teeta De G3. Rec. Dr, - Barmcenme - International Relations Theory and the Third World Edited by Stephanie G. Neuman St. Martin's Press New York OA &TWO Subaltern Realism: ‘International Relations Theory Meets the Third World Mohammed Ayoob we of theory in International Relations is now well rece “Thoriesate lenses that one puts on 9 ¥ + andes the dehateheruven poivins and post-peritivse on this ieue)! Theo tral questions we ask abour our subject ate determined by our theoretical preferences. Theories, therefore, both explatv and occlude, include and x= ie: eis this process of inclusion and exclusion, in other words, ofselec- ny is perceived to be & posit “Con, that we refer to as parsimony This process of inclusion and exchusion is exremely important because it ‘nforee, reproduce, and perpetuate images of realty on which an- halps toe ’ Therefore inadequate or faulty theories can lead to policies and practices 1 to be councerprodctive be- dar may be cither inlevant of, worse daa wth cause they grossly misrepresent “cality”—thus mal jex to cements of “Te goes almost without saying ia all heoie-of Internat hhayea-perspective, sometimes explicie but often implicit, Given the nature ‘of the plienomena that scholars have to deal with in this field this is in- exible. These perspectiven as Robert.Cox has pointed 0cl space" In oer words, theories of International Rel rh mater how tefined andcomples-they 2) cheie per sand geogran ‘Most cheorsts rend Seay teotes, However, almost all final analysis, the products perceptions, be TP ake dais of wives vai fon Tematonal Raton at f hat they see acu dem. THe ea experiiees, and tories, heer, a Uf theorss’peeepsionso fac in carn shape by the dle prisoners of ime ad spe HVakegie th claim co capore or closely approsimace easy Scena to cm todo s within the parameters St teany esis and cheorss ate no), must posses ts . he behavior of thei sobjess 0 he, aa ee mejor wor in all cases and circumstance then aces mca fens andccuances wii the soil epoch in ih 2 may hs day chim eo theorize. Addionaly, inthe case of Itt ae at ens a poltical soclogitt Michael Maun poinss out Ny ot. im Fall: the question of warand peace." recrefore, av this juncture one of the-majo ful | pang i eral lions should bo dings and ese So cceices of preseneand Kacureconflits. Equally important ‘must be | ble so explain the behavior of the lrg fhe members o | | Howere even if they a by historical rime (and ‘inn tem asin ain sof conlliceand order. The See ie ncnana se in he thal cnc vo 2 the eran amprecedented proiferaion inthe meiabst: eat analyst? in obsessions with che bipol se ihe sue of rclear deterrence had led the fou decals ofthe Cold War ofthe membership. It had ‘entre planer has rs ship of that system, re ofthe postwar system and wi toa grave underestimation during one-term importance of this expansi pderating of the’ the Third Work “stem are located—on th fe of globalized travel, informa iso led to a seriows curity agenda, especialy ion This communi snderestt rpensity among analysts to provide Cold War-eentes ion, and rinpact ofthe unparalled enlargement of che semen ofthe inenaconal sje oo ses intentional oust hs ae Fy linitingeflece on the explanatory eaacies of theories Chat purport to provide oii ex onal | pram, eapecilly a dey relate to the Janations for the workings ofthe intern paramount issues of wae and peace ° e % Subaltern Realism © 33 Leese ft Gas tee scly, msjor theories of International Relations to. i order and anarchy. Conseg and, therefore, fa plnations forthe c ee this il z H corollary to this failure, sich paradigms da not provi cee rae br ic eaplsion of ens or the maogemen and resolution of most conflicts witnessed in the international system, Tt-may be argued by some chat given he near-total concentration of power—military, economic, and technological—in the hands of the ind fe pets i am er aes for a theory that focuses on issues of war and peace as they relate to the Third . Si hea ER SRA cnlon eee major powers, = * T elieve that such a perspective is shoruighted in the extreme. las gun of themajor dary powers int inegaina) a GBB i iiictinee ss a ‘countries, especially in th Ks Coir Riestand Cnet ro any substan depe, she vo plies ate Tly wo become etemely vance to mera apn, ee hs ‘hat may lead co major regional conflicts involving one or both of them. " «ofa largely been = Hd uy to apathes, How. =~ his fea pattern chac may be subject co change and ‘ major scale cannot be ruled out if the, present crends relating wo conflic and disorder