384 APPENDIX 8 HEARING LOSS

Table 8.A.3
dB
Shotgun noise
0.410- Bore 28 ″ barrel 15data.
26 ″ Barrel 0
15
18 ″ Barrel
0
20- Gauge 28 ″ barrel
156
22 ″ Barrel 152
12- Gauge 28 ″ barrel 154
26 ″ Barrel 151
15
18 ″ Barrel
6
12 ″ Barrel 16
8 ″ Barrel 1
16
8
17
2

Table 8.A.4 Centre fire rifle data.

dB
0.223, 18 ″ Barrel 155
0.243 in 22 ″ barrel 155
0.30 – 30 in 20 ″ barrel 156
7 mm Magnum in 20 ″ barrel 157
0.308 in 24 ″ barrel 156
Hearing 158
Protectors
0.30 – 06 in 24 ″ barrel
Hearing 0.30 – 06 in 18 ″ barrel 163 protection
devices 0.375 18″ Barrel 162 decrease the
intensity of 0.375 18″ Barrel with muzzle brake 170 sound that
reaches the eardrum.
They come in two basic forms: earplugs and earmuffs.
Properly fi tted earplugs or muffs reduce noise 15 – 30 dB. The better earplugs
and muffs are approximately equal in sound reduction, although earplugs are better
for low- frequency noise and earmuffs for high -f requency noise.
Simultaneous use of earplugs and muffs usually adds 10– 15 d B more protection
than either used alone. Combined use should be considered when noise exceeds 105
dB. Note that for such situations, it may be that there is no type of hearing protection
that will stop a very loud noise from causing permanent damage.
 Types Available
Expandable f oam pl ugs

These plugs are made of a formable material designed to expand and conform to the
shape of each person’ s ear canal. Basically, they are rolled fl at, inserted
TYPES AVAILABLE 385

into the ear and then allowed to expand to form a tight fi t. They are simple and
highly effective, but only intended for single use due to contamination by ear wax.

Pre- m oulded, re usable pl ugs

Pre -m oulded plugs are made from silicone, plastic or rubber and are manufactured
as either ‘ one - size- fi ts - most’ or are available in several sizes. Many pre
moulded plugs are available in sizes for small, medium or large ear canals.
It should be noted that a person may need a different size plug for each ear. The
plugs should seal the ear canal without being uncomfortable. This takes trial and
error of the various sizes. These can be custom made for an individual.

Canal c aps

Canal caps often resemble earplugs on a fl exible plastic or metal band. The earplug
tips of a canal cap may be a formable or pre- moulded material. Some have
headbands that can be worn over the head, behind the neck or under the chin. Newer
models have jointed bands increasing the ability to properly seal the earplug.
The main advantage that canal caps offer is convenience. Some people fi nd the
pressure from the bands uncomfortable. Not all canal caps have tips that adequately
block all types of noise. Generally, the canal cap tips that resemble stand -a lone ear
canal caps appear to block the most noise.

Earmuffs

Earmuffs come in many models designed to fi t most people. They work to block out
noise by completely covering the outer ear. Muffs can be ‘ low profi le ’ with small
ear cups or large to hold extra materials for use in extreme noise. Some muffs also
include electronic components to help users communicate but block impulsive noises
when they reach a certain threshold.
 Workers who have heavy beards or sideburns or who wear glasses may fi nd it diffi
cult to get good protection from earmuffs. The hair and the arms of the glasses break
the seal that the earmuff cushions make around the ear.

Fine fi breglass wo ol

Originally marketed by Bilsom, this is an extremely fi ne grade of fi breglass wool

which is rolled up and pushed into the ear canal. Whilst it is extremely
386 APPENDIX 8 HEARING LOSS

effective, concerns have been aired over the practice of placing fi breglass, no matter
how fi ne, into such a sensitive area. This may no longer be available.

Miscellaneous Devices
Manufacturers are receptive to comments from hearing protection users. This has led
to the development of new devices that are hybrids of the traditional types of hearing
protectors.
Because many people like the comfort of foam plugs but do not want to roll them
in dirty environments, a plug is now available that is essentially a foam tip on a stem.
This plug is inserted in the same way as a pre- moulded plug but without rolling the
foam.

Cotton wo ol/ ro lled -u p p aper

This is often used but of very little use as an attenuation of only around 7 dB can be
achieved, likewise for bullets or cartridge cases pushed into the ear canal .

