonymous with the A

horizon always because it may include part or all of the E, AB or BA or even part or all of the

illuvial B horizon. If the darkening by organic matter extends from the soil surface into the B

horizon, a soil with a mantle, thick enough to have a buried soil has no epipedon. According

to (Arnold 2000), there are eight Epipedons presently recognized is soil taxonomy defined as

follows;

i. Molic Epipedon

Consist of organic matter (>0.6 through its thickness) and softness even when they

dry. It has a high percentage be saturated (>50% by NH 4OAC at pH 7.0). mollic Epipedons

from the ground decomposition of mainly graves organic residue and are associated with

Hisols of the grassland or prairic region of the world. They have good soil structure and

porosity and are associated with some of the richest agricultural soils of the world.

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 ii. Umbric Epipedons
This is a surface horizon that is similar to a mollic epipedon in several respect except

that they are formed largely under forest vegetation and they have a lower natural fertility

status than a mollic Epipedons. The major distinctions between the mollic Epipedons and

umbric epipedon is that an epipredon has a percentage base saturation of <50% by NH 4OAC

at pH 0.7. it is most commonly associated with inceptisols, Andisols, Affisols and Ultisols

and mostly dark.

iii. Anthropic Epipedons

A surface layer of mineral soil that has the same requirements as the mollic epipedon

with respect to color, thickness, organic carbon content, consistence and base saturation, but

that has >110 mg P kg-1 soluble in 0. 05 M citric acid, or is dry >300 days (cumulative)

during the period when not irrigated. The anthropic epipedon forms under long continued

cultivation and fertilization.

iv. Plaggen Epipedons

This is human made surface layer >50cm thick that has been produced by manure

over long time. They occur mostly in Europe where in medieval times, sod or other materials

were used for bedding livestock and manure was spread on the cultivated fields, they often

contain artifacts, such as bits of brick and pottery throughout its depth. The plaggen

epipedons is associated with inceptisol

v. Folistic Epipedons

This is a surface horizon which is 20cm or more thick and contains high amount of

organic soil with bulk density less than 0.1gm cm3, but is not saturated mostly with podosols

and inceptisols.

vi. Histic Epipedons

An histic horizon consists of organic material that is saturated with water for 30

consecutive days or more in most years (unless drained) and has a thickness of 10 cm or

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more. If the layer with organic material is less than 20 cm thick, the upper 20 cm of the soil

after mixing, or if continuous rock is present within 20 cm depth, the entire soil above after

mixing, must contain 20 percent or more organic carbon

vii. Melanic Epipedons

The melanic epipedon is defined as a surface horizon with (1) a cumulative thickness

of 30 cm or more, (2) andic properties throughout, (3) a moist color value and chroma of 2 or

less, (4) a melanic index of 1.7 or less, and (5) a SOC concentration of 6 % of more

(weighted average) and 4 % or more SOC in all layers.

viii. Ochric Epipedons

The ochric epipedon refers to the “other” category, i.e., to epipedons that do not have

the thickness, color, SOC concentrations, and evidence of human disturbance of the other

seven epipedons. It is either too light ion colour, too low in organic carbon and it high in

organic carbon and dark in colour and it is too thin to be mollic epipedons. On the orchric

epipedons can occur in a variety of soil orders but it is most common in the tropics, it has

greater than or equal to 1% organic matter. It is characteristics of soils with high allophone

developed from volcanic ash.

2.2.3 Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons or Endopedons

A diagnostic horizon is a soil layer containing a combination of characteristics typical

of that kind of soil. These characteristics may be of structure, origin. The World Reference

Base for soil resources refers to 39 diagnostic horizons. According to (Esu, 2005) and (Esu,

2019), they are nineteen in number and are regarded mostly as the B horizon by many

ecologists. They are described as follows:

i. Argic Horizon

The agric horizon is found on soils under cultivation. It is an illuvial horizon

containing large amounts of illuvial clay, silt, and humus. A mineral-soil diagnostic horizon,

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formed from an accumulation of clay, silt, and humus, which has moved down from an

overlying, cultivated soil layer. It is a soil horizon created by agricultural management, and is

identified by its near-surface position, and by colloids accumulated in the pores of the soil.

The name is from the Latin ager, meaning field.

ii. Mbic horizon

Is an eluvial horizon 10cm or more thick often with a bleached or white color because

clay and iron oxide coating have been removed by pedogenesis. They often overlie on

allergic, kandic, nitric, cambic or spodic horizon or a fragipan and are associated with

Spodosols, Affisols, Utisols and Mollisols. They are light-cloured horizon that is

characterized by a low content of clay and Fe/Al oxides.

iii. Argillic Horizon

An argillic horizon is normally a subsurface horizon with clay illuviation. It contains

high amounts of phyllosilicate clay. It shows evidence of clay illuviation. It is formed by

moving of clay from one horizon to another or from one point to another within a horizon.

This horizon develops in areas with high rainfall for effective leaching.

iv. Calcic Horizon

The calcic horizon is an illuvial horizon with high amounts of secondary

calcium carbonate or other carbonates. It is 15 cm or more thick. These are found in arid and

semi-arid areas. It is very hard. Calcic horizons occur in Adrisols, Mollisols, inceptisols and

Gelisols.

v. Cambic Horizon

A cambic horizon is a result of complex processes of physical alteration and chemical

transformation. Physical alterations destroy the original rock structure and result in soil

formation. There is no evidence of movement of clays in the cambic horizons. This horizon

is usually found in young soils.

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vi. Duripan

A duripan is a very hard subsurface horizon. It is cemented mainly by alluvial silica

Sand supportively by calcium carbonate. It is very firm even after prolonged wetting. Soils

containing horizons cemented with silica occur worldwide, especially in the sub-humid,

Mediterranean, and semiarid regions. When the subsoil is cemented by silica into a hardpan,

it is referred to as a “duripan” or in the geological literature as “silcrete” or “duricrust”

(Milnes and Twidale 1983). In Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2010), a duripan is defined

as a “silica-cemented subsurface horizon with or without auxiliary cementing agents.” Other

cementing agents could be Fe oxides and CaCO3. The duripan horizon can occur concurrently

with a petrocalcic horizon 

vii. Fragipan
A fragipan is an altered subsurface horizon with fifteen centimeters or more thickness.

It has low amount of organic matter and high bulk density. It is very hard. Fragipan is a

subsurface diagnostic horizon that is compact but not or only weakly cemented, with

evidence of pedogenesis (e.g., soil structure) and limited root penetration, a brittle

consistency and redoximorphic features (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).

viii. Glossic Horizon

The glossic horizon is defined as tonguing that “develops as a result of the

degradation of an argillic horizon from which clay and free iron oxides are removed” (Soil

Survey Staff (2010), p. 11). Glossic horizons occur in several orders besides Alfisols,

including Mollisols, Aridisols, Ultisols, and Spodosols. The glossic horizon is formed

after the degradation of an argillic, kandic, or natric horizon from which clay and free iron

oxides are removed.

ix. Gypsic Horizon

This is a subsoil <15cm thick of secondary gypsum accumulation. It contains at least

5% more occur in arid environment where the parent materials are rich in gypsum. The soils

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which ground water close to the surface, gypsum can accumulate by capillary rise

evaporation and transpiration. They occur most commonly in Ardisols, but cal also occur in a

few Inceptisols and Gelisols.