continue in some parts of the Fie within regions ad fom one Thid Work counteae ~ a4 + Mohan “Tied Worl mmed Ayoob 7 ted i, Sach migsions ate expe od She developed word adn some RM oe raitingen 1 dose yout export some of cially i the la flice, ‘This has already begun to happen France, cepasiates in France, veterans of the ee stic disorder linked, eter 28 de iobal North; as well as countsics it Pakistan, she industrial forer exist engulfed as ie might ' Icis, chetefore, ing those in and predict remational 3 likely to dominate the i tun! digs Moreover, there are already wet Tbe = lab farfeched vo ase iy begin oo ees from tit home co iit bow count eP= ae me the ease of North African wtaion in Geanany and a snd elsewhere. ing both sina Turkish and Kurdish poy “Aighanistn war in che United Seas 3 in Afghanistan, targeted major Ove’, “he global South. Finally, the F the Third Warld (for example, roof acre to markets t Ted Worl ized counties in a deleterious fashion. tn short he E ro such a degree in term ores beans ‘w affect the ‘economies and a of rin large measure, from the uty. A Lockean ly, or eve ‘of che sventieth c fF the internatioual system, include of analysis hac can explain the large part of dhe in- Thied World is cet essential for analysts of the global North, co fashion tool the nacuse and iaensity of eonllis ate that we cep th South expel a Ce ae el security agenda inchs cents fiat eee code cacy dominant pat doer od jon hac. Ue prensa and scat Gaile). It Was a consequence, I believe Subaltern Realism + 35 dlsorder, that is far superior co other paradigms that ae cuttenly available Ta, therefore, possesses. ” However, before we move on ro explicate the basic assumptions and pre- hove cope of tuba ran enced oak a xs fr he iad mses fa dominate he Ivermatonal Keeton. aac i ihuraqprepme tox te baja oicadieaeare of Ql ct ae cit professes co be the dominanc paradigm in Interna: ‘Se sal iy an ipowan sense continues o define the di ipline”? Seructuraltealisms. preoccupation. with the systemic. level of is and es frdamentl prone thatthe achil mature of she ay teaetermine the behavior oC aug fr stasis based upon a errand rigid distinction between anarchy outside the state and order within it—che (amar Becaiog sch fo fete dang tne f-powet Eye carga bE ccs Raliating atonal bnvar or ese pare in ‘of those goals. The can erage of chasiu:hin the neorelit loo a. towhcther ute bn, TT Occsicaly perceptive hiscorian like Paul Schroeder may point out chat the stevewura SeBabpeis aaa four ae nae a tate teenth centuries is incorrect because frequently states, and more particu- Inly aor powers, balanced meer agaist power nor age hex ba, soepelee or cole Cen nn Tie Teer acy of thied-image determinants that neorealists have made the lineh- Phvof lei orice adhe cs tak oval i ml chalga ella Gn ih Sa) MOS prada alesse ch ate Nelle ies kev een chalging he aia. nce de 19702 Howe the end ofthe Col War bss given a FS i i th cllenge by dha tbe eared li f oe a thoy to account forthe end of the Cold Wa Th AEST. rw been further augmented by che assumed irrelevance of neorealism *. ." ° tothe profoundly altered attcibufies of the post-Cold War ei alle nota elie based {on the prem ‘specially among the major industrial scholars working within this paradigm emphasize not much the distiburion of power among the major powers a thee and technological, and, therefore political, interdependence dusrialized states. This e dugmented by in ead by the tansnational nd by the information revolution that‘Mohammed Ayoob woos swiped ou th jel calculations ofthese countries ‘ealiberals gue shat sttesespecially the major indie powcr are, onthe are 908 should be, mote concerned with absolut gains at shed ane eehiae i cooperation with one another than with rave gains chat, can achiere ar one another’ expense or by competing with one another. Since the absolute gl kelp to achieve by coopesaion in an incexdeps “Toye werd ae expected to beso tcl greater than the reaive gains hey nay, slice by competion ts no longer tational for dhem to indulge in adver ened egos af conduct toward one another. Therefore, war and conics are ‘Ge ame) cule oueasinsiruments of poi by te insta tases Gr cluding the Grest Powers) at lest Jationship with one another sis moat cemarkable is that wich the end of she Cold War one sees cles evidence of convergence besween neorealsss and neoliberal, The sof bipolay has led some scholars 10 give an inereing ss. to-the ane carl cali paradigm. They have argued that, giten the change inthe se of power i