Extreme Conditions
For those situations where extreme noise pollution is anticipated, such as when fi
ring multiple shots from sawn- off 12 - bore shotguns, additional precautions have to
be taken.
The problem with extremely high impulse sound is that it is also transmitted to the
inner ear via the facial bones and the teeth. Whilst some attenuation may occur due to
tissue and muscle, damage to the hearing can still be caused. The use of a Makralon
face shield to defl ect the sound, lining the ear muff with additional layers of foam
and wearing ear plugs will, if all used together, signifi cantly reduce the risk.
 Further Reading
Christiansson, B.A.C. and Wintzell , K.A. (1 995 ) An audiological survey of offi cers at
an infantry regiment . Scandinavian Audiology , 22 , 147 – 52.
Paul , D .R. , Chai- lip and Marcus , T . (1 979 ) Hearing in military personnel . Annals of
the Academy of Medicine , 8 ( 2) .
Pelausa, E. , Abel , S. and Dempsey, I. ( 1995 ) Prevention of hearing loss in the
Canadian military . Journal of Otolaryngology , 24 ( 5) , 271 – 80.
FURTHER READING 387

Wenselman , L., Henderson , D. et al . ( 1995 ) Effects of Noise Exposure Race and Years
of Service on Hearing in U.S. Army Soldiers Ear and Hearing , W illiams and Wilkins, Ear
Hear, Aug 1995 16 ( 4) 382– 91.
Ylikoski , M . and Ylikoski , J . ( 1994 ) H earing loss and Handicap of professional soldiers
exposed to gun fi re noise . Scand J Work Envion Health, 20 ( 2 ) 93– 100 .
Appendix 9 General Firearms
Values Conversion Table

To convert from To Multiply by

ft/s m/s 0 .0508
ft/s miles/h 0.6818
m/s f t/min 1 96.85039
m/s f t/s 3 .2808399
ft lb erg 1 .35582 × 10
7

ft lb J 1 .35582
ft lb kg m 0.138255
J (Int) ft lb 0.737684
J (Int) ft lb 23.73428
Gravitational constant cm (s × s) 980.621
Gravitational constant ft (s × s) 32.1725

Handbook of Firearms and Ballistics: Second Edition Brian J. Heard ©

2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
390 APPENDIX 9 GENERAL FIREARMS VALUES CONVERSION TABLE

Length
To convert from To Multiply by
cm ft 0.0328
cm in. 0.3937
dm in. 3.937
ft cm 30.48
ft dm 3 .048
ft m 0.3048
in. cm 2 .54
in. mm 2 5.4
km ft 3280.8
km m 1000
 km miles 0.62137
km yd 1093.6
m in. 39.3701
m km 0 .001
m miles, nautical, British 0.0005396
m miles, statute 0.000621
m mm 1000
m mµ 1 × 10 9
µ cm 0 .0001
µ in. 3.9370079 × 10
−5

m yd 1.0936
miles km 1 .6093
miles m 1609.3
mm in. 0.03937
mm parsec 3.2408 × 10 − 20

