Plant Nano Biology 4 (2023) 100036

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Plant Nano Biology

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/plant-nano-biology

Microbial synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles for plant science and

agriculture ]]
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Shrishti Naidua,b, Indrakant K. Singhc, Archana Singha,b,d,

⁎

a
Department of Botany, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
b
J C Bose Centre for Plant Genomics, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
c
Molecular Biology Research Lab, Department of Zoology, Deshbandhu College, University of Delhi, Kalkaji, New Delhi 110019, India
d
Delhi School of Climate Change and Sustainability, Institution of Eminence, Maharishi Karnad Bhawan, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Enormous usage of nanoparticles (NPs) has transformed several societal arenas including health care and
Magnetic Nanoparticles agriculture indicating their great demand and production at a high scale. In this context, magnetic nanoparticles
Agriculture (MNPs) have attracted a great deal of attention in the last ten years. Due to the distinctive characteristics and
Microbial synthesis captivating prospective usage demonstrated in a variety of domains, many methods for synthesis of MNPs have
Nano biotechnology
lately risen to the forefront. Out of many, microbial synthesis of MNPs is safer and cost-effective.
Microorganisms, showing a great deal of biodiversity, provide a range of options to manufacture MNPs.
Moreover, MNPs could be produced by microbes in vast quantities and at a low cost. It has also been shown that
by employing microbial processes, it is possible to produce both NPs of crystalline pure magnetite as well as
magnetite with some of the Fe replaced by Co, Ni, Cr, Mn, Zn, or the rare earths. Additionally, biological
methods for producing MNPs are eco-friendly and present chances for industrialization. This review discusses
methods for producing MNPs by microbial synthesis and their potential applications in agriculture along with
the constraints in their synthesis and usage.

Introduction
Recent advancements in nanotechnology have aided in the up­
grading and transformation of various sectors of life such as agriculture
and the scope and advantages of nanoscience are continually ex­
panding. Nanoparticles (NPs) are microscopic particles with a mean
dimension span of 1–100 nm, distinguishing them from their hefty
parent matter and making them suitable for a wide range of applica­
tions (Cardoso et al., 2018; LaConte et al., 2005). MNPs are nano
substances with distinctive and useful features. MNPs differ from their
massive parent material by virtue of their huge surface area, which
increases their superparamagnetic properties (Babes et al., 1999).
Magnetic qualities are frequently used in many fields including medi­
cine, energy, transportation, engineering as well as environment and
have recently become a focus of attention (Hao et al., 2010; Thorat
et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2018).
Metals (individually / in combination), and metal oxides are used to
produce MNPs (Kefeni et al., 2017). The most popular iron oxide is
superparamagnetic magnetite (Fe3O4), which has excellent compat­
ibility and minimal harmfulness (Assa et al., 2016; Farjadian et al.,
2017). Lately, Fe3O4 MNPs have attracted a lot of scientific interest and
recognition for their use in a range of disciplines (Bansal et al., 2017).
The adaptable physicochemical characteristics of NPs, which include
thermodynamic properties, absorptivity, melting temperature, and
catalytic augmentation by modifying the surface-to-volume ratio, have
lately revolutionized their application in agriculture (Das et al., 2014;
Lahiri et al., 2021). Due to existence of traits including a substantial
specific surface area, metal-rich parts, and adaptable designs, the MNPs
have many applications in several fields viz., medicine, catalysis,
agriculture, drug delivery and biological imaging. Recently, they have
become popular due to their shape- and size-tuning capabilities (Purbia
and Paria, 2015; Singamaneni et al., 2011). MNPs are now at a sig­
nificant position in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology food
chain because of their fast progress and record volume of publications
(Cardoso et al., 2018; Kudr et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2019).
Traditionally, NPs have been synthesized via a number of physical,
chemical, and mechanical processes, including radiolysis, spray pyr­
olysis, microwave, electrospinning, the sol-gel technique, ultrasonica­
tion, chemical reduction, and inert condensation (Lahiri et al., 2021).
Dipolar interactions, surface effects, and size management are among

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Botany, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
E-mail address: archanasingh@hrc.du.ac.in (A. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plana.2023.100036
Received 11 April 2023; Received in revised form 28 May 2023; Accepted 14 June 2023
2773-1111/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 Table 1
Microbe synthesized MNPs and their advantages or applications.

