Environmental Science and Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15349-5

REVIEW ARTICLE

Review on the progress of building-applied/integrated

photovoltaic system
Digvijay Singh 1 & Rubina Chaudhary 1 & Alagar Karthick 2

Received: 5 May 2021 / Accepted: 4 July 2021

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Integration of photovoltaic (PV) technologies with building envelopes started in the early 1990 to meet the building energy
demand and shave the peak electrical load. The PV technologies can be either attached or integrated with the envelopes termed as
building-attached (BA)/building-integrated (BI) PV system. The BAPV/BIPV system applications are categorized under the
building envelope roof and facades as PV-roof, PV-skin facade, PV-Trombe wall, PV claddings, and louvers. This review covers
various factors that affect the design and performance of the BAPV/BIPV system applications. The factors identified are air gap,
ventilation rate, a tilt angle of PV shading devices, adjacent shading, semitransparent PV (STPV) glazing design, cell coverage
ratio (CCR), transmittance, window to wall ratio (WWR), and glazing orientation. Furthermore, the results of the possible factors
are compared to building locations. This review article will be beneficial for researchers in designing the BAPV/BIPV system and
provides future research possibilities.

Keywords Photovoltaic . Double-skin facades . Trombe wall . Glazings

Introduction The integration of PV with the building envelopes has started

The energy demand in residential and commercial buildings
was 2.25 Btoe in 2016 and is expected to be more than 3 Btoe
by 2040 worldwide. This demand increases daily due to the
overburdened population and extensive energy gadgets, such
as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) (Global
and Outlook 2018), which increases the rising price trends of
conventional energy generation and may create price afford-
ability problems, especially in developing countries
(Timmons et al. 2020). Further, emissions from these primary
energy sources will degrade the environment, causing natural
climate change, which is also a severe issue. Photovoltaic
integrated building envelopes technology can play a signifi-
cant role in mitigating these energy and environmental issues.
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
* Alagar Karthick
karthick.power@gmail.com
1
School of Energy and Environmental Studies, Devi Ahilya
Vishwavidyalaya, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452001, India
2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, KPR Institute
of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641407,
India
in the early 1990s to fulfill the building electrical demand and
shortage inland availability (Hagemann 1996; Clarke et al.
1996). The potential of PV-integrated technologies for
European countries is about 840 TWh, fulfilling 22% of en-
ergy demand alone (Defaix et al. 2012). However, the market
growth rate of these technologies in the Asia/Pacific region is
10% higher than in European countries for the year 2014–
2020, playing an essential role in developing countries
(Tabakovic et al. 2017). The technologies performed well in
higher solar irradiance areas (Singh et al. 2020). Further, with
the predicted increase in efficiency of about 22% for PV
wafer–based and 17% for thin-film technologies by 2030
(Defaix et al. 2012), the BIPV/BAPV technologies will be
gaining more attention in upcoming years. In recent years,
the review on the topic by the authors is discussed. In a re-
view, Jelle et al. (2012) initially categorize BIPV products in
PV foils, tiles, and modules and identified the PV foil as the
first commercial BIPV product.
Further, they discussed the electrical parameters of differ-
ent BIPV products. The authors also hint at the evolution of
organic and dye-synthesized solar cell (DSSC) technologies in
BIPV applications. Shukla et al. (2018) discussed the BIPV-
based buildings in Asian countries, concluding that factors
like ambient temperature, direction, and the slope of the PV