yd cm 91.44
yd m 0.9144
APPENDIX 9 GENERAL FIREARMS VALUES CONVERSION TABLE 391

Weight
To convert from To Multiply by
g drams (troy) 0.2572
g drams (avoirdupois) 0.5644
g gr 1 5.432
g kg 0 .001
g µ g 1 × 10 6
g mg 1 000
g oz (troy) 0.03215
g oz (avoirdupois) 0 .03527
g lb (troy) 0.00268
g lb (avoirdupois) 0.002205
g t (metric) 1 × 10 − 6
g drams (apothecary or troy) 2 57.21
kg drams (avoirdupois) 564.38
kg gr 1 5432.36
kg g 1 000
kg oz (apothecary or troy) 3 2.1507
 kg oz (avoirdupois) 3 5.27396
kg lb (apothecary or troy) 2 67923
kg lb (avoirdupois) 2.20462
kg t (long) 0 .00098
kg t (metric) 0.001
kg t (short) 0.001102
oz (avoirdupois) drams (apothecary or troy) 7 .2917
oz (avoirdupois) drams (avoirdupois) 16
oz (avoirdupois) gr 4 37.5
oz (avoirdupois) g 2 8.3495
oz (avoirdupois) lb (apothecary or troy) 0 .07596
oz (avoirdupois) lb (avoirdupois) 0.0625
lb (avoirdupois) drams (apothecary or troy) 1 16.667
lb (avoirdupois) drams (avoirdupois) 256
lb (avoirdupois) gr 7 000
lb (avoirdupois) g 4 53.59
lb (avoirdupois) kg 0.4536
lb (avoirdupois) oz (apothecary or troy) 1 4.583
lb (avoirdupois) oz (avoirdupois) 16
lb (avoirdupois) lb (apothecary or troy) 1 .21528
lb (avoirdupois) scruples (apothecary) 350
lb (avoirdupois) t (long) 0 .0004464
lb (avoirdupois) t (metric) 0.0004536
lb (avoirdupois) t (short) 0 .0005
Index
Handbook of Firearms and Ballistics: Second Edition Brian J. Heard ©
2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
AAS see atomic absorption spectroscopy
accidental death 305, 307 accidental
discharge 191–7 accreditation of experts
292–3 AccuTec USA ammunition 73
ACP see Automatic Colt Pistol
AFTE see Association of Firearms and
Toolmark Examiners
AIT see average incapacitation time
AK47s 212–13, 272
American proof mark 38
American Society of Crime Laboratory
Directors (ASCLD) 296
ammunition 43–99 base confi
gurations 74–5 bullet types 67–
74 calibres 46–7, 55 cartridge
cases 48–9, 52–4 colour coding
64–7
components 48–77
forensic fi rearms examination 178–82,
197–203 gunshot residues
253–6 headstamps 64, 94–8
historical development 43–8
lubrication 75
materials 67–8 non-toxic shot 77–
80 penetration 61–2 primer caps 50–2
primers 48, 86–94, 253, 256
propellants 48, 80–6 shotguns 52, 56–
64, 68–9 terminology 48–9 types 49–
50 Angelli, Giovanni 166 angle of
barrel elevation 112–13 annular rings
167–9 antimony contaminants 246–7,
259,
267
antimony sulfi de 88, 89 arquebuses
3
ASCLD see American Society of Crime
Laboratory Directors associated
particles 254–5, 264–5, 267–8, 299–300
Association of Firearms and Toolmark
Examiners (AFTE) 292–3 Astra designs
19, 22 atomic absorption spectroscopy
(AAS) 246–7
Automatic Colt Pistol (ACP) 55, 272–3
automatic pistols 19 average incapacitation
time (AIT) 138–9
background questions 293–4 ball
burnishing 157 ballistic coeffi
cients 111–12 ballistic gelatine
136 BallistiClean 73 ballistics
101–43
cross-examinations 293 external 101,
109–24 internal 101, 102–9 terminal 101,
124–43 Balthazard, Victor 146 bandit-
proof glass 207 bar codes 286, 287–8
barium contaminants 246–7, 259, 266
barium nitrate 88 barrels
choke 234–7 length
237–8 pressure 107–9
serial numbers 287–8
see also rifl ing
base confi gurations 74–5 baton rounds 64
battery cups 51–2 bean bag ammunition 64
Beaumont designs 15 Belgian proof marks
36 belted case cartridges 54 Berdan,
Colonel 45, 51 Bergman designs 16
binocular comparison microscopy 148
black powder propellants 43, 55–6,
 394
81–2, 161 blackening 222–3
blank ammunition 49
bloodstained garments 231–2
Blount ammunition 72–3
blowback action 22 boat-tailed
bullets 74–5 body armour 140–1
bolt action rifl es 23
Borchardt, Hugo 16 bore size
56–8 bottle-necked cartridges
53 Boxer, Colonel 45, 51
breech face markings 147
Brenneke slugs 59, 60–1
British Forensic Science Society
(FSS) 292–3 British
proof marks 34–5 broach
rifl ing 159 Browning
ammunition 95
Browning designs 22
Browning, John 17 Brunswick rifl es
11 bullet-resistant glass 207 bullet-
resistant jackets/vests 140–1 bullets
base confi gurations 74–5
defi nition 49
drop 120–1
fl ight noise 28–9
lubrication 75
performance 134–40
progressions 185 terminal
ballistics 137 types 67–74
wipe marks 226