S.no Organism Nature NPs Type Advantages/Application References

1 Bacillus subtilis Bacteria Fe3O4 Non-toxic, cost effective (Sundaram et al., 2012)
2 Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 Bacteria Pd/Fe3O4, Au/Fe3O4 and PdAu/ Provides a simple and ecologically safe option for the synthesis of MNPs (Tuo et al., 2015)
S. Naidu, I.K. Singh and A. Singh

Fe3O4
3 Shewanella sp. strain HN-41 Bacteria Iron-oxyhydroxide akaganeite Uniform shaped particles (Lee et al., 2008)
(β-FeOOH)
4 Shewanella sp. strain PV-4 Bacteria M-substituted magnetite nano- More heavily substituted magnetite; favorable when dealing with harmful (Moon et al., 2007)
crystals (MyFe3−yO4) elements like Cr and Ni
5 Fe (III)-reducing bacterium Bacteria Metal (Co, Cr, Ni)-substituted Creates many nm-sized MNPs quickly (Roh et al., 2001)
magnetite
6 Actinobacter spp. Bacteria Iron oxide The reaction takes place in an aerobic environment at ambient temperature. (Bharde et al., 2005)
7 Actinobacter sp. Bacteria Maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) and In aerobic settings; the choice of precursor can adjust the final products (Bharde et al., 2008)
greigite (Fe3S4)
8 Streptomyces sp. Bacteria Iron-based ferromagnetic Environment-friendly, cost-effective bioprocess, high yields (Jacob et al., 2017)
nanoparticles (IONP)
9 Geobacter metallireducens GS-15 Bacteria Tabular single-domain An ancient biological signature that may be used to identify both terrestrial (Vali et al., 2004)
magnetite and extra-terrestrial settings, as well as the main carrier of magnetization in
natural sediments
10 Geobacter bemidjiensis Bacteria Hydrous ferric oxyhydroxides Environmental bioremediation (Luef et al., 2013)
magnetite
11 Geobacter sulfurreducens Bacteria FeCl3 magnetite Environmentally benign route and alternative to harsher synthetic procedures (Byrne et al., 2015)
12 Geobacter sulfurreducens Bacteria Nanoscale magnetite Potentially tunable, environment- friendly route for MNPs synthesis (Byrne et al., 2011)
13 Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense MSR-1 Bacteria Ferric citrate magnetite High yield (Sun et al., 2008)

2
14 M. gryphiswaldense (MSR-1) Bacteria Magnetite; maghemite Speculation of exceptional bacterial magnetic characteristics (Fischer et al., 2011)
15 M. magneticum (AMB-1) Bacteria Magnetite; maghemite Speculation of exceptional bacterial magnetic characteristics (Fischer et al., 2011)
16 Magnetospirillum magneticum strain RSS-1 Bacteria Magnetite (Fe3O4) or greigite Magnetic recovery of transition metals (Shimoshige et al., 2017)
(Fe3S4)
17 Thermoanaerobacter sp. TOR-39 Bacteria Zn-substituted magnetite Uniformity and reproducibility without complicated control procedures (Moon et al., 2010)
18 Staphylococcus aureus and Corynebacterium glutamicum, Bacteria Fe Anticancer effect (Ahmadi et al., 2021)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli; Candida
albicans
19 Staphylococcus aureus Bacteria Gold coated SERS-surface-enhanced Raman scattering activity and good magnetic (Wang et al., 2016)
response
20 Magnetospirillum strain AMB-1 Bacteria Magnetite Ideal size MNPs and magnetic properties suitable for biomedical applications (Elblbesy et al., 2014)
21 Magnetospirillum sp. Bacteria Magnetite Removal of arsenic (Balakrishnan et al.,
2020)
22 Rhodotorula mucilaginosa Yeast Ni/NiO Nanobioremediation of metals (Salvadori et al., 2016)
23 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yeast Chitosan-coated Immobilization of yeast alcohol dehydrogenase (Li et al., 2010)
24 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yeast Magneto-sensitive Fe Targeted drug delivery carriers (Vainshtein et al., 2014)
Cryptococcus humicola
25 Fusarium sp., Aspergillus sp., Alterneria sp., Nigrospora sp. Fungi Fe3O4, Nanoscale zerovalent Management of heavy metals in water (Mahanty et al., n.d.)