x. Kandic Horizon

Kandic horizons possess low activity clay dominated by kaolinite and sesquioxides,

and share properties with the argillic (relatively finer textured subsoils) and oxic (low activity

clay) diagnostic horizons.

xi. Nitric Horizon

The natric horizon has, in addition to the properties of the argillic horizon: either:

Columns or prisms in some part, which may break to blocks; or both blocky structure and

eluvial materials, which contain uncoated silt or sand grains and extend more than 2.5 cm

into the horizon; and: an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of 15 percent or more (or a

sodium adsorption ratio [SAR] of 13 or more) in one or more horizons within 40 cm of its

upper boundary. Requires lab testing to measure % of sodium on CEC sites, or SAR or pore

water (saturated paste).

xii. Orstein Horizon

This is cemented horizon >25mm thick that consists of complexes of aluminium and

organic matter with or without Fe (Spodic materials) which limits root growth and the

downward movement of water. Ortsein occurs in spodosols.

xiii. Oxic Horizon

Mineral subsoil soil horizon that is at least 30 cm thick and is identified by the almost

complete absence of weatherable primary minerals, by the presence of kaolinite clay,

insoluble minerals such as quartz, hydrated oxides of iron and aluminum, and small amounts

of exchangeable bases, and by low cation-exchange capacity. It is the distinguishing subsoil

horizon (B horizon) of an Oxisol.

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xiv. Petrocalcic Horizon

They are mainly concentration of carbonates. They are associated with Aridsols but

also occur in Alfisols, Mollisols and Inceptisols.

xv. Petrogypsic Horizon

This is a cemented or indurated, gypsic horizon 10cm thick, whose dry flakes do not

slake in water. They are commonly associated with Aridisols.

xvi. Placic Horizon

This is a (<25mm), dark coloured (dark reddish brown to black) horizon that is

cemented by either Mn or Fe and organic matter and lies within 50cm of the soil surface and

is wavy, involved and slowly permeable. They are associated mainly with Spodisols and

Inceptisols.

xvii. Salic Horizon

Subsurface horizon with pedogenic enrichment of salts more soluble than gypsum

NaCl, KCl, MgCl, NaSO4, MgSO4, etc. Defined by EC (electrical conductivity): at least 30

dS/cm in saturated paste“Bz”, or Bnz, Byz, etc. If ochric or albic has <20% clay, clay content

must double within 7.5 cm or less.If ochric or albic has >20% clay, increase of 20% clay

(absolute) within 7.5 cm, and clay content in some part of argillic should be double that of

ochric/albic.

xviii. Sobric Horizon

Is a free draining horizon, not under an albic horizon has the darkness and base

saturation of an umbric epipedon and has formed by illuviation of human but not of Al or Na.

it may easily be mistaken for a buried horizon. They are largely confined to the cool, moist

soils of high platens or mountains of the tropics and occur in Inceptisols, Oxisols and

Ultisols.

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xix. Spodic horizon

Illuvial accumulation of organic matter and aluminum (+/- iron), Dark colored

(value, chroma < 3). Low base saturation (acidic), Formed under humid acid conditions

2.3 The Concept of Soil Classification

According to (Foth 2006), It is widely recognized that classification without a precise

definition of its object is impossible. Dokuchaev, commonly regarded as the founder of soil

science, gave the first scientific definition of soils. However, as evidenced by the constant

appearance of old and new definitions, there is the need to improve Dokuchaev’s definition

or give another one. For example, in a recent study, Hartemink (2015) analyzes eighty-one

definitions of soils and suggests another. However, these new definitions, in contrast to

Dokuchaev’s one, for the most part only list the diagnostic properties of soils, leaving their

essential character without proper attention. Their essential nature lies in their duality—on

the one hand, the soils are independent natural bodies (that is, systems), and on the other hand

they are the result of the interaction and interrelationship of soil-forming factors (that is,

elements of systems). As an example, we give the definitions of soils presented in the

explanatory notes to the “world reference base for soil resources” (WRB), the U.S. soil

taxonomy and Russian soil classification system: – For WRB, soil is: any material within two

meters of the Earth’s surface that is in contact with the atmosphere, excluding living

organisms, areas with continuous ice not covered by other material, and bodies of water

deeper than two meters.

Judging from the foregoing, (Esu 2010 and Nwaka, 2012), defined soil classification

as the systematic arrangement of soils into groups or categories on the basis of

characteristics. Soils under continuous rock, except those that occur in caves, are generally

not considered for classification. In special cases, the WRB may be used to classify soils

under rock, for example for palaeopedological reconstruction of the environment. (IUSS

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Working Group WRB 2015, 4) – For “U.S. Soil Taxonomy” (Soil Survey Staff 1999): “Soil

is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that

occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the

following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of

additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support

rooted plants in a natural environment.”

For the Russian soil classification system (Shishov et al. 2004): “The soil is a natural

or natural-anthropogenic solid-phase body, exposed on the land surface, formed as a result of

long-term interaction of the processes leading to the differentiation of the original mineral

and organic material into horizons.” It should be recalled that there are two main versions of

the definition of soils proposed by Dokuchaev, which have a similar first part (namely, the

soil is an independent natural body) and are distinguished by their second part. These two

parts of the definition reflect the dual nature of the soil. The second part of the well-known

first version, which is commonly used every day: “Each soil is the product of the aggregate

activity of parent material, climate, vegetation, and topography” (Dokuchaev 1879, 1). This

second part of the first version varies in other works of Dokuchaev, since he returned to it

many times over many years. Much more rarely is this second part used, namely: soils are

“those daily or outward horizons of rocks which are more or less changed naturally by the

common effect of water, air and various kinds of living and dead organisms” (Dokuchaev

1886, 227). A comparison of these second parts of the two versions of the definition shows

that, unlike the second part of the first version, the second part of the second version

corresponds to the systems approach, despite the fact that it does not use its terminology

(Nikiforova and Fleis 2018).

However, at present, only the first part of Dokuchaev’s definition is used as the basis

for soil classification, while the second is either not used at all, or its use is only declared (see

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Buol et al. 1980, 17; 320; Florea 2012; Lebedeva and Gerasimova 2009). For example, Jenny

(1941, 1-21) draws attention to the fact that most soil scientists deal only with the soil as such

(that is, with the soil as an independent natural body), but not with the soil as a part of a wider

system, namely the natural landscape or the environment,” however, “often it is not

sufficiently realized that the boundary between soil and environment is artificial.” In turn,

Karpachevsky (1981) expresses the following view: “An analysis of the soil definition given

by V.V. Dokuchaev shows that although soil is a special natural body … it should always be

considered as a subsystem of the other natural systems. There is no soil out of these systems.

This provision, explicitly or implicitly, normally provides the foundation of all scientific

researches of soils.” Fridland (1986, 9) considers the relationship of soils with soil formation

factors to be their main property. However, it is the second version of the definition of

Dokuchaev, which is currently used to Know. Org. 46(2019) No.6 A. A. Nikiforova. Soil

Classification studies the landscape in Russia. Moreover, mainly because of this version,

Dokuchaev is considered to be the founder of Russian landscape science, despite the fact that

he never used the term landscape in his works. The definition of soils affects the set of

objects that are proposed for inclusion in SCSs. For example, in addition to natural terrestrial

soils, it is proposed to include in SCSs: 1) regolith and groundwater, which together with the

soil form an integrated natural body that supports life on Earth (Krasilnikov and Arnold 2009,

329); 2) superficial friable rocks, redeposited and artificially accumulated soils, as well as

underwater bottom formations located at a shallow depth and serving as a substrate for green

plants (Fridland 1986, 8-9); and, 3) all exogenous bodies characterized by fertility, since they

are genetically related to soils by gradual transitions, perform biospheric ecological functions

of soils, and are objects of economic activity, cartography, and accounting (Sokolov 1991).