see also forensic fi rearms examination
button rifl ing 159–60
calibre
cross-examinations 293 forensic fi rearms
examination 197–200,
202–3
range of fi ring estimations 213–15
cartridges
cases 48–9, 52–4, 102, 173–5 forensic
fi rearms examination 173–5
headspace 25–7 headstamps 94–5
historical development 7–10, 44–5
nomenclature 54–6 range of fi ring
estimations 234–5 shotguns 56–9
INDEX
types 49–50, 53–6 see also
ammunition
caseless ammunition 10, 49 centre
fi re ammunition 45, 48, 49 centre
fi re systems 9–10, 15 centre
punching 278, 280 chamber
markings 166–70 chamber throats
178
Charles I 15 chemical
methods of number
restoration 280–3
chemical range of fi ring estimations
227–32
Chinese pistol rounds 74 chloracetophenone
(CN) gas 49–50
o-chlorobenzalmalonitrile (CS) gas 49–50,
63
Churchill, Robert 148
Churchill, Winston 17
clandestine ammunition 97–8
class characteristics 155–7, 170–1, 174, 177
CLIS see Crime Laboratory Information
System
CN gas see chloracetophenone gas
cocks 5 colour coding 64–7
Colt designs 15–17, 20 ammunition 55
gun-handling tests 272–3 proof marks 33
Colt, Samuel 15 commercial headstamps
64, 95 comparison cameras 153
comparison microscopy 147–9, 182–6,
294–7 contact
wounds 128–9
contaminants
fi ring ranges 58–9, 68, 70–1 gunshot
residues 245–7, 249–50,
256–9, 266–7, 298–9 control
samples 183 converted pistols 224–5
cordite 83 cotton waste 184 Crime
Laboratory Information System
(CLIS) 293 critical angles
200–1 Crocell 185–6 cross-
examinations 291–303
accreditation of experts 292–3
background questions 293–4
comparison microscopy 294–7
 INDEX
Daubert standard 300–2 gun-
handling tests 300 gunshot
residues 297–300 crowning 178
CS gas see o-chlorobenzalmalonitrile gas cup
fi re ammunition 44 Czechoslovakian proof
marks 36
Dando, Jill 263–5
Daubert standard 300–2
Daws centre fi re system 10
DDNP see diazodinitrophenol Dean–Adams
designs 15 death from fi rearms 305–9
death rates 308 decomposition 223–6 defi
nitive proofs 33 delayed blowback
mechanisms 22 delayed incapacitation 307
Delta Frangible Ammunition (DFA) 72
denier weave 140 dermal nitrate test 244–5
DFA see Delta Frangible Ammunition
diazodinitrophenol (DDNP) 73, 89, 91
disconnectors 22 Disintegrator 72
dispersion of shot 233–8 dithiooxamide
(DTO) test 230 double action revolvers 20
double-base powders 83 Dragon’s Breath
63
Dreys designs 22
Dreyse needle fi re rifl es 9, 87 drift
121 drilling 25, 278, 279–80 DShK
heavy machine guns 212–13 DTO see
dithiooxamide dum-dums 69–70
dummy cartridges 50 dust shot 58
DWM designs 17
EDX see energy-dispersive X-ray eight-
groove rifl ing 162 electrochemical
machining 161, 164 electrolytic methods
of number restoration 283–4
empirical testing prong 301 energy-
dispersive X-ray (EDX)
analysis 200
Enfi eld 15
entry holes
ballistics 126, 127–9 forensic fi rearms
examinations 197–200,
205–6
range of fi ring estimations 217–18,
395
219, 224–5, 227–32 environmental
contaminants cross-examinations 298–9 fi
ring ranges 58–9, 68, 70–1 gunshot residues
245–7, 256–9, 266–7
etching
chemical 280–3
heat 285–6 laser
286–7
exit holes 126, 127–9, 197, 217 experts
see qualifying experts exploding bullets 68
extended range of fi ring estimations 223
external ballistics 101, 109–24 angle of
barrel elevation 112–13 ballistic coeffi
cients 111–12 bullet drop 120–1 cross-
examinations 293 drift 121 form factors
110 Journee’s formula 116–19 maximum
altitude of missiles 113–22
maximum range of missiles 112–22
momentum 123
muzzle energy 122
sectional densities 110–11
wind 119, 121 yaw 121–2
FAAS see fl ameless atomic absorption
spectroscopy
FBI see Federal Bureau of Investigation
FDR (fi rearms discharge residue) see
gunshot residue
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
150–2, 245, 247 Federal cartridge
company 73 ferret rounds 63
ferrozine 272–6, 300, 306 fi eld gauge
26 fi ling 277 fi rearms discharge
residue (FDR) see
gunshot residue
fi ring pins 176, 286–7 fl
ame throwers 63
fl ameless atomic absorption spectroscopy
(FAAS) 246–7
fl ash hiders 30 fl ash pans 4–5 fl echette
70 fl intlocks 5–6 Flobert 8 fl uted
chambers 166–9 fl yers 236 FMJ see full
metal jacket forensic fi rearms
examination 145–210
 396 INDEX