ion (nZVI) magnetite
26 Aspergillus flavus Fungi Iron oxide Carriers for pectinase and xylanase (Hassan et al., 2022)
27 Metarhizium anisopliae Fungi Fe33O4 Nano Biocomposites for remediation (Chaves et al., 2022)
28 Aspergillus niger Fungi Fe and Fe3O4 (magnetite) Biomedical application (Abdeen et al., 2016)
29 Aspergillus flavipes Fungi Fe Decolorizing dyes and antifungal activity (Abdullah, 2022)
30 Fusarium oxysporum and Verticillium sp. Fungi Magnetite Ferrimagnetic transition (Bharde et al., 2006)
31 Alternaria alternata Fungi Fe Antibacterial activity (Mohamed et al., 2015)
32 Penicillium citrinum Fungi Iron oxide Drug discovery and disease control (Shrivastava and
Pramanik, 2021)
Plant Nano Biology 4 (2023) 100036
S. Naidu, I.K. Singh and A. Singh
the significant challenges in the production of monodisperse magnetic
nanostructures. Nevertheless, new methods for chemical production
have made it feasible to control the nucleation and spread of these
MNPs. As a result, MNPs have tremendously variable sizes and shapes,
which are significantly influenced by the kind of surfactant and solvents
utilized in the process (Xie et al., 2018). Additionally, greener methods
are becoming more in demand due to the need for procedures that are
less time-consuming, inexpensive, high-yielding, non-toxic, and ecolo­
gically benign (Fang et al., 2019; Khandel and Shahi, 2016). The uti­
lization of life forms such as plants and microbes (bacteria, fungi, and
viruses) to synthesize MNPs is a well-known greener method (Verma
et al., 2021). Although microbe-generated iron NPs have good stability,
synthesized NPs have limited dispersion (Komeili, 2012). To improve
their performance, the biochemical principle of NPs synthesis and mi­
crobe culture optimization must be explored further.
This review delves into the microbial synthesis and usage of MNPs
in the field of agriculture from a biological standpoint. The benefits and
significance of magnetosomes and biologically synthesized MNPs are
described further. Additionally, this review also discusses future re­
search directions on this topic.
Biological synthesis of MNPs
NPs can potentially be created using two methods: the "top-down"
and the "bottom-up" approach (Qamar and Ahmad, 2021; Sadhasivam
et al., 2020). The "Top-down" technique produces NPs from bulk ma­
terials using physical processes that include laser ablation sonication
and mechanical milling. These procedures are time-consuming and
produce particles that are not evenly dispersed. The "Bottom-up"
method, on the other hand, creates NPs from their molecular founda­
tion using chemical and biological procedures (Sadhasivam et al.,
2020). Alternative physical processes, such as wire explosion as well as
nobel-gas condensation, can also be employed for production of MNPs.
Chemical tactics often require the usage of hazardous substances and
the discharge of toxic by-products, rendering them unattractive pro­
cedures owing to the resulting environmental issues (Pattanayak et al.,
2021). In biological synthesis, biological components are used for MNPs
production. A biological method is a viable option due to its environ­
mental friendliness, cost-effectiveness, durability, stability, and a good
amount of yield. Biological approaches have recently been adopted as a
novel means to generate metal or magnetic NPs.
Scientists are intrigued by the production of NPs using plant tissue,
extract, secretion, and other plant components (Gul et al., 2019). For
example, biological synthesis of ferromagnetic magnetite NPs of 60 nm,
have been reported (Lenders et al., 2014). Biological synthesis has
emerged as a potential technique for NPs production. However, the
method by which NPs are produced by microorganisms, is not entirely
understood and is continuously being explored (Duan et al., 2018;
Komeili, 2012). For instance, several investigations suggested potential
methods for metal NPs using fungi and the process is known as myco­
synthesis. However, the exact mechanism involved in the process is not
understood. Some drawbacks of this approach, such as yield and MNP
dispersion, also need further exploration (Duan et al., 2018; Lu et al.,
2007).
Biological MNPs synthesis via plant material is still in its infancy,
and scientists are currently working to comprehend the process (Gul
et al., 2019). When compared to chemical and physical approaches, NPs
generated by microorganisms are hardly monodisperse, and time taking
(Narayanan and Sakthivel, 2010). As a result, perspectives on selection
methods may differ depending on their results and application goals.