Classification of soils consists of the division of soils into classes based on their

genetic, textural, chemical, mineralogical, physical, or geotechnical characteristics. The

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nature of the parent rock influences the composition of the resulting soil. The weathering

processes and type and amount of transport before deposition, as in the case of sedimentary

soils, affect the structure of the soils and their engineering properties.

2.4 History of Classification

People were managing soils for ages. Of course, from the very beginning of the

agrarian civilization they noted that the soils are different (Yaalon 2008). This knowledge

then was then used by the governors for evaluating land value and, consequently, the taxes.

The earliest known soil classification system in the world can be find in an ancient Chinese

book Yugong (2,500 y.b.p.), where soils of China were classified into three categories and

nine classes based on soil color, texture and hydrologic features; the classification was used

for land evaluation (Gong Zitong 1994). Ancient name for Egypt – Kemet means fertile black

alluvial soils, while Deshret means red desert land. About 3,000 y.b.p. different arable soils

had different cost in Egypt: “nemhuna” soils cost 3 times more than “ sheta-teni” soils

(Krupenikov 1981). This tradition continued in newer times. For example, in Russia a

systematic survey of folk soil knowledge was started in the 16th century, when special books

were created to evaluate soil resources of the state; these books were prepared by

interviewing the peasants about the quality and productivity of their lands. These books

mainly included short characteristics of soils, like poor sandy soil, clayey stony soils, fat

loams etc. Later, in 19th century, the survey became more regular, and perennial data were

published in a series of books “Materials on Statistics of Russia”, where a number of local

folk soil names for soils were listed. The materials were also used for preparing first soil

maps of Russia, which, in fact, were based on ethnopedological survey.

2.4.1 The Zonality Concept of Soil Classification Systems

The soils that have fully developed soil profiles, and are in equilibrium with the

environmental conditions, such as climate and vegetation, are termed as Zonal Soils, for

instance Sierozem, Chestnut, Podzols and Laterites.

19
2.4.2 Zonal or Normal Soil

Zonal Soils are formed by long period effect of vegetation and climate and thus are

distributed throughout the world according to the vegetative and climatic conditions. Zonal

soils are further divided into following types: - 1. Pedalfer Soil: - It is made up of three words

(Ped+ Al + Fe). Ped means soil. So Pedalfer are those soil having large amount of aluminum

and iron. It is formed by the process of Laterization. Pedalfer soil is further divided into two

groups: - a) Forest Region Pedalfer soil b) Grassland Region Pedalfer soil 2. Pedocal soils: -

(Ped + Cal) Ped means soil and Cal stands for calcium. So Pedocal soils are having large

amount of calcium. In such type of soil calcium comes to the upper layer of soil from its

lower layers by the process of Capillary Action. Pedocal soils are further divided into

following groups: - a) Chernozem Soils b) Brown Steppe Soils c) Desert Pedocal Soils 3.

Tundra Soils: - It is found in the Tundra region and due to very cold climatic condition these

soils are much less developed again due to lack of Bacterial activity these soils are not fertile.

2.4.3 Azonal or Immature Soil

These are not having developed layers of Soil Profile and are also not formed by any

specific process. These undeveloped soils have humus and minerals deposition at many

places. Alluvial, Loess, Moraine, and Lithosol are prominent Azonal soil among which

Alluvial soils are much fertile soils which are found in the flood plains of the world formed

by different rivers. Deposition of new layers of soil every year by floods caused by these

reivers has made them much fertile but this is also the basic reason why such soils have less

developed soil profile.

2.4.4 Intrazonal Solis

These are formed by the combined effect of parent rocks, surface features, drainage

factors etc. As such soils are found in scattered way between the Zonal soils these are known

as Intra-Zonal soils. Regur or Black soils, Rendzina soil, Peat, Bog soil, Muck soil,

20
Solanchak, Solonetz etc. are prominent Intra-Zonal soils. These soils are somewhere fertile

while somewhere infertile.

2.4.5 Classification Systems Used in Africa

The continent of Africa covers 30 million km2 and straddles the sub-tropical and

tropical belts from the Mediterranean (37oN) to the Cape of Good Hope (35 oS). Its enormous

size and variations in relief give a wide variety of climates, soils and agricultural systems.

Nowhere in Africa is rainfall evenly distributed over the year; there are everywhere distinct

wet and dry seasons. High isolation and high evaporation are about the only common factors.

2.4.6 USDA Taxonomy System

The system of soil classification used by the National Cooperative Soil Survey has six

categories (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). Beginning with the broadest, these categories are

the Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, family, and Series.  These categories are

defined in the following paragraphs.

Order – Twelve soil orders are recognized. The differences among orders reflect the

dominant soil forming processes and the degree of soil formation. Each order is identified by

a word ending in 'sol.' An example is Alfisols.

Suborder - Each order is divided into suborders primarily on the basis of properties that

influence soil formation and/or are important to plant growth.

Great Group – Each suborder is divided into great groups on the basis of similarities in

horizons present, soil moisture or temperature regimes, or other significant soil properties.

Subgroup – Each great group has a ‘typic’ (typical) subgroup which is basically defined by

the Great Group. Other Subgroups are transitions to other orders, suborders, or great groups

due to properties that distinguish it from the great group.

Family – Families are established within a subgroup on the basis of physical and chemical

properties along with other characteristics that affect management.

21
Series – The series consists of soils within a family that have horizons similar in color,

texture, structure, reaction, consistence, mineral and chemical composition, and arrangement

in the profile.

2.4.7 The Ghana System of Classification

The Ghana soil classification system, based on the USDA Soil Taxonomy system

is providing a system of soil associations made up of a total of 360 different soil

series (Effland et al., 2009) , as documented in the SRI Soil Survey Memoirs (Adu et al.,

2003). There are four orders, namely:

a. Climatophytic earths: These are well drained soils whose genesis is considered to

have been predominantly influenced by climate and vegetation of the areas in which

they occur.

b. Topohydric earths: The morphological and physico-chemical characteristics of these

soils are primarily influenced by the relief and drainage conditions. They have

impeded drainage.

c. Lithochronic earths: The developments of these soils are mainly influenced by parent

material and time over which the soil is developed. The profiles of these soils are

generally immature.

2.4.8 The OSRTOM (Office de la Recharche Scientifique Ct Technique Outremer)

The ORSTROM system is known as the French system. It is comparable to the Ghana

system in as much as soil are divided into broad groups based on the extent of weathering and

leaching, it consist of groups which are broadly related to climate and vegetation belts. It is

mainly used throughout the French-speaking countries. This system is a natural system based

not on simple parameters or diagnostic horizons but on the evolution of the profile as a whole

and is associated with the work of G. Albert and others and covers all the world’s soils.

22
2.4.9 The FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System World Reference Base (WRB) for

Soil Resources.

In 1974, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations

published its soil map of the legend. The legend of the Soil Map of the World is not meant to

replace any of the national classification schemes but to serve as a common denominator"

(FAO, 1974). The legend is described by its authors as a "monocategorical classification," but

is presented as a two level hierarchical system of 26 first level classes ("soil units") and 106

second level classes with three kinds of textural phases, three slope phases, and twelve

management phases. A great deal of generalization was required to correlate the diversity of

classification systems and scales of mapping to one system. The map's scale for this system is

1:5,000,000 and is equally general in detail (one cm2 on the map equals 2500 km2).