accidental discharge 191–7 breech face gunshot residues (GSR) 241–69

markings 147 bullet type 199–200, 205–6 ammunition 253–6 conservation of
calibre 197–200 chamber markings 166– particles 251–2 contaminants 245–7,
70 comparison microscopy 147–9, 182–6 249–50, 256–9,
entry holes 197–200, 205–6 historical 266–7, 298–9 cross-examinations
development 145–54 instrumentation 297–300 death from fi rearms 305–7
152–4 penetration/trajectory through glass distribution of particles 242, 252–5
204–8 formation 241–2 identifi cation 243–7
photomicrography 146–7 ricochet inorganic components 245–7 metallic
analysis 200–4 rifl ing 145–6, 152–65, components 245–7 minimum
170–2, 174–8, requirements 254–5, 263–5,
187–9 stria comparisons 149–52, 299–300 organic components 243–
155, 157, 5 range of fi ring estimations 211, 219–
168–91 21, 227, 229–31 retention of
Forensic Science Society (FSS) 292–3 particles 251–2, 259–68 sample
Forensic Technology Inc. (FTI) 150–1 collection 248–51 scanning electron
form factors 110 Forsythe, Alexander microscopy 241,
John 6–7, 87 247–51, 261–2, 265 search
Forsythe scent bottles 7, 87 Foster parameters 265–6 spherical particles
slugs 59–60, 61–2 frangible 262, 263–4, 266–7
ammunition 62, 70–4 French proof statistical elimination of potential
marks 38 frizzens 5 Fry’s reagent negatives 267–8
282 FSS see Forensic Science gutter wounds 14 gyrojets
Society FTI see Forensic 10
Technology Inc. fuel components 89
full metal jacket (FMJ) bullets 71 H & K designs 28, 168, 170
hacquebuts 4 half-cock safety
gain twist 155–6 gas position 195 Hall, Dr A. L. 145
chromatography (GC) 245 hammer rifl ing 160–1 hand
George, Barry 263–5 cannons 1–2 handguns see
German proof marks 37 glass, pistols; revolvers Harrison and
penetration through 204–8 Glazer Gillroy reagent 229–30,
safety slugs 71 go gauge 26 Golden 245–6
Bullets 68 Hatcher, Major Julian 136 Hatton rounds
Gonzalez, Teodoro 244 62–3 headspace 25–7 headstamps 64, 94–8
Gravelle, Philip 147 heat etching 285–6 heavy machine guns 25
Greenhill, George 12 Greiss heeled bullets 74–5 helical fl utes 167–9
test 229, 244 grenade Henry VIII 3, 15 High Standard designs 28
dischargers 31 grenade high-performance liquid chromatography
launchers 50 grinding 277 (HPLC) 245
grooves 154, 294 GSR see high-velocity bullets 67
gunshot residues gun- ballistics 127, 135 forensic fi rearms
handling tests 271–6 cross- examination 198,
examinations 300 death from 203
fi rearms 306
 INDEX 397