That is why no single approach is considered suited to meet MNP
synthesis. Every approach has limitations and is chosen based on a
variety of criteria such as NP yield, morphology, size, shape, and ex­
perimentation cost.
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Plant Nano Biology 4 (2023) 100036
Microbial synthesis of NPs
The stability of NPs is significantly influenced by biogenic sources
such as bacteria, fungi, and plant matter (Durán et al., 2005). Micro­
organisms including fungi, yeast, and bacteria are used in the produc­
tion of green NPs since the activity can be regulated by modifying the
nutrients, pH, temperature and pressure of the culture (Table 1). A
built-in system exists within the microbiological system to produce NPs
using metallic compounds (Li et al., 2011).
Previous investigation have reported that microbial cells are sig­
nificant in the alteration of heavy earth metals into NPs. Metallic NPs
are produced as a result of a variety of interaction pathways present in
bacterial cells (Lahiri et al., 2021). Another benefit of utilizing bacterial
cells is their capacity to produce large quantities of green NPs (Fariq
et al., 2017). Scientists also showed that fungi, through both in­
tracellular as well as extracellular enzymes located inside cells, play a
significant part in the generation of NPs (Fariq et al., 2017). Natural
catalysts like NADH reductase were used to produce NPs (Guilger-
Casagrande and Lima, 2019). The nitrate reductase enzyme and an­
thraquinones extracted from F. oxysporum could reduce silver ions.
Another study found that the same fungus produced extracellular
NADH-dependent nitrate reductase, and quinolones were employed to
produce SilverNPs (Anil Kumar et al., 2007). Fungi NADH-dependent
oxidoreductases are also used to synthesize AuNPs (Kitching et al.,
2015). Fungi have greater NP yields than bacteria because they have
more biomass. Although bacteria are more typically utilized in the
synthesis of metallic NPs, the fungus is favorable due to the formation
of mycelium, which provides a larger surface for different interactions
and communications. The quantity of enzymatic product generated by
fungus is more than that of produced by bacteria, hence the amount of
transformation of metal salt to the metal NPs is much quicker (Lahiri
et al., 2021). The fungal cell wall plays crucial role in selective ab­
sorption of metal ions for further synthesis of NPs (Khandel and Shahi,
2018). Other constraints connected with fungi-mediated NPs synthesis
include greater production costs and a longer biosynthesis time
(Jeevanandam et al., 2016). The use of bacteria as a host organism for
synthesis of NPs has the benefit of rapid growth and a simpler technique
for controlling genetic expression (Lovley and Woodward, 1996). Be­
cause of their capacity to live at greater concentrations of metallic ions,
bacterial species are used to synthesize metallic NPs (Haefeli et al.,
1984). The pros of using microbe-synthesized-NPs are: high chemical
purity of NPs, doping free chemical ions into the NPs, flow processing,
lack of toxic chemicals, scalability and reproducibility, high achievable
homogeneity of shape and size, high quality, low defects, low dis­
coloration, low net energy expenditure, low synthesis temperature, and
higher inherent colloidal stability and hydrophilicity. However major
cons are: slow synthesis, extraction and purification from intracellular
materials, and spore forming strains may cause contamination. This
problem can be sorted by the use of constant flow fermentation tech­
nology, strains secreting NPs directly in medium and non-spore forming
magnetotactic bacteria (Chmykhalo et al., 2021).
Bacterial synthesis of MNPs
Numerous applications exist in the fields of nanotechnology and
biotechnology for the magnetosome (MS)-like bacterial magnetic na­
noparticles (BMPs) produced by magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) (Vargas
et al., 2018). Due to Earth's geomagnetic field, these internally pro­
duced magnetic particles, which are composed of iron oxides and sul­
fides, serve as a compass needle to guide bacteria along oxygen gra­
dients in the presence of water (Lahiri et al., 2021). BMPs are frequently
carried via phospholipid vesicles and can diffuse in the aqueous
medium.