the end of the event ceneaty and the lack fiend Table eneres alice the Cold War, Great Powers in che internacional system reno Tonger engaged in primarily balancing against one another but have ign to bandagon with one another and save ceted » cones of. pec? oe a imenaconalsecuriydiccoratechac hat aemimed che pms sig for maintaining ncemacional order. Adoping = basicly et perspective, atey Buran ha eed his new phase tal bance voipolriedalipaagy”— “multipolar in the sense that seve indepen dent grea powers aren lay, bucunipoaiaed in she see char dese 3 i ition govening internacional lations” Axging fom 8 cd Rggie has similasly concluded that “the ree promising esol model fiom che pas is dat of a concer of lapping concerts of powers— performed a east in nt coal ppowers—or pethaps part, through the UN. Ty js hs convergence berween neoralism and neoliberalism thar one seer the maturation of, what Ole Waever as remed, 2 neo-neo eynthess 9808. According to Waevet, “no on the Tahose beginnings can be taced to the 1 Tonger were ecalism and liberalism ‘incommens tard Seiten under anarchy, begemonic sabi, | ae dame ade negotiations, and Buzanian scucey analysis can all ‘seen as located in this fild.""? i Leta Subaltern Realism * 37 However, co the discerning observer it becomes nificant thing that neotealism and neoliberalism shai GiiGieaipeaieai lise the imagery preferred by neoliberal, hE major indus ed , {he jr ind sd democracies), whether me in terms of bal: ses oan eveyone eat al kas fon tei ec a f e nge aptyf mabes ie e= wna System. he latter figurc, they figure as objects of the policies 6 Ga ver of inal dec wih wy tomompy OF th oma ia tra oftheir capacity have an ina an the Bee ae eee ae that the most si over the weak bue numerous majority. Lowever, a5 result of i Nether netion-benveen anatchy-oulsdeand-order insidethestic Seedaiienl or boerincontontamenat rt spond:to:the realty in. mich of the internation: However itis in the rests among states, corte- cxception of certain subregions, and even there such h Wopiecic telatonshyp benecen mditions in large parts of the Thied World «from, those-exsting inv Wescern E "Nouth America—the primary points o | a Now rea —he primary pins of fence fr bork ners a cata puted “ln ante of swe dence in he conditions rong be a the s,ivisachest problematic and at a he image ofthe proto- ‘ypical state a | version ofthe We cel ont il version estphalian mode is contra {gbesalioasinssinmucioofehetmernasonalaten The pnb auc or prc of ms Thiel Wad se ot cdf See Men aoe yi ie Wonphalin len eck bahar.38 + Mohammed Ayoob 2 AEB. Nori and security commun Se apa eal powers and/or against external that against other ag za move beyond Westphal tics based on the hasinony of ints napsulated in the concept o Sppeoimatng this deal of the ove ulispael face dat ties importance of terricoril state re sults from thew “This is why groups wn sates and not fF alernatives ‘ndamental reseucring ol + fine in he performance ol ity hasbeen apt che system of states. This lack of che quintessential political task of pre iy underlined by Johis Herz in the fl- iis: noe incernationalism, vat eonsticutes the alter- "20"This process viding order and, lowing words: universalism, native co the ter fecting conflccand ose finein bos sens ofthat word, 5 beginnings nt ee te from a vacery of backgrounds demon ser aae the overwhelming, majority of cones im the international tee since 1945 were, and concise to be ested in he Third Weel. Se eof hens have had pansipams fom the indus ‘world, {hak geographic locations and thei target populations have been firmly sit uated in the Thied Work ‘A fev illustrations wil sffice to de tion, Bran Luard concluded from his comput oe eteene of 98 percent ofall international conics bet 1984.22 Kalevi Hols caleulaced thac 27spee ineervensions bet cording 10 the latest seo lemonsteate the validity of this assr tions chat che Thisd World ween 1995 and and armed ‘out of 164 armed com (hee in Wester fF iguces compiled by Ho Thee dovldwide between 1945 and 1999 all bur five Hi ee Eaten Ene) wer sated in either he Seon “Thied Work (Asia Africa, and Latin Asneica) or in che 96% bi Would (he Balkans and the non-Europe former Sovier Union)" pars of the Subaltein Realism + 39 Ils, however, excades antic Gags. Ifone includes chose fi ‘World would appear to be even more dramatic ‘What i sual cally impoctant i that even a cory analyst of confi in ae The Worl ots he ae ee eps eee tes) assumption tegading the primacy of systemic factors in expen Se i Ot a i fa hy ‘Scat are cuphemistic oe | Phemtstealy ceed "el wars). fo gre just one Musraion, 22 Cordng te Hobti 77 perenof she sonics beer 1945 nd 1995 nee? inernal- in character although’ 30. percent. of such te : volved external aimed jhteryention."