hinged-frame revolvers 15, 20–1 kinetic energy 130–1

hit distribution 137 hollow-point Kollner, Gaspard 11
bullets 69 Kotter, Augustus 11
ballistics 127–8, 134 forensic fi Krupp, rifl ing 161
rearms examination 198, KTW ammunition 74
201–3 holsters
196–7 homicide 305 laminated glass 204–8 Lancaster
hook cutter rifl ing 158 horizontal designs 161–2, 164 lands 154,
bullet recovery tanks 184 horizontal 294 laser etching 286–7 Le
water tanks 184 hot air ignition 10 Bourgeoys, Mann 6 lead
HPLC see high-performance liquid contamination
chromatography fi ring ranges 58–9, 68, 70–1 gunshot
Hume–Rothery reagent 282 residues 246–8, 267
Hungarian proof marks 39 8- lead mapping 157 lead
hydroxyquinoline 272 shot 49, 77–80 lead
styphenate 88 leade
IBIS see Integrated Ballistic Identifi cation 178
System inadvertent Lee Enfi eld designs 30
discharge 195–7 Lefaucheux designs 7
incapacitation 307 Lesmok ammunition 85
indicative particles 254–5, 264–5, 267–8, lip fi re ammunition 44 lock
299–300 mechanisms 191, 192–4 locked
individual characteristics 171–2, 174, breech mechanisms 22, 23 long recoil
177, 187–9 rifl es 23–4
infrared (IR) photography 231–2 initiator Longbow frangible bullets 72
explosives 89 instant incapacitation 307 longitudinal fl uted chambers 166, 168, 169
Integrated Ballistic Identifi cation System Louis XIII of France 6 low-temperature
(IBIS) 150–1 internal ballistics oxygen plasma
101, 102–9 barrel pressure 107–9 ashers 260, 261
cartridge case capacity 102 cross- Luballoy ammunition 68
examinations 293 internal pressure lubrication 75 Luger designs
102–3 muzzle lift 105 muzzle 16–17, 22
velocity 103–5, 117–18 recoil 103, Lunge reagent 229, 244–5
105–7 time of bullet in barrel 103
interrogations see cross-examinations M16 rifl es 30 machine guns 25
IR see infrared Italian magazines 21–2 magnesium
proof marks 39 smoking 179–82 magnetic particle
method 284–5
jacketed bullets 67–8, 69, 71 Jacobus, Magnum ammunition 56, 63
Marianus 1–2 forensic fi rearms examination 173–4,
Japanese proof marks 40 198–9, 201 gunshot
Journee’s formula 116–19 residues 255 scorching
junk science 301–2 222
magnum pistols 17 Makarov
Kevlar 140–1 keyholing designs 55 manufacturing marks
13 Kiefuss, Johann 4
 398
183–4 Marshall list 139–40
Marshall test 229, 244 matchlocks
2–3 mathematical stria
comparisons 186–91
Mauser designs 17, 19, 55 maximum
altitude of missiles 113–22 maximum
effective range 119–20 maximum range
of missiles 112–22 mechanical noise 29
mercury fulminate 6–7, 87 micro stria see
stria comparisons micro-grooved barrels
155 military ammunition 64–7, 95–8
miquelets 6 mischmetal 266–7 moderators
83–4 momentum 123, 130–1
multiple-shot suicides 307–9 muskets 6
muzzle
attachments 27–31
brakes 29–30 counter
weights 30 energy 122
lift 105 velocity 103–5,
117–18
NAA see neutron activation analysis Nagant
revolvers 156–7 nail driving cartridges 50
National Integrated Ballistic Identifi cation
Network (NIBIN) 150–1 NCNM see non-
corrosive non-mercuric needle fi re rifl es 9,
87
neutron activation analysis (NAA) 246
NIBIN see National Integrated Ballistic
Identifi cation Network nipples 7
nitrites, tests for 228–9, 243–4
nitrocellulose 82–6, 245 2-nitroso-1-
naphthol 274 no-no gauge 26 Nobel,
Alfred 82 non-corrosive non-mercuric
(NCNM) primers 88
non-lead bullets/primers 178–82, 230–1 non-
toxic bullets/primers 70–4, 88–9
forensic fi rearms examination
178–82
range of fi ring estimations 230–1
non-toxic shot 77–80 number
restoration 277–89
bar codes 286, 287–8 barrels 287–
8 chemical methods 280–3
electrolytic methods 283–4 fi ring
INDEX
pins 286–7 laser etching 286–7
magnetic particle method 284–5
non-recoverable methods of
removal 279–80
removal methods 277–8
surface preparation 280
theory 278–9 ultrasonic
captivation 284
nutation 132–3 Nyclad
ammunition 67–8
obturation 8, 10, 52 OCI
see Outstanding Crime
Index ogivals 69 one-shot
stops 139–40 Outstanding
Crime Index (OCI) 150–2
oval-bore rifl ing 162, 164 over-
stamping 278 oversized chambers
167, 168 oxidizers 89 oxygen
plasma ashers 260, 261
Parabellum designs 55, 92
paradox rifl ing 154 paraffi n
test 244–5 Pauly paper caps 7
PDT see ferrozine peening 278
pellets
defi nition 49 size
58–9
penetration 61–2
potential 124–6
percussion priming systems 6–7, 15, 48
perforated chambers 167–9 peripheral
cameras 153–4 permanent cavities 126–7,
134
photomicrography 146–7 pill
locks 7 pinfi re ammunition 44
pinfi re systems 7–8 pistols
classifi cation 19 gunshot residues 242
historical development 2, 6, 16–18
operation 19, 21–2 range of fi ring
estimations 219–26 self-loading 16–18,
21–2 single shot 19 see also revolvers
pitch 294 plasma-ashed taping 260, 261
polygonal rifl ing 162, 163, 176, 178
polygroove rifl ing 162 potassium
chlorate 87–8 power tool cartridges 50
 INDEX
precession 132–3 pressure barrels 108
pressure waves 28
primer caps 50–2 primers 1
accidental discharge 92–4
ammunition 48, 86–94 defi nitions 48,