Nevertheless, this system as well as others is useful to organize the diversity of soils and their

characteristics into more manageable classes.

Since the original publication in 1974, FAO (1988) has made revisions to their legend

based on a better understanding of soil conditions. The modified legend applies only to new

studies and updated GIS based maps. There are now 28 first level classes and 153 second

level classes. A major change to the legend has been the removal of two first level classes

that were defined by an aridic soil moisture regime, Yermosols and Xerosols. This change

was based on one of FAO's general principles of their classification system, "that no climatic

criteria would be used to define the soil units." The two classes were originally established

because there were no better separation criteria. Accumulation of calcium carbonate and

gypsum are now used as additional separation criteria to deal with the aridic problem.

Calcisols and Gypsisols classes were introduced for this purpose. These soils occur

predominately under arid and semi-arid conditions (FAO, 1988, p. 5-6).

23
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Material and Method

3.1 Location

The study was carried out in the main campus of University of Abuja, geographically

located between latitude 070 59' 20" and 080 58' 24" N and longitude 0060 54' 06" and 0070

10' 00" E, in the following locations within the University of Abuja land.

i. Institute of Education

ii. Behind ASUU Secretariat

iii. Teaching and research farm

iv. Front of secretariat building

3.2 Preparation of Profile Pits

To make detail description of each soil mapping unit a total of five (5) profile pits

representative site was selected, and dug with the standard dimension of 2m x 1m x 2m with

a depth of atleast 15cm.

The depth of each profile pit was dependent on depth to water table or any

impediment (impenetrable layer) at depth which may not permit further digging. Land and

soil properties at each profile pit site will be described and examined in details and record in

the standard soil survey profile form.

3.2.1 Field Studies

3.2.2 Reconnaissance

Prior visit was carried out at various locations within the University of Abuja Main

campus and the field conditions were observed and noted. In each of the selected, the

topographic features were assessed and sites for profile pit were marked and geo-referenced

preparatory for the soil studies. After detailed description of the profile, soil samples were

24
taken from each diagnostic horizon for both physical and chemical laboratory analysis,

starting from the lower horizons coming upwards to avoid contamination. Samples for bulk

density determination will be equally collected using core sampler of 100f/cc.

3.2.3 Sampling Process

The collected samples for routine analysis and for analysis of physiochemical

properties will be carefully labeled for identification and air dry at room temperature. The air

dried samples will be crushed using a mortar and a pestle and sieved with a 2.00m sieve

mesh. All samples were re-bagged, coded and transported to the laboratory for analysis

Samples for bulk density were immediately weighed and oven dry at a temperature of

105c until a constant weight is attain. The values obtained were used to determine/calculate

for bulk density and total porosity.

3.3 Physical Laboratory Method

The soil textures were determined by the hydrometer method (Tee and Baunder,

(1986); Citedin Kiute, 1986). Limited chemical treatments will be used to remove cementing

agents. Samples will be shake overnight with colgon/sodium hexa-metaphosphate and

sodium carbonate) solution in an end-to-end mechanical shaker at 40 r.p.m.

A measurement of silt clay (0-5mm) and clay (0.20mm) was carried out with a

micrometer ASTM 15211 hydrometer after 40 seconds and 3 hours respectively. The sand

fraction (50-2.0mm) will be obtained by difference. Soil textural classes will be read directly

from the standard U.S Department of Agriculture textural Ariangle (soil survey staff, 1975).

3.3.1 Particle Size Analysis

Particle size distribution was determined using the bouyancus method (hydrometer) as

described by Udo et al., (2009). Distilled water and neutral sodium hexa-metaphosphate

(calgon) will be used (50gram of the soil sample will be treated to aid dispersion).

25
 The first hydrometer and temperature reading will be taken within the first 40 seconds

to one minute. The second readings will be taken after two hours. The results will be

calculated to give the percentage sand, soil, and clay.

Soil bulk density will be determined by using the core method (Blake and Hartage,

1986, cited in Klute, 1986). The samples will be oven dried for 24 hours at 105 0C, cool in

desiccators and then weighed. The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksal) will be determined

by the constant method outlined by Klute and Direnson (1986).

3.4 Chemical Laboratory Method

3.4.1 Soil Reaction (PH) and Electrical Conductivity (EC)

The PH will be measured with a glass electrode Ph meter on 1:1 suspension of soil in

water and on KCl solution, in all cases after shaking for 1 hour, as described by Black ?

(1965). The electrical conductivity will also be measured on the 1:1 soil-water suspension

using direct reading conductivity meter using electrodes and the results reported in ds/m.

3.4.2 Organic Carbon

The percentage organic carbon will be determined by the Walkey and Black method

(Nelson and Sommer, 1982; cited in Face et al., 1982). The percentage of easily oxidizable

organic carbon will be determined by digesting the soil samples with potassium dichromate

in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid

3.4.3 Total Nitrogen

The total Nitrogen will be determined by the Kjedhal method (Bremmer, 1967; cited

in Face et al., 1982). Organic nitrogen compound will be digested in the mixture of selenium

and sulphuric acid. Sodium hydroxide will be added to the mixture to make it absorbed in

boric acid. The released ammonia will be determined by titrating with dilute sulphuric acid.

26
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and Discussion

4.1 Results

4.1.1 Morphological Properties of the Soils

Results of the morphological properties were presented in table 1 in the main project

work. However an appendix shall be referenced for the purpose of this presentation. Data on

morphological characteristics are shown on table 4.1.

4.1.2 Soil Colour and Mottles

The result showed that soil colour of the soil at different depth level at the crest of the

catena varied between dark brown (10YR 4/3) at the surface horizon to yellowish red (5YR

4/6). In the upper slope, the colour ranged from light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), while

within the profile the colour varied between yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) to brownish yellow

(10YR 5/4). In the middle slope profile, the odour was Brown (10YR5/3) and varies at depth

from yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) to light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4). At the lower slope,

the colour sited was grayish brown (10YR 7/1) at the depression, soil colour ranges between

the surface, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) to the subsurface light yellowish brown (10YR

6/4).

Mottles were absent in the soil at crest, upper slope, middle slope of the catena.

However, at the lower slope and depression, mottles were common all through the profile

depth. The mottles estimated at the surface of the lower slope and depression was 2.20%,

while within the subsurface, the mottles estimated were up to 40%.

4.1.3 Soil Structure

Soil structure as observed in the soils of the crest was slightly coarse sub angular

blocky at the surface and was uniform through the sub surface horizon. In the upper slope, the

soil was moderate medium crumb with changes varying from medium moderate sub angular

27
blocky top slightly coarse moderate sub angular blocky at the surface and moderately coarse

angular blocky at the subsurface. The structure of the soil at the lower slope was moderate

medium sub-angular blocky and slightly medium prismatic at its subsurface level. In the

depression, the surface horizon had moderate medium and sub-angular blocky structure

uniformly to a depth of 94-120 (cm), which turns to be slightly coarse angular blocky

structure.