} Once again tal Was (och Tok excl, which wet ‘eginie' change, the proportion of intrastate 1 sch higher. as : Funhermor, ifone necadicts che fis pore since the yt fear of th police an vith Iran primar Sutton oh The Tr ae “These Findings also challenge he vali of th de nec) an ae ie: aT: be AEE. Th eke perve,tD. Wales aonmcecee eb comes tae politcal lite aii jous communities which makes possible the elim to areal i ten stele sch armani hh ae uy setious cheory of the state” in neocealism zhat isthe Ackilles' heel of tbc teovetical waiion ” The prlilation of inexnal conflicts thein- we consequent threat to the Bilachise 4 renin to the most basic in aly-acepied, have Jad she foun ‘As Walker points out, Machiavellis‘Mohammed Ayoob 40+ namic, nce was wo adress issues of politcal eom Te rine ie eof political ores) within stares 3.22 therefore, “ios oscil under prin) concern rca ew Gn essence Sua oes Machine he possibly of erexing. ad Niche Wie pints ich i ee ce eee ds ln spot mt concen ames fe srureldeverminaions of nach BY Fe aerilasionship betiee achigvelliand Hobbes as they related to har issues of international order cannot be ie olaion from the problems of domestic bly incerowined, and domestic “The primary insights of both M: _ ority because it is am essently tues deserves analytical p nae Sthich the foundations of ineraronal order ate Pas 2 _ cng to Hobbes formulaon of ssa ont e095 3 SATAY ‘of che sovereign vill EE a in a_political ordes. ionsip beeen pes a0 Peon an preservation ofthe Pais sbi aaa im the ane : ; ees Sued the 034 ’ Lot ce vereign—by consent” Atte a sevrmen wa bythe Eonsent ofthe he argued, withouc power" Fo Sra leisy a 80 Soucy. coco and co Trahan by sing flmonaate the necesito sie tines gh ee hs a be mo ima peoples here mai yomas Tlobbes, power and consent, ef ec of the constituting jn Machiavelli and sides of the same sand her internal There és no abstraction Hobbes tothe near-toral dynamics. This is why and honestly chan either jrimary intellectual preoccupation of Subalterm Realism © 41 these lending progenitors of realism reflected the historical contexe in which hey were operating and this is whac makes them so televane to the curren Ged tn theereemnh cniry, peste te Meelis raph seigs win which Naka ad es ed cl tea Clam reasrorrorvaeehearrasverdasurdnsty tage a aa sed wives ores PtP oetreteraresintneardnteapemunespoebticuef sarge inapsbetiakbacdeed deduce ein a Ee ee Cental prble of pola rer sing Thi : cf he Td World he bec connie Sl ai, Foro aber Jackman hss argued, poset without dhe eerie of fone ie the woe mensere of the political capacity of stares.3# Hones senna lives. The aprions that had been available to politcal entities in late medieval and early modern Furope included city tates and city leagues, not ro men- tion the revival and/or reassertion of feudal and imperial formes of polisical organization, in addition to the sovereign tetsieoral state." These other op- Fions were no longer available to colonial populations nt che time of decolo nization. The sovereign state cencuries ago in Eurape, had and it was the bench- atk of 3 political community: ;—including both cover cleatly demarcated territorial domains-—became absolutely imperat for the participation of Third World countces in che international system. Building states and controlling them became synonymous not only with po. litical order bue with political existence ise”, ‘Acmajor reason why neorealism and neoleralism with the cure of boil scare-making i 0 come to grips isthe abizorical na- con dhe present (or se scholacly——— 42+ ohne Aveo? sccm hats of direct concern wo tic intellectual an pie cous sco of West Europe al Noh Apt ee depen gn England wes the Tid an and chad the $e Epedans andthe Bourbons, and de Uni the Stuart, France under (especially concencrating, acs inthe eigen and nine fr the conflicts involving Ex pe ans mation of the v thar led to the viral decimacion of ive Amati rogean seers and mat our of of the pr wre cen saraetoe re the territorial legitimacy mcr because WE SUM Sn ae olny caied boundaries In cay si id was far of, poston org between incernal and external wars Woe tn ee ep canny coved Fay i states caught inthe i snd chat much of this ver, this docs not. mean that the ¢: s, However, B compleely ising from, conflcs in. she “Vhind Wael Al a onli 7. 