According to Schüler, (2002), MS synthesis consists of three primary
phases, the initial phase, which includes the absorption of exogenous
Fe3+ through a reduction reaction. The iron is re-oxidized to generate a
S. Naidu, I.K. Singh and A. Singh
Fig. 1. A Classical model for magnetite biomineralization in Magnetospirillum
sp. proposed by Schüler, 2002.
light-density hydrous oxide, and it undergoes dehydration to form a
high-density ferrihydrite. The final step is "biomineralization", which
includes all of the events, including a third of the Fe2+ ion reduction
and additional dehydration to create magnetite. Jogler and Schüler
(2006) suggested in a prospective manner that MS biomineralization
begins with vesicle production. A foreign Fe2+/ Fe3+ is picked up and
delivered into the cell's interior by an ATP-dependent mechanism
through an unidentified uptake system. The development of magnetite
is potentially linked to iron uptake. The “MamB and MamM” proteins
transfer highly saturating Fe2+ from the cytosol into the MS vesicles
and direct iron transfer from the periplasmic region into the MS ve­
sicles. Iron present within vesicles is deemed to be partly re-oxidized by
MamT to generate a highly active ferric oxide that could combine with
soluble Fe2+ to make magnetite. Furthermore, several additional pro­
teins play important functions in magnetite nucleation, development,
redox and pH regulation, and attachment or stability of maturing ve­
sicles (Fig. 1).
BMPs undergo many stages of biomineralization, the first of which
necessitates GTPase-mediated invagination of the cell membranes.
After which BMPs aggregate and form a straight chain along the actin
cytoskeleton filaments (Lahiri et al., 2021). Transmembrane iron
transporters help Fe2+ ions accumulate inside the vesicles during the
second step (Lahiri et al., 2021). External iron is ingested by trans­
porters and siderophores in the subsequent stage and accumulates in
the vesicles by TM (transmembrane) transporters. Due to the possible
adverse consequences of abundant internal iron, it must be rigorously
managed via redox mechanisms (Schüler and Frankel, 1999). Strongly
bound MS proteins then initiate magnetite crystal nucleation and/or
govern shape (Arakaki et al., 2008). Another study found that Shewa­
nella oneidensis generated magnetite utilizing passive and active
methods (Lahiri et al., 2021). Supersaturation and the precipitation of
magnetite are caused by the active usage of ferrihydrite and Fe2+ is
formed in a high pH environment, further Fe2+ alters to Fe3+ near the
cell walls (Li et al., 2011). Cell membrane influences the physical and
chemical properties of the particles. The phospholipid bilayer has
20–40 membrane protein species and can capture bacterial NPs
(Grünberg et al., 2004). Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense MSR-1 and
Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 are the major sources of the BMPs
used in nanotechnology, while some other MTB types can also be
produced (Chen et al., 2016). In recent times, the microbe-assisted
technique was shown to be appropriate for integrating additional me­
tals into magnetite, such as Co, Nil, Zn, Cr, Mn, and Pb, as well as rare
earth including Gd, Ho, Er, Tb and Nd (Abdeen et al., 2016).
The physiological and biochemical features of the bacterial strain
define the cellular factors that govern NPs characteristics and the cul­
ture conditions that control the rate of synthesis. The supply of oxygen,
a suitable temperature, substrate availability, incubation length, and
other culture conditions all have an impact on the output (Chmykhalo
et al., 2021). Some bacteria can only grow under aerobic conditions
(Streptomyces and Arthrobacter sp.), whilst others can only grow without
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Plant Nano Biology 4 (2023) 100036
oxygen (Geobacter). Because ideal oxygen concentration varies in
aerobic species, the oxygen supply mode may be utilized to modify
magnetosome production (Bazylinski and Frankel, 2004; Sun et al.,
2008). The majority of NP-synthesizing organisms are mesophilic (the
optimum growth temperature is 30 °C). Very few bacterial strains are
thermophilic (T. ethanolicus requires 65 °C), while others are psychro­
tolerant (Shewanella sp. grows at 18 °C). Therefore, temperature has a
considerable impact on strain performance (Roh et al., 2006). The most
frequent biomineralization precursors are FeCl3 (combined with FeSO4)
and hydrous ferric oxides (ferrihydrite and kaganeite) (Chmykhalo
et al., 2021). There are nevertheless some strain-specific needs. Higher
akageneite levels, for instance, boost the size of NPs in T. ethanolicus
(Moon et al., 2010). In some strains, adding exogenous NPs to the
media or doping NPS by metal elements can promote production and
affect NPs structure. For instance, adding maghemite NPs to the media
enhances the quantity of produced magnetite in the G. sulfurreducens
(Chen et al., 2019).