28
29
30
31
32
4.2 Physical Properties of the Soils
Table 4.2: Physical Properties of Soil
Location Pedon Depth Horizon Particle Size %
Sand Silt Clay Tc Mc Bd Tp
Institute of Crest 1 0-13 Ap 1 75.0 7.0 18.0 SL 3.04 1.17 55
education 13-37 Ap 2 55.0 21.0 24.0 SCL 4.36 0.89 66
37-70 Bt 1 55.0 9.0 36.0 SC 8.50 1.11 58
70-110 Bt 2 54.0 10.0 36.0 SC 11.80 1.09 58
Behind ASUU Crest 2 0-19 A 74.0 8.0 38.0 SC 1.21 1.88 55
secretariat 19.50 E 64.0 11.0 25.0 SCL 6.98 0.99 63
50-66 Bt 1 54.0 8.0 38.0 SC 2.38 1.14 57
66-200 Bt 2 52.5 9.5 38.0 SC
Institute of Upper Slope 0-15 Ap 71.5 9.5 19.0 SL 3.18 1.37 48
Education 1 15-30 E 70.0 15.0 15.0 SL 4.54 1.04 61
30-57 Bt 1 57.0 19.0 24.0 SCL 8.58 1.02 62
57-80 Bt2 44.0 25.0 32.0 CL 1.31 0.80 70
80-140 Bt3 43.0 22.0 35.0 CL 9.16 1.44 46
Behind ASUU Upper slope 0-12 Ap 71.0 14.0 15.0 SL 2.17 1.19 55
Secretariat 2 12-28 AB 69.0 12.0 19.0 SL 2.06 1.14 57
28-53 Bt1 47.5 24.0 28.5 SCL 3.94 1.18 55
53-80 Bt2 42.5 25.0 32.5 SC 6.63 0.93 65
80-180 BC 43.0 26.0 31.0 CL 6.06 0.79 70
Teaching and Middle 0-10 Ap 65.0 17.0 18.0 SL 3.41 1.29 51
Research farm slope 1 10-38 AB 62.0 16.0 22.0 SL 3.48 1.01 62
38-75 Bt1 62.0 12.0 26.0 SCL 3.73 0.81 69
75-100 Bt2 64.0 8.0 28.0 SCL 6.94 1.35 49
100-140 BC 56.0 18.6 25.4 SCL 8.63 1.05 60
Front of Middle 0-16 Ap 63.0 11.0 26.0 SCL 4.37 1.29 51
secretariat slope 2 16-60 AB 42.0 20.0 38.0 CL 6.65 1.09 59
building 60-84 Bt1 43.0 19.0 38.0 CL 7.00 0.81 69
84-106 Bt2 46.0 16.0 38.0 SC 10.30 1.35 49
106-200 BC 42.0 13.0 45.0 C 23.96 1.05 60
Teaching and Lower slope 0-12 Ap1 71.0 14.0 15.0 SL 2.72 1.07 60
research farm 1 12-36 Ap2 70.0 15.0 15.0 SL 4.39 1.20 55
36-69 Bt1 58.0 20.0 22.0 SCL 4.56 1.45 45
69-120 Bt2 57.0 19.0 24.0 SCL 12.14 1.45 45
120-200 Bt3 43.0 25.0 32.0 CL 8.81 1.55 42
Behind ASUU Lower slope 0-16 Ap1 72.0 12.0 16.0 SL 0.02 1.14 57
secretariat 2 16-30 Ap2 69.0 13.0 18.0 SL 14.16 0.84 68
30-69 Bt1 63.0 10.0 27.0 SCL 1.63 1.18 55
69-100 Bt2 43.0 26.0 31.0 CL 3.42 1.00 62
100-120 Bt3 43.0 24.0 33.0 CL 4.92 1.16 56
Teaching and Depression 0-18 Ap 75.0 7.0 18.0 SL 3.75 1.15 57
research farm 18-53 Bt1 69.0 6.0 25.0 SCL 6.40 1.32 50
53-94 Bt2 62.0 10.0 28.0 SCL 6.27 1.16 56
94-120 BC 42.0 25.0 33.0 CL 11.11 1.04 61
Depression 0-20 Ap 71.0 14.0 15.0 SL 7.89 1.08 59
20-48 AB 58.0 20.0 22.0 SCL 9.10 1.08 59
48-84 Bt1 57.0 19.0 24.0 SCL 8.02 0.75 72
84-115 Bt2 43.0 26.0 31.0 CL 5.70 1.17 56
115-137 2C1 40.0 16.0 44.0 C 11.16 1.23 54
137-200 2C2 40.5 15.0 44.5 C 32.88 1.09 59

33
4.2.1 Soil Texture and Aggregate Stability

The result of the particle size distribution of various pedons was carried out on (g/kg).

at the crest of the positions, sand particles ranged from 75.0-54.0 within the profile, while the

silt content ranged from 18.0-36.0. The sand decreased with depth pit while clay content

increased with depth. At the upper slope positions, the sand content ranged from 71.5-43.0

(%) and decreased with depth, while the silt ranged from 9.5-22.0 (%) and the clay content

ranged from 19.0-35.0 (%). At the middle slope positions, sand content ranged from 65.0-

56.0 (%) while the silt content ranged from 14.0-25.0 (%) and the clay content was showed to

be 15.0-32.0. at the lower slope. It showed decrease of sand particles with profile depth and

increase of the clay content respectively. In the depression the sand particles ranged from

75.0-42.0 (%), while the silt ranged from 7.0-25.0 (%) and the clay content ranged from 18.0-

33.0 (%).

The data showed that the soil textural class that at the crest, the soil texture was sandy

loam, at the surface of the horizon and varied from sandy clay loam to sandy clay at the

subsurface horizon. At the upper slope, the soil texture was sandy loam and varied with depth

to sandy clay loam. Sandy loam soil at the surface horizon and sandy clay loam to clay loam

at the subsurface. At the middle slope, the soil texture was sandy loam and varies with depth

to sandy clay loam. Sandy loam soil at the surface horizon was at the lower slope and

likewise for depression which contains also clay content.

Further calculations were made to discover the moisture content, bulk density and

total porosity.

4.3 The Soil Chemical Properties

The chemical properties of soils from a position in the university of Abuja land of

Faculty of Agriculture University of Abuja, Abuja Nigeria are presented in table 4.3

34
4.3.1 Soil pH

The pH of the soil which is called soil reaction (determined at the ratio of 1:1),

showed pH in water ranged from 5.35-5.60, while pH in KCl ranged from 5.85-9.95 at the

crest. This pH range is interpreted as strongly acidic to moderately acidic in H 2O and

moderately acidic to strongly acidic in KCl. At the upper slope, pH in water ranged from

5.70-5.74 and 5.05-5.20 in KCl. This range of pH is interpreted as moderately acidic to very

strongly acidic. The range from 5.36-5.20 and was interpreted as moderately acidic to

strongly acidic. For the lower slope of the toposequence, pH ranges from 5.86-6.00 in H 2O

(moderately acidic). Lastly, in the soils of the depression, the pH of the soil within the profile

pH ranged from 6.50-6.76 (slightly acidic neutral) in H2O, while in KCl, the pH value ranged

from 5.85-6.28 (moderately acidic to slightly acidic).

It is observed that the pH in water is higher than the pH in KCl, also the pH values

were lower in the surface horizons and higher than in the sub surface horizons. This means

that the soils at the surface of the soils were more acidic than in the sub surface horizons.