1¢ basis of kinship, tribe, religion, va ts el) oes solo sas 0 Sanus sacs bose Bo = ich conflicts, thus involv- FF eventually neighboring states into these Feo ech ot ric conlicts uarics ito 1 to protagonists in st and on. Dot spi across pla b eye a may Poot lations ane ing neighboring eet confi shat many sucht ehancr of pow eve, these 1G : oc because favorable regional lances 3 Boone ential for the suecess of their state-building perce a i an acs sully undertaken cont ial ceerprse, especial Subaltesn Realism + 43 seotly by neighboring states tha ace a the the development es Constuction of favorable balances in such contents, be ‘component of states sy bs ‘aagitecmalieg on the pref theseongerrene III ii cy nc ce wen Soask Aste dg oh Teta ti Homof Afi, othe Balam, where oneor sire ofthe ter may be engaged in contesting the farmers eommrl over dernographic and territorial space over which, aceording to th imate claims, ne stage they also have legit: Neorealism: orally neglects: the domestic dimensions of state-building, and dheicinceraction with the dynamics of regional balances as well ag with lobal power rivalries and internatio inthe incsrna i a = nd die simultacous operation ofthis process in contiguous and proximate id. obverse phenome ' inability co explain and predict ‘Neoliberalism is even less concerned with the dynamics of these conflicts ‘on the changing nature of insta ineracion inthe interdependent world of indus democracies fat needed dhereore, « paradigin that can combine the fund ‘mental insights of classical realism with an appreciation of the dynamics of conflict currently clearly visible in large parts of the international sytem. It is only such a hybrid paradigm thac can succeed in providing adequate ex- for the level and intensity of conflict and disorder in the systema iopeflly, i wil also prove capable of supgesting prescriptive state aks for the amelioration and management ofthe large majority of conflicts curtently prevailing in the international system, an mean only be constructed by marrying the diagnoses for reals lke Machirece 44+ Mohammed Ayood HHovever certain very euch nen factors have emerge. on the obs ic chis task SQNERUDIUAREDIBor the new entrants ent ve mateclized partly bs: scene that have rational system. These vata ine ihe eascence vs: se of ee ork Amer tac hve Pod Si cpermemmaionaayaemes Heit execs hs POT so ald sonesso ete - ino pc a eee aces hin dastallysotael erry sores had four five cence 0 achiev fines ches a er if sally sequential albeit overlapping) stages_of state: at ly and indisecty to the exacet- segments 01 dheit population Sere dentist an ners sharply delineated hierarchy of powes = oe tt their cauaterpacts in early modeen’Burope. ‘The contr Liheir sreatmens Ze, resp ‘malig into one eal systems and th pnotins anh with 2 1H ee i 1 ne eerste - the ae ‘Again the are ope: essed ery clear ding he Cold svetpeseenenpsipis 0°30 pases Br eretearont has bad extremely delete uildng enterprise in she hic vocess hostage in many’ instances co the (© Sig athe cor fo ly boding hip al Cea Poverty ei ofa these enationa facts hos made dhe ‘World. thas done rements of gk quit Tn short, the of nd maintaining political order infinitely more difficelt chan corportn of ss expres ofthe gba South ne The saan Theory con ony be done by fuhininga pevpectite Ine andthe consncin of domeste der that loa is cand in ks on ight a8 a major variable ha Sig rand conc in he international syste Ae me centerp feats the ta decdel Moves Suabalern Realism + 452 Seren time, sucha perspective must be extremely sensitive to external variables chat Jmpace upon such state-building activity and crucially inline iis tajccn ‘ory. I is this combination of perspectives cc I have cermedgilldainad fim because ic deaws upon the experience of he Gilets. i the international system that are largely ignored by the elitist historiography of the system popularized by both neoreaits and neoliberals asa result oftheir concentration on the dynamies of interzecion among the Great Powers and the industrialized states ofthe global North ‘The dictionary definition of the term subalern denotes those that are srealeendvobinfsoryank. However iris iii corturon capetense of all human societies tha these age elements tha consticute che ig incolienietnanjsMl PRE. Therm, Cramscian in is inspation, isborrowed from the subaktern school shinies compass prgnacly of his: torians of India, chat is engaged in tying je oleae fess poeta GERAD peasants, arcsans, and