Applications of microbe-synthesized MNPs in Agriculture
Even though several MNPs have been employed as antimicrobials in
biomedicine for treating many types of illnesses, the application of
MNPs in the management of several diseases in plants is in its early
stages (Jurgons et al., 2006). MNPs can help with the directed transfer
to plant-specific regions. Tracking down the endogenous movement of
MNPs for directed therapy of particular plant sections is extremely
useful (Arakha et al., 2015). Previously, it was described that MNPs
were used to transport biomolecules into plant cells and their magnetic
characteristics were used to guide carriage as well as localization. For
instance, research showed that Cucurbita pepo was cultured in a lab
(in vitro) using carbon-coated magnetic iron nanoparticles to treat plant
diseases (Ali et al., 2021). Confocal, optical, and electron microscopes
were used to detect the localization (González-Melendi et al., 2008).
MNPs coupled with macromolecules namely nucleotides, drugs, and
enzymes are extremely beneficial in sophisticated delivery systems (Ali
et al., 2021), which facilitate extremely effective gene transfer and
expression inside the host cell.
In agriculture sector, there has been a lot of interest in the genera­
tion of functional NPs that display affordability, compatibility, and
biodegradability properties and are used as nanopesticides, herbicides,
nanofertilizers, nanosensors, herbicides, and nano-additives among
others (Spanos et al., 2021). In the past few years, nanotechnology has
become more prevalent in the agricultural industry with the following
goals: (a) decrease the usage of chemicals that are harmful for the en­
vironment; (b) use nanosensors accurately and at extremely low de­
tection limits (c) improve the effectiveness of primary crop protection
methods and (d) enhance mitigation of abiotic and biotic stresses
(Fig. 2) (Ioannou et al., 2020).
Efficient adsorbents for removal of hazardous contaminants
NPs of 100 nm, displaying adjustable nano-morphologies, and multi-
functionalities, have been developed as very potential adsorbents for
the removal of harmful pollutants such as metallic ions, pesticides, and
antibiotics occurring in incredibly low quantities in water used for ir­
rigation/agricultural waste water, nanomaterials (Jain et al., 2021;
Kumari et al., 2019; Lu and Astruc, 2018; Wang et al., 2018;
Vishwakarma and Dawn, 2021). These materials have special physi­
cochemical features that make them very useful in water remediation
operations due to their considerable surface area and variety in surface
functionalization. A study by Spanos et al. (2021) includes a collection
of literature dealing with magnetic Fe3O4 or Fe2O3-based adsorbents
that served as source material to remove harmful / toxic heavy metals
Zn(II), Cd(II), Pb(II), As(V), Hg(II), Cu(II), Co(II), Cr(III), Cr(VI), and Ni
(II), etc. (Idris et al., 2012). In order to remove Pb(II) from aqueous
solutions, Sharahi and Shahbazi (2017) noted on the creation of
S. Naidu, I.K. Singh and A. Singh
Fig. 2. This figure depicts four key usage of MNPs in agriculture, and additional biological applications of MNPs as well as a description of synthesis, organisms
involved, variables influencing synthesis,.
"melamine-based amine magnetic Fe3O4 NPs" (MBA- Fe3O4). The mel­
amine-based amine was then grafted onto the surfaces of the magnetic
NPs after they had been created solvothermally. Under ideal circum­
stances, MBA- Fe3O4 could remove Pb(II) at the rate of 85.6 %, by
endothermal and spontaneous reactions and this was proven to be a
highly durable method (Sharahi and Shahbazi, 2017). Other examples
include mesoporous silica nanoparticles/iron oxide nanocomposites for
organochlorine pesticide (El-Said et al., 2018), Fe3O4 nanocpmpostes
was useful in dealing with many of the triazine or triazol- based pes­
ticides (Yi et al., 2019), Co–Ni/chitosan/Fe3O4 for 2,4-di­
chlorophenoxyacetic acid (Sharma et al., 2020), ZnO, SiO2 and Fe3O4
NPs for Diazinon pesticide (Rezaei et al., 2019), and core–shell struc­
tured Fe3O4/hexagonal mesoporous silica microspheres for DDT (Tian
et al., 2009).