4.3.2 Soil Electrical Conductivity

At the crest in the toposequence, the soil electrical conductivity ranged from 0.13-0.8

ds/cm. for the upper slope, the soil electrical conductivity ranged from 0.12-0.10 ds/cm. in

the middle slope, it ranged from 0.12-0.10 ds/cm, for the lower slope, the electrical

conductivity ranged from 0.15-0.12 ds/cm. at the depression of the toposequence, it ranged

from 0.11-0.09. These values were interpreted generally as low compared to the critical limit

of 0.45 ds/cm at which the soils are said to have salinity problems.

4.3.3 Soil Organic Carbon and Organic Matter

The distribution of organic carbon and organic matter in the soils at the crest along

the toposequence had organic carbon content ranged from 22.30-22.50 g/kg. These values are

interpreted as moderate to high. At upper slope, soil organic carbon ranged from 8.50-9.

35
80g/kg and correlated with soil organic matter content of 14.60-16.80 g/kg and is interpreted

as moderate to high. In the middle slope, soil organic carbon content ranged from 11.10-6.00

g/kg which correlated with moderate to high. At the lower slope, the soil organic carbon

ranged from 9.10-9.60 g/kg moderate to high for depression, the soil organic matter, which

ranged from 15.60-16.50 g/kg moderate to high for depression, the soil organic carbon

content ranged from 7.00-3.40 g/kg which correlated to soil organic matter of 12.00-5.80

g.kg, interpreted as moderate to high.

4.3.4 Total Nitrogen and Available Phosphorus

The distribution of total Nitrogen at various pedons along the toposequence ranged

from crest 1.24-0.12mg/kg, upper slope ranged from 1.18-0.09mg/kg, middle slope ranged

from 0.10-0.25mg/kg, lower slope ranged from 1.28-0.09 and at the depression on the

toposequence it ranged from 1.16-0.03mg/kg.

Available phosphorus in the soil within the profile depth of each pedon, crest ranged

from 9.998-4.58mg/kg, upper slope ranged from 46.65-4.166mg/kg, middle slope ranged

from 37.082-10.415mg/kg and for depression the available phosphorus ranged from 59.165-

15.832mg/kg. the values for available phosphorus in the crest, upper slope, middle slope and

lower slope was interpreted as low while in depression it was interpreted as low to moderate.

4.3.5 Exchangeable Cations of the Soil

In the distribution of exchangeable cations in the soil as shown in table 2 at different

pedon, the result indicate that exchangeable potassium (K) in the soils within the profile

depth of the crest ranged from 0.15-0.10cmol/kg. In upper slope, it ranged from 0.12-

0.19cmol/kg. At the middle slope it ranged from 0.27-0.16cmol/kg. At lower slope, the

exchangeable potassium ranged from 0.14-0.09cmol/kg, while for depression it ranged from

0.20-0.10cmol/kg. Potassium (K) was found to be decreasing with increase in depth and was

higher at the surface compared to the subsurface horizon.

36
 Exchangeable sodium (Na) within the profile pit: At the crest of the catena

exchangeable sodium ranged from 0.07-0.06cmol/kg. These values were interpreted as very

low in the soils. At the upper slope, it ranged from 0.06-0.07 cmol/kg, interpreted as very low

for middle slope the values ranged from 0.02-0.03cmol/kg, while at the lower slope, the

distribution ranged from 0.01-0.06 cmol/kg, interpreted generally as very low within the

profile pit.

Exchangeable Magnesium (Mg) in the soils within the profile pit: At crest, the

distribution ranged from 5.66-2.91cmol/kg, it ranged from 4.39-5.37 at the upper slope, also,

for the middle slope it ranged from 2.99-4.36cmol/kg at the lower slope, it ranged from 3.30-

4.11cmol/kg and for the soils at the depression, the distribution ranged from

2.98-3.96cmol/kg.

Exchangeable calcium (Ca) distribution within the profile pit located at different

pedons. At the crest, Calcium distribution in the soil ranged from 7.66-4.86cmol/kg. at the

upper slope, Ca ranged from 6.74-6.41cmol/kg. In the middle slope, calcium ranged from

4.69-6.79cmol/kg. In the lower slope, calcium distribution ranged from 3.37-6.22cmol/kg. at

the depression, it ranged from 4.61-5.63cmol/kg. These ranges of calcium values across the

different pedon positions are interpreted as very low to moderate.

Exchangeable Aluminum (Al) in the soil within the profile pit at the crest of the

catena ranged from 0.27-0.72cmol/kg, while for the upper slope, the exchangeable aluminum

ranged from 0.41-0.53cmol/kg. For the soils in the middle slope, the distribution of

aluminum ranged from 0.41-0.28cmol/kg, while soils in the lower slope, exchangeable

aluminum values ranged from 0.41-0.58. In the depression, aluminum distribution in the soil

ranged from 0.2-0.38cmol/kg.

37
38
39
4.2.6 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC), Percentage Base Saturation (PBS)

and Total Exchange Bases (TEB)

The effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) of the soils from the crest ranged from

15.64 – 9.85 cmol/kg. at the upper slope, the ECEC ranged from 13.72-14.62 cmol/kg. in the

middle slope, the ECEC ranged from 10.66-13.53 cmol/kg. at the lower slope, the ECEC

distribution in the soil ranged from 8.69-11.45 cmol/kg while at the depression, the values of

ECEC ranged from 9.89-12.22cmol/kg.

A total exchangeable base was low to moderate base on the distribution of

exchangeable cations in the soil within the profile pit. At the crest, the total exchangeable

bases of the soil ranged from 13.46-7.98 cmol/kg. in the upper slope, it ranged from 11.25-

12.40 cmol/kg, while in the lower slope, the distribution values ranged from 6.23-8.89

cmol/kg. at the depression, the TEB values ranged from 7.89-7.75cmol/kg.

For percentage base saturation (PBS) of the soils within the profile pit, the values

obtained for the crest ranged from 86.1-80.5% while for the upper slope, the values ranged

from 81.9-82.4%. in the middle slope, the values of PBS ranged from 74.9-83.8% while for

the lower slope, PBS distribution values ranged from 71.7-77.6%. at the depression position,

the values ranged from 79.9-79.8%. these values of base saturation in the soils across the

different pedon positions was high.

40
4.2.7 Soil Classification
Table 4 Soil Classification
Soil Unit USDA Order Sub-Order Great Group Sub-Group WRB (FAO)
Crest 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Crest 2 Inceptisols Ustepts Haplustepts Typic
Haplustepts
Upper Slope 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Upper slope 2 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Middle Slope 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Middle Slope 2 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Lower Slope 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs ypic
Haplustepts
Lower Slope 2 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Typic
Haplustepts
Depression 1 Alfisol Aqualfs Haploqualf Fluventic
Haploqualf
Depression 2 Alfisol Aqualfs Haploqualf Fluventic
Haploqualf

The soils of the study area were classified according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil

Survey Staff, 2014) and correlated with the World Reference Base (FAO., 2014). Table 4.4

shows the classified soils. In classifying these soils, certain criteria were considered. These

include the nature of endo and epipedons, type of diagnostic horizons, the cation exchange

capacity, the development of horizons, percentage base saturation based on CEC, organic

carbon content, the presence of absence of concretions (plinthites, duripan, fragipan, e.t.c),

the presence or absence of phological description of the soil. Due to inability to conduct

mineralogical analysis, texture as also used as part of the criteria for assigning taxonomic

classes and the classification cutans, drainage characteristics, moisture regime, and colour as

determined during the topped only at the subgroup level.