86–7 formulations 89–92 gunshot
residues 253, 256 historical
development 87–8, 90–1 non-toxic 88–9
priming pans 4–5 professional
associations 292–3 progressive rifl ing
155–6 proof marks 32–41 propellants
ammunition 48, 80–6 ballistics 102–3
range of fi ring estimations 222–3, 231–2
provisional proofs 33
pump action rifl es 24
Purdy designs 56
Pyrodex 82
qualifying experts 291–303
accreditation 292–3 background
questions 293–4 comparison
microscopy 294–7 Daubert
standard 300–2 gun-handling
tests 300 gunshot residues 297–
300
quick-draws 196–7
range of fi ring estimations 211–39
blackening 222–3 bloodstained
garments 231–2 bullet wipe marks 226
calibre 213–15 chemical tests 227–32
decomposition 223–6 entry/exit holes
217–18, 219, 224–5,
227–32 extended 223 external
ballistics 112–22 gunshot residue
211, 219–21 non-toxic, non-lead
primers 230–1
pistols and rifl es 219–26
scorching 220–2 shot
dispersion 233–8 shotguns
232–9 X-ray photography
212–19 rapid incapacitation
307 ratchet rifl ing 163
Reagan, Ronald 68 reaming
marks 164 rebated cartridges
399
54 rebound safety position
195 recoil 103, 105–7
boosters 31 compensators
29–30
recovery methods for fi red bullets 184–6
relative incapacitation index (RII) 137–8
relative stopping power (RSP) 136–7
relevancy prong 301 reliability prong 301
Remington ammunition 72, 73, 95–6
reproofs 33
Republic of Ireland proof mark 37
returning velocity 118–20 revolvers
gunshot residues 242 historical
development 8, 15–16 operation
20–1
ricochet analysis 200–4
rifl ed slugs 70
rifl es
classifi cation 22 gunshot residues 242
historical development 9–10 operation
22–4 range of fi ring estimations 219–
26
rifl ing 10–14, 67
ballistics 121–2 class characteristics
155–7, 170–1,
174, 177 cross-examinations 293–4
forensic fi rearms examination 145–6,
152–65, 170–2, 174–8 forms
161–4
individual characteristics 171–2, 174,
177, 187–9
meters 152–3
methods 157–61
terminology 154–5
types 154–5
RII see relative incapacitation index
rimfi re ammunition 44–5, 48, 49 rimfi
re systems 8–9, 15 rimless cartridges
54 rimmed cartridges 54 rocket-
propelled bullets 10 round-nosed
bullets 69, 198, 201–3
RSP see relative stopping power Russian
proof marks 41
 400
saboted ammunition 60, 61–2, 70 safety
mechanisms 191, 195 scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) cross-examinations
298–9 forensic fi rearms examinations
200
gunshot residues 241, 247–51, 261–2,
265
range of fi ring estimations 211, 223, 227
scent bottles 7, 87 Schonberger
designs 16 scoop fl utes 167–9
scorching 220–2 scrape cutter rifl
ing 158–9 sectional densities 110–
11 self-cocking revolvers 20 self-
loading pistols 16–18, 21–2
forensic fi rearms examination 157
gunshot residues 242
self-loading rifl es 23–4
SEM see scanning electron microscopy
semi-automatics see pistols semi-
jacketed bullets 69 semi-rimmed
cartridges 54 serial numbers 276 bar
codes 286, 287–8 barrels 287–8
chemical restoration 280–3 electrolytic
restoration 283–4 fi ring pins 286–7
laser-etched 286–7 magnetic particle
method 284–5 non-recoverable methods
of removal 279–80
removal methods 277–8
restoration 277–89 surface
preparation 280 theory behind
restoration 278–9 ultrasonic
captivation 284
serpentines 3 Shaw,
Joshua 7, 87 short
recoil rifl es 23 shot
defi nition 49 non-toxic
77–80 shot dispersion
233–8 shotguns
ammunition 52, 56–64, 68–9 barrel
choke 234–7 barrel length 237–8 bore
size 56–8 gunshot residues 242
historical development 6 operation
24–5 range of fi ring estimations 232–
9 shot dispersion 233–8 slugs 59–64
INDEX
single action revolvers 20 single-base
powders 82–3 single shot pistols 19 single
shot rifl es 22–3 SinterFire ammunition 73
skid marks 156 skin penetration 120 slug
barrels 154 slugs 59–64 smg see sub-
machine guns Smith & Wesson 8, 15, 161
snap caps 50 snaphaunces 5, 15 sodium
rhodizonate test 227–8, 245–6 soft body
armour 140–1 soft point bullets 69 solid
frame revolvers 20–1 sound suppressors 27–
9 Spanish proof marks 35 Spectra 141
spherical particles of GSR 262, 263–4,
266–7 spitzers 69 spread of
shot 236–7 Starr and Savage 15
stellate tearing 128–9, 219 Steyr
designs 16 straight-cased
cartridges 53 Strasbourg tests
138 streamlined bullets 74–5
stria comparisons 149–52
chamber markings 168–70 class
characteristics 170–1, 174, 177
comparison microscopy 182–6 control
samples 183 cross-examinations 295–7
formation of stria 174–6
individual characteristics 171–2, 174,
177, 187–9 life expectancy
of stria 172 magnesium smoking
179–82 manufacturing marks
183–4 mathematical proofs
186–91 objectivity 190–1
problematical areas 176–82
purposeful eradication 172
recovery methods for fi red bullets
184–6
rifl ing 155, 157 weapon
type 172–4
stud gun cartridges 50 sub-machine
guns (smg) 25 suicide cases 275–6,
305, 307–9 supersonic crack 28
swage rifl ing 160–1 swing-out
cylinders 15–16
tallyron 153–4 tallysurf 153 tapered
case cartridges 53 target
vulnerability 137 tear-gas cartridges
 INDEX 401