responsible for improving PV performance are considered.
Further, solutions for cost minimization of BIPV products
and their availability can significantly improve building
sustainability. Cronemberger et al. (2014) reviewed the results
related to BIPV applications in Solar Decathlon houses in
Europe. Shukla et al. (2017) reviewed different BIPV prod-
ucts and their electrical parameters related to different PV
technologies. Yang and Athienitis (2016) categorized the
BIPV/T systems as air-based, water-based, concentrating
type, and encapsulated with phase change material (PCM)
and reviewed in terms of a numerical and experimental
approach. Shukla et al. (2016) reviewed the energetic assess-
ment of BIPV technologies based on photonic and parametric
methods.
Similarly, Debbarma et al. (2017a, 2017b) firstly reviewed
the performance of BIPV/T applications in terms of electrical
and thermal efficiency. Later, they presented equations for
thermal modeling and overall energy and exergy of system.
Biyik et al. (2017) reviewed the BIPV and BIPV/T applica-
tions in electrical parameters and identified critical factors like
shadowing effect, building direction, and slope. Agathokleous
and Kalogirou (2016) reviewed the PV-DSF, focused on bio-
logical or mechanical ventilated parameters, concluding me-
chanical ventilation dominance.
Further, they gave Nusselt number and convective heat
transfer correlations with the applicable ranges of Reynold’s
number. Ahmed et al. (2020) provided state of the art on PV-
TW covering various parameters like ventilation and mass
flow rate, air gap, and cell coverage ratio. Skandalos and
Karamanis (2015) reviewed the PV glazing technology,
remarking that glazing transparency is the critical factor in
deciding overall performance. Further, more research is need-
ed on emerging technologies when integrated with buildings.
Kuhn et al. (2020) discusses the design approach from the
encapsulation of cell layers to the junction box and further to
power conditioning units in BIPV application. Ghosh (2020)
reviewed different generations of PV technologies in BIPV/
BAPV applications and concluded rapid growth in third-
generation technologies. While in tropical countries, Reddy
et al.’s (2020) review concluded that, for the BIPV system
thin film, STPV technologies commonly replace the conven-
tional material. Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b) reviewed the ap-
plication of PCM in BIPV systems, categorizing BIPV as
ventilated and nonventilated systems. The author concluded
that nanoparticle-mixed PCM performs better than organic
and inorganic PCMs.
In this paper, we reviewed the current progress of the
BIPV/BAPV application. Various important factors were
identified during the current study and from previous review
articles, which are responsible for entangling the progress of
BIPV/BAPV in terms of design and performance. Initially,
BAPV/BIPV system descriptions and PV technology over-
views reported in the literature were discussed. The factors
Environ Sci Pollut Res
affecting BAPV/BIPV applications are reviewed, and critical
findings of parameters, location, research method, and PV
technologies are presented in tabular form. Further, possible
results from the discussed parameters were also compared to
the locations. And then, we have summarized the discussion
and future research possibilities. Finally, a conclusion is
drawn as per the objective.
BIPV/BAPV system categorization
The directly mounted PV modules on the building envelopes
are treated as building-attached photovoltaics (BAPV). When
modules replace the conventional building material, they are
called building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV). The BAPV/
BIPV system is divided into two parts. One is PV technology,
and the other is its applications as given in Fig. 1. The PV
technologies in the BAPV/BIPV system can be classified as
conventional and emerging solar cells in nature. The building
envelope is the exterior part of a building that separates the
conditioned space from the outer environment. The envelope
roof and facade are primary applications of the system.