so on—within socieres, elements that Torm a majority within their socetes but whose histories are ignored by elt- isehistoriography ofthe taditional kind, which tends to focus ites ofthe poweefl. Th elemenc within the society face that chey constitute a large majority Ie is clear thatthe subaltern realist paradigm, even in the preliminary form i which i ic presented here is based.on the following asaumpcion: fist, issues of domestic order and those of internarional. aI by datertvined, pecially in chelarena oP conflicr and conlice eel: second, ses OPAORIERIEEMeRMHich are primarily che by-.odkets9T the Aentling enterprise win sae muse recive anlycal peorigy Lone. is o be able to explain most €opMleBcurrendy underway in heli) © GREE for the simple razon. shat chey are she pila aMefenminants GPisuch consi, KSues oF domestic oflereonflicn sr, however, nor {imimuine Go externaliAMGEACEReicher regional or global, especially given the BERTI cs yeaa pee) odecormiese: ‘orsand-hereforepsuchregital HriabIEF Tile Herat Inco anyeer plination of the course and intensity of domestic conflies and the behavior of cates in the imetnational system: and fourth, hg EERIE (Ha ERE NaHS also explains the nexus beween (Sed inetstate conflicts, «she sntetowining ofthe stae-making enieiprie Wik regional Balance of power isis ‘When examined in the highe ofthese ss sulecn reais willbe able the activ ates form the quintessential sul thet relative powerlessness and the” the international system, prions, ic becomes cleat chat redicr the lagation and incensity-of con- AGE as, well as map 0 fo ation by looking a the ‘ollowing gabe: Fst, che gE REND a paeiCwaAD- ie ree Mts can be devcrmined by nt ac10 + Mohammed Ayoob al by combining the vrbl fe legitimacy, of coercion and consent) ataned by that sae stage of sate making and dhe more incomplee the. sate’ eapacity vo control andor gain the acquiescence of the large majority, of palate pete psoralen Uso 28 mitted bythe popular that ie ail fom sheone ado sat is ste Jo other words, the balance of approval of attachment hewween the sate defined conception of nationals and its usualy edhoialy defined) aes natives muse beanalyzed The greater and more cobereat the cilleages vo the sate defined conception of maconalism, the greater the possbily afi ternal confit and disorder conernen he gener peat oth oF the renication of internal conilicts (because of the provision of external enuraement and suppor tw domes siden andor we Sionsa) andthe flood of thee asformatin int inetne cic ‘estore mest pao Gs es inn ol git fone potas onan, eSignal eo Basle of ajee powers w cracebuic or aleve conflicts wifln tbe {ter region The year the prelviy of ne of moe ofthe Gre Po “siren nda aps he on oad the gear the capa of en of moeef the Gent Power teary oun inerendon pala. ecar oil or milan, the rene heed ofthe exsectbation of domes cons Sina the reer the re ityof Great Powers a support ional anon engage n dpi oe contested terrtatial and demographic space, the greater the resistance of sich conf to susteis a elie management and cali calaon Will be Pe mre sch nme the immediate Me Peteeived co permit the breakup of existing states (2s in aficrmach of teen ofthe Cold Was, de gene wil be the posi of the incensifcation of wats of state-beeaking and the incidence of sae fil lure in che international system as a whole ; bake rele penpective wih that of ail alisin, as witnessed in the weitings of Machiavelli aud [Hobbes is susking However, chere are also differences, Subaleera realism does: nor under Subatern Realism «47 ‘timate the influence of the anachiealy and especially dhe hieea 5 sac was iis ey serie isa sensiveto ; sd the conequee der desea onal economic power on both she lginncy and the eee 1c of Thre World stacsvis-4-vs thei populations. Ths difrences with cial els emeage eu ofthe fc the she ls corns of rls were wing sea theses sytem were evoling simultane and te toyact ote ea mais the amin Slay the slo the pola projet of state making wa not sal cee Wath ell developed tice borate iran mos, a's highly sae tba economic, mary and pola biatch ths» a lege oe “Thesis subltem rali sclaowleges mote tha caste influence of extemal vile emanating out ofthe hteuchicl secs stem on she blair of aates epi ofthe msjry a ave den ane the sabalern clement in he sytem, However dace naked on tam he dar een re wien modern states and nfaney aid cplanacions forall that goes on! cnn wee ans Ato scan abate git wile eeuorene provided by subaltern realism, But is explanatory power in terms of unravel