Classifications into the USDA order, sub-order, great-group and sub-group were carried

out on the basis of properties of diagnostic horizons of soil that reflects the nature of the soil

environment and the dominant pedogenic processes that are responsible for the soil

41
formation. The soils of the crest, upper and lower slopes were classified into the order

inceptisols (Cambisol) because of the young nature of the soil characterized bay partial

weathering at shallow depths of about 100cm depth and saprolites in the sub soils. The soils

were then considered in the sub-order as Ustept based on their ustic moisture regime up to the

depth of 100cm and beyond. The pedons were further placed in Great group Huplustept

having well drained soils with hues of 10YR and value of up to 4 and 6 and absence of

mottles.

The middle slope pedon was placed in the order Alfisol because it showed young soils

with moderate leaching, B horizon enriched in clay and humid forest vegetation. The pedon

was placed in the sub-order Alfa because of its ustic moisture regime; because of the

presence of a Plinthic Cambisol in the world reference base.

The pedon located at the depression of the catena was classified and placed in the

USDA order of Alfisol because the soils are young and characterized by partial weathering of

parent materials, moderate leaching and heavy presence of saprolites in the sub surface

horizon. Based on the characteristic aquic moisture regime at about 115cm depth of the

profile, the soil was classified as Acqualf in the sub order level and Haloqualf in the group. In

the sub group level, the soil were classified as Fluventic Haploqualf and correlates with

Endogleyiccambisol (Eutric) in the world reference base

4.3 Discussion of Results

The soil colour was uniformly within the hue range of 10YR which mean that the

soils matrix colour was yellow red as in most tropical soils and mostly within the value range

of 5 and 6 and in some cases the value of 2 when the hue is darker. The chroma of the soils

was mostly from 4-8 indicating that the soils were mostly light coloured especially in the

crest down to the lower slope. Sani (2012) reported similar results in a study within Abuja.

This suggests that the soils were well drained and had little or no drainage problems.

42
However, the dark and grey colour observed in the soils of the depression indicates poor

drainage especially with the high presence of mottles in the soils.

Soil colour is an important indicator of soil drainage condition as well as presence or

absence of organic matter in the soils. The bright or lighter colours observed in the upper

pedons (crest, upper, middle and lower slopes) also suggest that organic matter content of

the soils may be low. The soil texture was mostly sandy clay loam uniformly at the surface of

all the pedons along the catena. In the sub surface horizons, soil texture ranged from sandy

clay loam and sandy loam. In each case sand content was high in the surface horizons and

decreased down the depth in the profile. Soil texture is the most fundamental quantitative soil

physical property that control water, nutrient and oxygen exchange, retention and uptake. It is

a master soil property that influences most other properties and processes. The predominance

of sandy loam soil under the land-use types is inherited from the parent material of the study

area which is coarse grained granite and gneiss (Okusanmi and Oyediran, 1985). The textural

composition of soil is highly influenced by parent materials (Oguike and Mbagwu, 2009). It

is an inherited property of the soil that is not influenced over a short period of time (Kiflu and

Beyene, 2013).

Soil pH was mostly moderately acidic (pH in water) but very strongly acidic (pH in

KCl). The acidic nature of the soils could be attributed to the nature of the soils and the

apparent materials from which the soils develop. The soils are formed over an

undifferentiated basement complex with mostly granites, schists, migmatites and quartz as

the primary parent materials. These are known to produce soils with acidic reaction especially

as conditioned by high rainfall regime in the area because they easily produce acidic oxides

in soil solution (Esu, 2010) and Ojanuga (2006).

The soils were of low natural fertility due to how organic matter reserve. Also, low

total nitrogen, low available phosphorus and the low status of exchangeable cations in the

43
soils could be responsible for the fertility status of the soils in the area. Organic matter has an

important influence on soil chemical properties, soil fertility status, plant nutrition and

biological activity in the soil (Brady and Weil, 2022). The low organic matter content of the

soils could mean that the soils will have low nutrient holding potential as well as low water

retention capacity. Planting crops on the soil types would require application of high doses of

organic and inorganic fertilizers.

Nitrogen reserve of the soils was very low and all the units studied. The result of the

present study agrees with the findings of Gbadegesin et al., (2001) who attributed the

decrease in total nitrogen with increasing depth to declining humus. The total nitrogen

content of the soils were generally lower, which implies that cultivation reduced the total

nitrogen content probably arising from loses through leaching, volatilization and plant uptake

since the area is under extensive cultivation.

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

The studies carried out along various toposequence within the main campus,

University of Abuja showed that the soils are mostly sandy clay, loam and sandy loam in

texture with moderate to high sand content. This makes the soils prone to leaching and loss of

some basic cations. The implication for these soils is that the nutrient holding capacity and

buffering capacity as well as water transmission and retention in the soils is affected. Applied

nutrients can easily be lost. The soils at each toposequence, the crest, upper slopes, middle

slopes and lower slopes are well drained except at the depression which is poorly drained.

This is expected because of high water table as it is common in most soils of a depression.

Due to poor drainage in the soils of the depression, swamp rice production would be most

suitable for the soils. However,, other vegetation types such as flowering trees, low lying

bushes, flowering plants, grasses, grass, live animals and sedges, could also think at soils

with poor drainage.

5.2 Recommendation

In view of the above drawn conclusions, it is now recommended that;

i. An integrated nutrient management approach as a means of enhancing the nutrient

status of the soil should be adopted for better productivity and yield of crops. The use

of high rates of organic manures will improve the physical and chemical quality of

the soils.

ii. Liming materials rich in calcium and magnesium should be applied to the soils to

reduce its acidic content and improve fertility and oxygen levels. This is because the

soils are already having low PH values. Also, the use of fertilizers that will leave

acidic residual effects on the soils should be avoided.

45
iii. Slope gradient should be taken into consideration at the various topo units.

Moughing along the slope should be avoided to check the credibility of the soils.

46
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Kellogg, C. E. 1959. Soil classification and correlation in the soil survey. USDA-SCS.
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50
 APPENDIX
Ratings for soil data interpretation
Soil depth
Very shallow - <30cm
Shallow - <30-50cm
Moderate - 50 – 100cm
Deep - >150

Soil Reaction pH
Extremely acidic - <4.5
Very strongly acid - 4.5-5.0
Strongly acid - 5.1-5.5
Moderately acid - 5.6-6.0
Slightly acid - 6.1-6.5
Neutral - 6.6-7.3
Slightly alkaline - 7.4-7.8
Moderately alkaline - 7.9-8.4
Strongly alkaline - 8.5-9.0
Very strongly alkaline - >9.0

Organic Matter
Very low - <0.4%
Low - 0.4-1.0%
Moderate - 1.0-1.5%
High - 1.5-2.0%
Very high - >2%

Total Nitrogen
Very low - >0.05%
Low - 0.05-0.10%
Moderately low - 0.101-0.15%
Medium - 0.151-0.200%
Moderately high - 0.201-0.250%
High - 0.251-0.300%
Very high - >0.3%

Exchangeable Cations cmol (+) kg-1 (i.e. meg/100g soil)

Ca Mg K Na
Very high - >20 >8 >1.2 >2
High - 10-20 3-8 0.6-1.2 0.3-0.7
Moderately - 5-10 1-3 0.3-0.6 0.3-0.7
Low - 2.5 0.3-1 0.2-0.3 <0.1
Very low - <2.5 <0.3 <0.2