Further, it can be categorized as flat/pitched PV rooftop, PV-
Trombe wall, PV-DSF, semitransparent PV glazing, PV shad-
ing devices like claddings and louvers, etc. The section covers
the overview of PV technologies reported in the literature,
whereas the next section will discuss the application part.
PV technologies
The technologies were divided into three categories, a conven-
tional, thin-film, and emerging. Figure 2 shows the NREL
reported best cell efficiency and PV module maximum con-
version efficiencies reported in the literature.
Monocrystalline
The single-crystal Si rods are sliced into thin wafers to pro-
duce monocrystalline silicon cells (also known as single-
crystal silicon cells) (Debbarma et al. 2017b). Due to its puri-
ty, the best cell efficiency reported was 26.1%
Polycrystalline
The production begins with melting the silicon, casting the
liquid silicon into square ingots, solidifying them into crystals
with numerous orientations under stringent thermal regulation
(Weller et al., 2010), and yielding rectangular ingots
multicrystalline silicon to be subjected to slicing into blocks
and finally into thin wafers. Pantic et al. (2010) increased the
efficiency of BAPV modules by increasing the forced venti-
lation rate. D’Orazio et al. (2014) improved the performance
of c-Si technology integrated on the BIPV/BAPV roof by
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 1 Categorization of BAPV/
BIPV system
optimizing the ventilation rate and air gap. Mirzaei and
Carmeliet (2015) showed that the stepped arrangement of
modules on a pitched roof increases the ventilation rate, im-
proving its performance. Luo et al. (2018), Yu et al. (2017),
Wang et al. (2017) studied the performance of naturally ven-
tilated PV-DSF. Yun et al. (2007) found a maximum reduc-
tion in the module temperature for natural ventilation. Zogou
and Stapountzis (2011), Yun et al. (2007), Shahrestani et al.
(2017), and Athienitis et al. (2011) optimized the air mass
flow rate for facade application, enhancing the power output.
Jiang et al. (2018) studied optimum air for natural ventilated
BIPV wall. Elsayed (2016), Dehra (2017), Ahmed et al.
(2019a, 2019b) found forced ventilation suitable for improv-
ing the thermal and electrical efficiency of c-Si modules.
Skandalos and Karamanis (2016), Singh et al. (2021a,
2021b), Karthick et al. (2018a), and Karthick et al. (2018b)
found the optimum cell coverage ratio (CCR) for c-Si in
STPV glazing. Further, Sun et al. (2020), Wah et al. (2005),
and Kapsis and Athienitis (2015) studied the performance of
cSi-based STPV glazing for different window to wall ratio
(WWR), transmittance, and orientations.
Fig. 2 Efficiencies of PV
technologies by NREL and
reported in current literature 30%
26.1%
25%
20%
16.0%
15%
10%
5%
0%
c-Si
Amorphous silicon cells
Amorphous silicon is a second-generation thin PV technology
produced by depositing thin silicon layers on a glass substrate
using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition, which in-
volves hydrogen and silane gas. The deposition develops
amorphous networks, which give rise to many covalent bonds
(Debbarma et al. 2017b). The best cell efficiency is 14%,
while the maximum efficiency reported in the literature is
9%. Peng et al. (2013a, 2016), Luo et al. (2018), and Wang
et al. (2017) have used semitransparent amorphous silicon (a-
Si) technologies in natural ventilated PV-DSF applications.
Koyunbaba et al. (2013) and Islam et al. (2021) have used a-
Si in ventilated PV-Trombe wall (PV-TW). Qiu et al. (2019a,
2019b) and Wang et al. (2016) laminated a-Si on IGU. Chae
et al. (2014) develop flat and textured a-Si cells for perfor-
mance as STPV glazing windows. Skandalos and Karamanis
(2016) studied a-Si of CCR 0.8, and it performs better than
conventional glazing. However, due to low efficiency, the
power output was lower than crystalline silicon with a CCR
of 1. Most of a-Si in STPV window glazings are reported by
Miyazaki et al. (2005), Ng et al. (2013), Liao and Xu (2015),
Best research cell vs. Typical module Prod.
23.3%
22.1%
14%
12.6% 11.9%
9% 9.9%
6.6%
3% 3.5%
a-Si CdTe Pervoskite Organic DSSC
NREL Literature