ing the sources ofthe lige majoiy of confi in the international syste and ilsevinating the inetnal and external belavir ofthe lange majority saves far supases chat of any other theory avaiable. aralgmsin the socal scenes in general, and in lmerntional Relais = - storey eig nrc suas lash abe “on is wa and penne ners is fill a-principal-gap-in-the- there lternnte beens e he ce ‘api coesplain what; ae he curtentjunctre ithe moseencil deg sion of Internation = ces of the large major- iy of conflces inthe international syscm.48. + Mohammed Avoob _Thie explanecory power ale provides TeWth He capaity area poten tially to help aap strategies For te ranagersent and alleviation of such con fice, not ie resolution, If policymakers in the major capitals of che won become conversant with this paradigm and use its lenses ro view the Ahajorigy of conics in the international system today, chey wal be beter “ble to tadratand the fundamental nature ofthese confit. Such compre hension may well act as the beginning of wisdom for the fashioning of in- ternational saceges to coatain and manage cons of ee slater seals paradiga, world statesmen ze that sch cones are nether the By using the ins and political analysts will begin to reali feflection of ancient hatreds tit ate they primarily che result of external inachinations. ‘They are part and parcel of the state-making odyssey of the thew eneants into the systern of states, an exercise that is made almost int by the operation of international notias and the policies of possibly diffi Fajor powers. Furthermore, they will begin to understand thac moving be- yond Wesephalia and creating regional confederations based on wealk will not provide the remedy for such confit Sul paradigm wil alo help policymakers and analysts comprehend the fact that historically states have preceded the creation of nations. Na- fionaliam, as Ernest Gellner has argued, “emerges only in mieux in which the existence of the state is already very much taken for granced: The exis: fof a moral-politieal climate in ene of poliieally ceneealied unis, and ‘Shich such ceneraized its ate caken for granted and are created as norma: five isa necessary though not sufficient condition of nasionalsm." The ries sich as Britain, France, and the dfteee deseendanc of a state-defined na 1 particularitic definitions of political fact that the civic nationalism of eo United States today is the linear and tionalima that triumphed over m Fenty (invariably by the force of arms as the American Civil War demon rated very cleatly) eonfiris the dependent relationship of the nation on the state, Where this order has been reversed it has beew a recipe for grave disorder (for example, the Balkans) ‘Once having understood this historical process, policymakers are also Tikely vo tecognize that relaxing intenational nouns regarding the inviola bilicy ofthe boundaries of existing stares and sanctioning the creation of eth~ hie sates (a8 happened in the ease ofthe former Yugoslavia) will nor solve the problem of disorder inthe intemational sytem. Ie wll not do 30 forthe Simple eason, as Wiliam Phaff has pointed out, hat “The ethnic sae is a The idea sroduct of the political imagination; it does not exist in reality. « 2h on ths peat pvoaan 0 wa Subaltern Realism + 49 he comprehension of this fii Hkly 19 make ples und sand ht th in lait neo be dit fom the ies of eevion and ke wo ue cont of poll engowsen This iscern, is aso che sutest way of making states both legitimave and ons ecw sheimpeativs ofate-nang and he conadaion of sae power on the one hand, and the demands for political part powerment on the other. They may, th es cicactal ance neds oe manele he rogers ee a th of epic fas cs th a one ce os ya tating coin, Demecriion by vel niet ae he problem of cts within sates unles i is accompanied by & concentration struments of violence in the hands of the state. ve ma “eck il end them 0 concade that the guegthening and. ne thnlugol he Wesplian one -opeciallyac the level of he unit (state), is sent forthe. efitive managemenr of mex onlin their: ee An turn, this i likely to lead the Great Powers to be more. cacamspecn intervening he itenal alist of states especialy if ic state (for example, Iraq). = " Neorealism and neolibealism (theories in which policymakers in the ij capil of te West ate fen nd equemly sbeonscoy sc rd do ot poses leq enlanory and rite apc pel arena of managing and alleviating the majority of conflicts inthe in. ‘eaconl ate, Thin wo do oer of the fas ese canis rina reed wit the pref