51
Cations Exchange Capacity (cmol (+) kg-1 (i.e. meg/100g soil)
Very high - >6
High - 6-12
Moderately - 12-25
Low - 25-40
Very low - <40

Base Saturation Percentage

Very high - 0-20
High - 20-40
Moderately - 40-60
Low - 60-80
Very low - 80-100

Available Phosphorus (|ppm or mg/kg)

Bray Olsen and Dean (1965)
Very low - <3 low <5
Low - 3-7 medium 5-15
Moderately - 7-20 high >15
High - >20

52
 APPENDIX II

Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy
Pedon name/number: unit/pedon Crest 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite/gneiss
Local relief: Crest
Slope: Moderately to strongly slopping -6.8% Class C
Vegetation/land use: Arable land (Maize, garden egg/G/nut)
Erosion: Moderate sheet erosion
Surface drainage: Well drained
Surface characteristics: No rock out crops
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: None
Soil classification: Affisols

Horizons:
Depth cm Description
0-13 Dark Brown (10YR 4/3) Boundary is diffused, ustic
moisture regime, thermic temperature regime, AP
horizon.
13-37 Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) Boundary is diffused, ustic
moisture regime, thermic temperature regime, parent
materials, still undeveloped weathering, AP2 horizon
37-70 Yellowish red (5Yr 4/6) Partial, weathered parent
materials still common, Bt horizon, kandic horizon
70-110 Yellowish red (5YR 4/6) C horizon with saprolites
and un-decomposed parent materials, the boundary is
R (bed rock).
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: wet and cloudy
Pedon name/number: Crest 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope adjacent to stream
Slope: Moderately to strongly slopping
Vegetation/land use: cultivated fallow land
Erosion: deposition of erosion materials from upper slope
Surface drainage: very poorly drained
Surface characteristics: inundated by surface flow
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 87cm depth
Soil classification: Affisol

53
Horizons:
Depth cm Description
0-19 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) Boundary is
defined gravelly, partial; weathering

19-50 Reddish brown (5YR 5/3) Parent material partially

weathered, boundary rocks

50-66 Yellowish red (5YR 5/6) Boarders of parent rock

fully undecomposed
66-200 Boundary is diffused, transitional AP

Date:
Weather condition prior to description: wet and cloudy
Pedon name/number: Upper Slope 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: lower slope adjacent to stream
Slope: gently slopping 2%
Vegetation/land use: cultivated fallow land
Erosion: deposition of eroded materials from upper slopes
Surface drainage: very poorly drained
Surface characteristics: inundated by surface flow
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 140cm depth
Soil classification: Affisol

Horizons:
Depth cm Description
0-15 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Boundary is
diffused, transitional AP

15-30 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) Boundary is diffused,

transitional A(EA) horizon, ustic moisture regime,
thermic temperature regime, clay films/organic
matter films in pores

30-56 Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) Boundary is diffused,

partent materials very visible with Fe and Mn
patches, ustic moisture regime, thermic temperature
regime, partially vertic
56-80 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/6) Layer is plintric
with Fe and Mn deposits and gravelly, Plinthite is
soft and penetrable, partial weathering

80-140 Yellowish brown (10YR 6/6) Partially weathered

horizon with very visible parent materials and
saprolite Fe & Mn deposits

54
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy but dry
Pedon name/number: Upper Slope 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: lower slope adjacent to stream
Slope: gently slopping 2%
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Erosion: severe
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: boundary
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 164cm depth
Soil classification: Affisol

0-12 Dark brown (10YR 4/3) Boundary is diffused,

horizon is diffused by animal traffic/grazing, AP
horizon

12-28 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) Horizon is

diffused, compacted by trampling

30-57 Brown (10 YR 5/3) Patches of Fe & Mn, boundary is

clear and wavy, contains clay films

57-80 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Partial

weathering, parent materials common ustic moisture
regime, thermic temperature regime

80-180 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Saprolite

dominant, partial weathering, ustic moisture regime
thermic temperature regime

Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: Middle slope 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 127cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol

55
0-10 Brown (10YR 5/3)Visible cracks, Fe and Mn patches,
boundary is diffused, pockets of organic matter
collected within the horizon contains OM films,
termite activities

56
10-38 Yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) Visible cracks, pocket
of organic matter clay film (constains)
38-75 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Patches of Fe &
Mn,
gravelly, ustic MR, contains clay film, boundary
diffused
75-100 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4)

Vertic horizon, ustic moisture regime, boundary is

diffused, partial weathering parent materials are
common

100-140 White (10YR 8/2)

Partial weathering, saprolite all through the horizon
thickness
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and partly sunny
Pedon name/number: Middle slope 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulating moderately slopping (class C)
Vegetation/land use: cultivated fallow and animal grazing
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: stony and rocky
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 110cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol

0-16 Strong brown (7.5 YR 5/8) Horizon influenced by

animal traffic, boundary is diffused, ustic moisture
regime, thermic temperature regime

16-60 Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) Boundary is diffused,

parent materials visible, Fe & Mn patches, cutans
visible

60-84 Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) Vertic appearance,

patches of Fe & Mn, parent materials visible

84-106 Brownish Yellow (10YR 6/6) Cracks/vertic particles,

Argillic/Kandic horizon

106-200 Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) Visible cracks all over

the horizon, saprolite visible
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: lower slope 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope

57
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 120cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol

0-12 Grayish brown (10YR 5/2) Horizon shows evidence

of poor drainage, aquatic moisture regime, thermic
temp. regime, horizon is diffused.

12-36 Dark grayish brown (7.5YR 4/2) Aquatic moisture

regime, thermic, thermic temperature regime, horizon
is diffused, patches of Fe & Mn

36-69 Light grey (10YR 2/1) Horizon is diffused, patches of

Fe & Mn horizon is vertic with very high prominent
cracks
69-100 Light brownish grey (10YR 6/2)

Horizon is diffused, partial weathering, parent

material very visible

120-200 Light grey (10YR 7/1) Saprolites visible, partial

weathering, Aquatic moisture regime

Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: lower slope 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 115cm depth
Soil classification: Afisol

0-16 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Ap horizon

boundary diffused influenced by tillage

16-30 yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) Ap2 horizon eluviations

prominent
30-64
Brownish Yellow (10YR 6/6) Saprolites and parent
rock material, Fe and Mn deposit, gravelly
64-100
Brownish Yellow (10YR 6/6) Saprolites

58
100-120 Brownish Yellow (10YR 6/6) Saprolites and parent
rock material
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: Depression 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 120cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol

0-18 Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) Horizon is diffused,

aquatic, thermic TR, termite activities

18-53 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) Boundary is

diffused, cutans, (clay films and OM films) vertices
visible, pocket of eluviated materials

53-94 yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) Partial weathering

saprolites, visible and common, vertic
properties/cracks

94-120 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Partial weathering

saprolite

Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: Depression 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 110cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol

0-20 grayish brown (10YR 3/2) Boundary is diffused poorly

drained aquatic MR

20-48 Dark grey (10YR 5/1) boundary is diffused , poorly

drained, aquatic moisture regime, thermic TR, cutans,

48-84 Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) Aquatic moisture regime, ,

59
 boundary is diffused, vertic properties

84-115 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Aquatic moisture

regime, vertic curtans, boundary is diffused

115-137 Dark brown (10YR 4/5) Aquatic moisture regime, thermic

TR, boundary is diffused

137-200 Dark brown (10YR 4/5) Horizon submerged in water

60