Magneto-assisted soil restoration systems
MNPs are beneficial in restoring soil fertility and helps in repairing
nutrient composition of soil, allowing plants to grow and develop
profusely (Claudio et al., 2017). These nanomaterials are utilized as
fertilizer additions to improve soil quality and also for MNPs-assisted
depletion of hazardous soil pollutants and other damaging organic
compounds (Spanos et al., 2021). As and Cd are known to be among the
most harmful heavy metals, commonly found in paddy soil from where
it is transmitted to rice (Spanos et al., 2021). This is extremely risky
since the build-up of Cd in rice may result in serious health issues for
humans. Cadmium ions have been removed from Cd-contaminated
paddy soil using zerovalent iron NPs (Phenrat et al., 2019). A magnetic
field supplied from outside was able to remove the Cd-adsorbed Fe-
nanomaterials from the soil. According to Baragaño and coworkers, the
restoration of As-containing soils may be accomplished using com­
mercially available, spherical Fe3O4 magnetic NPs with a mean NP size
of 20 nm and a surface area of 90 m2/g (Baragaño et al., 2020). Total
petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) and PAHs were removed from soil using
widely available Fe3O4 NPs (Baragaño et al., 2020). In particular, even
at a concentration of 0.2 %, a considerable reduction in the PAH and
TPH content was seen, reaching 49 % and 89 %, respectively, with
magnetite NPs. Asgharzadeh et al. (2019) used magnetic Fe3O4 NPs as
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Plant Nano Biology 4 (2023) 100036
nanocatalysts in the electrokinetic Fenton reaction to remove pyrene
from polluted soil.
NPs as Soil fertility Enhancers and Smart plant delivery agents
The agricultural industry has seen a significant influx of nano­
technology with the goal of enhancing soil fertility and, in turn, crop
plant nutrient absorption through the creation of useful NPs based
fertilizer (Ditta et al., 2020). Due to its magnetic core, which enables
them to direct the NPs to the target region utilizing magnets, MNPs are
utilized as smart delivery methods in plants. In the study published by
Yoon et al. (2019), FeO NPs were added in soil to examine their effects
on the growth and development of Arabidopsis. The acceleration of
photosynthesis and the enhanced retention of nutrients resulted in a
large rise in plant biomass (40%) after applying nanoscale FeO to the
soil. As biocompatible nanofertilizers in sunflower plants, EDTA-grafted
Fe3O4 NPs were developed and examined. In most evaluated criteria,
such as the leaf count, plant height, total chlorophyll, and dramatically
increased Fe content, nanofertilizers were used and shown to be more
effective (Shahrekizad et al., 2015). In order to enzymatically hydrolyze
chicken feathers and create organic compounds that may be useful for
the germination of seeds and plant development, keratinase-bound
MNPs were created (Rai and Mukherjee, 2015). Shankramma et al.
(2016), employed Fe2O3 MNPs to promote biomineralization and To­
mato (Solanum lycopersicum) development. A study regarding the ap­
plication of magnetite NPs on Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) for
improved seedling germination and development demonstrates the
worth of magnetic NPs in increasing seedling growth (Duran et al.,
2018). Owing to the enzymatic peroxidase-like interactions that Fe3O4-
NPs have, magnetite also showed noteworthy effects on oak seedlings,
boosting the germination % and growth metrics (Pariona et al., 2017).
Moreover, a Fe3O4-Chitosan-AgNP composite was reported to have re­
markable antifungal action towards crop diseases such as pathogen-
infection caused by Pyricularia sp., Aspergillus niger and Colletotrichum
coccodes (Tomke and Rathod, 2020). It was also employed to reduce the
manmade contaminant p-nitrophenol to p-aminophenol. With the ap­
plication of 600 mg/L of Barium ferrite, around 76.67 % suppression of
mycelial growth against Fusarium oxysporum was observed (Thakur
S. Naidu, I.K. Singh and A. Singh
et al., 2020). Similar to this, Fe3O4 nanoparticles were used on tobacco
(Nicotiana benthamiana), and several research was conducted on their
absorption, physiological responses, and plant tolerance to Tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV) (Cai et al., 2020).