ate-buling ad ion of political commutities that both the above-mentioned oties cither do nor address or do. oar fs or do so very inadequately. The slbalern real paradigm, on the other hand, makes this it serenity * i makes this process cent ip: ing itself atthe presen junccae with ex rece power matters of conflict and order that is far su ep. Aisionelly domsinane paradigms. ia Notes 1. Foran interesting dialogue Benwe i dislogue becween poscvss and pose-posiiiis on the rel- girth aprotss Sev SnihKen Booth and Magia Z ke ne tr rtiim and Bond (NY: Cambridge Despite all the postmodernist and social constructivist ertques of the as sumpcon sa dhe 2 ial” ey ow toe independent fou contac perceptions, one has 10 posi such an abject if one isto theotine oa— 50+ Mohammed Ayoob heise will becom soil scenes. O on season Mibent ahs yn sake thus turning it into a en ca eaten ke timing a So yaoi eit Uy one panes an dc te 8 prefect nearness Caf np lf Sot oh i i em fh sel Sb fe teenie unc oe Sone He OMe. PO enous in eco oom oe Famand sees Deed of ne xvery quick death Testor Seo ears elit akg erp einen ofall objects pent pon sere one is sitmared in ven dhe concept of preans (One cannot conseuctneanngll ha ae otal ot of i ie meaning and iy suc consions vil sl teil calves rliniof denying such ean the had ee che sy (NYE Cambiige Universicy Press Se ao Ua. 1 Libel Mita: A. Contibution 2 aah bia x in International Theory: Posi ‘Casubridige Universe Bess 1996) P= 221 1 Woon eds, The Expuntion of (1985, pps. 67-75: ey Bl and sa mes 1989) tema py (On Ce ein “Old Disorder im th “puboriasii an Hint Sociole he Sytem of Seaes: Acute Scho Gi 8 al Mion” i a Bes a 4 his anuent sc Amita Aatiays, “The Te cy a ore Ta NN find Michal Wiliams lb a a very of Minne, es 1977 Fe Dame Soutes of Interaaionl Is Relea Des? Ethan Kyat 8 0995) 731 10. Kenneth Walte, Theory of Hntrsiios ins ‘Wesley, 1975}; Stephen Wak, The Over Cat he 198 veal Theo 1, Pl Seley “iil ei Nore rig vo. 19, no. 41394) pp 08. ta, Poin scond ond oe moo Src Wr Cara Ut he Third World” Global al 19. fol main Opn 9.00-8U7PD- BT a of Alinco (Udsaca, NY: Cornell International Sow jms, see Kenneth Wal, em, the Subaliern Realism + 51 13, Robert ©. Keshane and Joseph S. Ny, Jr es, Tanationa Relations and World Plies (Cambie MA: HarardUaivesiy Pre 1973). 14, Richa Ned Lebow, "The Long Pec, the End of the Wa ad the Fie of in imerntonel Relators They andthe End of he Cold War es, Richard Nod Lebow and Thomas Risse Kappen (NY. Columbia Unive Pres, 1995), ps. 23-56. 15, Chats W Kel Ja “The Neolberal Challenge so Rel Theories of Wold Toles: An Inuodetion," in Conover in lterationalRedatione Theory ca. Chakes W. Keg, Je (NY. St Mats es, 1995p. 9. 16, Josep. Nye Jes “What New World Onle2” Fin Af val 71 (1992), ay BP 83-96. 17.) Bary Buzan, "New Paerns of Global Scary in the Prem fie Cena Insernaional Air, wl. 67, 0-3 (1991). A. 18, John Gerard Rugg, “Peseckeeping and US, lcs,” in Onder and Dis ‘ner Aer the Cold War, ed, Brad Rober (Cambridge, MAY MIT Pre 1995), p 212 19, Ole Waever, "The Rise and Tal of dhe foter-Pualigan Debt,” in dere tional Thea Posvim snd Beyond. el. Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and ‘Marya Zalewski (NY: Caaridge Univesity Pres, 1996), pp. 163-64, 20, John , Her, “The Tenor Sate Revise.” in lac Rading of Te Font Relation es. Phil Willems, Donld 4. Goldstein, snl Jay M. Shite (Balmons, MA: Wadsworth, 1994), p. 105, 21, Foe dele analysis of the imtesction between the intcral proces of sate sraleingin she Third Weld an external wale see Mohammed Apo Tle hind Wri Security Predicaren: Sate aking, Begone Conf, athe ternational Spc (Bode, CO: Lyne Rennes Publishes, 1999) 22, Bran Land, War in Ineratonal Sain (London: 18. Tats, 1986), pps 442-46 23. Kaen J. Hla, Peace aa Ware drm Canflits and lnteratonal One 1648-1989 (NY: Camidge Univesity Pes, 1990, ps. 274-78, 1H, Kalevi J. Hols, The State Wor and the Sut of War (NYE Cambie Unive sity Te, 190), pps 2, 210-24, 25, Wid 26. Mohamed Ayoob, “The la tag War and Repl Seay in dhe Pesan Gulf erate, val. 10, 0.4 (1985, pp. 581-90. 2B. RB}. Walks, idee: ternational Relation elite Theory (NY: Cambridge University Pres, 1990) pps. 8, 17 28. Did ps. 25. Michael Wilans, “Hobbes and Intemainal Rela Internation Orgnicaton, 50, no. 2 (1996), p. 215 30. Tid, p. 220, 3. Richard 5, Pete, “Induction ro Coles Books Eon” in The Levis by Thomas Hobbes, is, Michal Oakeshor and Richard S Pets (NY: Col fee Books, 1962), pps 1-12 32, Robert W. Co, Appr to Wk Onder, p 502. ‘A Reconsideration,”