49–50, 62, 63 teat fi re ammunition 278, 279–80 wheel locks 3–5 Whitworth
44 tempered glass 205, 206–8 designs, rifl ing 161, 163 Winchester
temporary cavities 126–7, 134 ammunition 73 wind 119, 121 window
terminal ballistics 101, 124–43 glass 204 wound ballistics 124, 126–40
bullet performance 134–40 bullet- wounding capabilities 134–40 X-ray
resistant jackets/vests 140–1 cross- photography 212–19
examinations 293 misconceptions 126–
31 momentum and kinetic energy 130–1 yaw 13
penetration potential 124–6 tumbling external ballistics 121–2 terminal
133–4 wound ballistics 124, 126–40 ballistics 127, 132–3
wounding capabilities 134–40
terminal velocity 113–16, 118 tetrazine
88, 91 Tewari test 229, 244 thin layer
chromatography (TLC) 245 THV see Très
Haute Vitesse
TLC see thin layer chromatography
TMD see trace metal detection total
metal jacket (TMJ) bullets 71 touch
poles 1 toughened glass 205, 206–8
trace metal detection (TMD) 271–6, 306 Très
Haute Vitesse (THV) 73–4 trigger pressure
191, 194
true fl intlocks 6 tube
locks 7 tumbling 133–4,
202–3 twist rates 12–14

ultrasonic captivation 284 ultraviolet (UV)

detection 272, 274–5 UMC see Union
Metallic Cartridge undetermined manner of
death 305 Union Metallic Cartridge (UMC)
73, 95 unjacketed bullets 67 UV see
ultraviolet Uzi designs 25

velocity
momentum and kinetic energy 130–1
muzzle 103–5, 117–18 recoil 106–7
returning 118–20 terminal 113–16, 118
VeloDog designs 55 vertical bullet recovery
tanks 184–5 vertical water tanks 184
vierlings 25 Villela’s reagent 282 von
Dreyse, Johann Nikolaus 9

wadcutters 69, 197 wadding

184, 234–5
Walker test for nitrites 228–9, 243–4
Webley designs 15, 17, 20, 55 welding