Gene transfer
In 1970s, MNPs were used as gene carriers for mouse cell trans­
fection (Dobson, 2006). With excellent and very effective techniques of
gene transfer using magnetic force, there are a variety of new tech­
nologies working with plant transfection employing MNPs. In a fasci­
nating work, Zhao et al. (2017) used pollen magnetofection to transfer
foreign DNA loaded with polyethyleneimine-coated Fe3O4 as DNA
carriers for gene transfection. The pollen of cotton is large in size with
thin wall, which made it feasible to deliver the foreign gene past the
membrane and within the pollen. The foreign DNA was integrated into
the genome, resulting in the production of transgenic plants from the
transformed seeds. The approach that was described has the advantages
of being genotype neutral, culture-free, quick, easy, and capable of
changing many genes. This novel transfection technique is straightfor­
ward and suitable for multi-gene transfer since it is a culture-free and
genotype-independent approach.
Biosensors
In biosensor technology, biomolecules such as enzyme, protein,
antibody, etc. are used as identification components for the recognition
of various analytes (Wang and Uchiyama, 2013). The generation of
novel substances that could be used as biosensors in the agricultural
sector is necessary for the surveillance of sufficient soil water content
and appropriate soil pH, the tracking of plant disease, and the in situ
assessment of chemical pollutants and heavy metals in soil and
groundwater (Griesche and Baeumner, 2020; Lu et al., 2020; Mufamadi
and Sekhejane, 2017; Rai et al., 2012; Rigi et al., 2013; Velasco-Garcia
and Mottram, 2003). Building an immune-electrochemistry detector
based on a thin layer electrode made of "polyaniline-coated Co3O4"
MNPs allowed researchers to develop a sensitive, quick, and easy
method for detecting organophosphorus pesticides like chlorpyrifos
(Wang et al., 2017). This method allowed researchers to voltamme­
trically monitor the density of chlorpyrifos in farm commodities. For
the identification of ricin, a poisonous protein that binds with carbo­
hydrates and is present in the castor plant, a magneto immuno-chro­
matographic test strip was created and assembled with a "tunneling
magneto-resistance (TMR) magnetic sensitive sensor" (Mu et al., 2019).
In a different investigation, a colourimetric sensor dependent on "cubic
magnetic Fe3O4 NPs" was developed and then utilized to find the NOS
gene sequences in plants that had undergone genetic modification (Cao
et al., 2020).
Conclusion
Nanotechnology advancements have quickly progressed novel ap­
proaches in the area of Agriculture. MNPs may be functionalized and
regulated by applying a magnetic field at the same time, making them
captivating tools for a vast number of biological disciplines. MNPs must
have a specific surface coating that makes them non-toxic, biocompa­
tible, and targetable. The synthesis and use of MNPs has made a bigger
contribution to agriculture in recent decades. MNPs have antibacterial
properties naturally and can act as antimicrobial substances. Similarly,
MNPs are being used to purify wastewater, including the depletion of
contaminants, color decay, isolation of bacteria and killing of bacteria.
MNPs can be applied as nanofertilizers in the soil to enhance the pro­
duction and control biotic and abiotic stresses. One of the major pro­
blems with MNPs is the long-term biocompatibility and toxicity. It
should be fixed as soon as possible for the best long-term results.
Critical and insightful research is required to develop and build MNPs
6
Plant Nano Biology 4 (2023) 100036
for a variety of applications in many disciplines including agriculture.
The problem associated with MNPs of microbial origin can be resolved
by the usage of-constant flow fermentation technology, strains secreting
NPs directly in medium and non-spore forming magnetotactic bacteria.
Alternative strategies must be identified to overcome all the hurdles of
microbial nanotechnology. Building regulatory structures for the secure
and efficient use of nanotechnology must be explored as technology
advances and interdisciplinary methods are developed. A thorough
investigation of the morphology, composition, size, structure, shape,
and adverse effects is required. The research community must handle
these massive obstacles and perform painless agricultural studies for the
synthesis of MNPs for a better future.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Declaration of Competing Interest
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
AS acknowledged the Science and Engineering Research Board
(SERB), Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India, for
the financial support (ECR/2017/002478 / SPG/2021/002969). The
authors thank Prof. (Dr.) Rama, Principal, Hansraj College, for pro­
viding all the facilities to conduct this research work and for her con­
stant support.
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