Kapsis and Athienitis (2015), and Zhang et al. (2016). It was
compared to single- and double-pane transparent and low-E
glazings, and the a-Si technology performs better in any
WWR and transmittance combination (Olivieri et al. 2014).
Cadmium telluride cells
The technology is based on the development of multilayers on
thin-film layers of cadmium telluride (CdTe). The lower layer
is made of copper-doped carbon paste. At the same time, the
upper layer is made of tin oxide (SnO2) or cadmium-based
stannous oxide (Cd2SnO4). Another layer of cadmium sulfide
(CdS) was placed between the upper layer and CdTe (Shukla
et al. 2016). The lower production cost of CdTe was compared
to crystalline and other thin-film modules. Preet et al. (2020)
studied the performance of CdTe in natural and forced venti-
lated PV-DSF application and in STPV window glazings
(Barman et al. 2018; Sun et al. 2020). The technology also
fulfilled UDI and reduces the risk of glare effect (Sun et al.
2018. Singh et al. 2020). In the case of adjacent shading anal-
ysis on the roof, Zomer et al. (2020) found CdTe feasible with
the higher performance ratio (PR) compared to crystalline
technology.
Organic solar cells
The cells are thin films of carbon-based polymer or molecule
as a donor blended with a carbon-based (e.g., CdSe ) acceptor
material. The donor absorbs sunlight, transfers electrons to the
acceptor, and transports holes to the anode, while the acceptor
takes electrons from the donor and transports electrons to the
cathode Xu and Qiao (2012). The best cell efficiency was
12.6%, and the maximum efficiency reported in the literature
is 3%. Stoichkov et al. (2019) studied the performance organic
PV configured BIPV array for different building orientations
and seasons. It was observed that top-facing array in winters
and the west-facing array (from 5 to 8 pm) could effectively
meet the energy demand of small buildings. Tak et al. (2017)
observed that compared to conventional double-glazed low-E
windows, the performance of organic glazing was found su-
perior in terms of energy saving. However, in some cases,
Didoné and Wagner (2013) found that, due to low conversion
efficiency and less availability of solar radiation at particular
orientation, the organic PV glazing’s overall performance was
comparable with conventional single and double glazing.
Also, the lower efficiency and long-term exposure (Kapsis
and Athienitis 2015) of organic PV glazings achieved high
temperature up to 75°C, leading to accelerated degradation.
Dye-synthesized solar cell
The dye-synthesized solar cell (DSSC) is a low-cost thin-film
technology known as Gratzel cell, and it involves organic and
Environ Sci Pollut Res
inorganic materials in the active layer. Due to semitransparent
and flexible, it is preferred for building applications.
Moreover, it attained the best research cell efficiency of 11.9
%. Lee and Yoon (2018) and Reale et al. (2014) observed
diffuse radiation favorable for DSSC, making it profitable to
install at any building orientation. Lee et al. (2014) found
DSSC as STPV glazing feasible in heating, cooling, and light-
ing installation. Viola et al. (2015) and Caruso et al. (2018)
identified low efficiency, degradation issues, and color loss
insecurity which is not suitable compared to conventional
technologies. Roy et al. (2019) a low thickness TiO2 nanopar-
ticle–coated DSSC showed color enhancement and visible
transmittance reduction after 2 years, which makes it
suitable for hot climatic conditions. Yuan et al. (2018) ob-
served that these cells could generate 15–20% more energy
at higher temperatures and low irradiance levels than a-Si,
making them suitable to perform in hot climatic conditions.
For other cells (Cornaro et al. 2015; Yang et al. 2020), the
energy generation per nominal watt-peak for DSSC is 12–
20% higher than a-Si and 3% lower than that m-Si. Selvaraj
et al. (2019) observed that DSSC with a transparency of 37%
could substantially reduce disturbing glare by 21% compared
to double glazing windows. In a simulation study, Chung et al.
(2020) suggested that DSSC with 50% VLT of any conver-
sion efficiency was suitable for suppressing the building
heating load. Yoon et al. (2011) observed the optimum trans-
parency of DSSC of 25% for NE and SW building orientation
and 30% for SE one in terms of energy production rate com-
pared to the energy-saving rate at 60% transparency. In terms
of color, Kim and Han (2020) observed that in different color
(red, green, blue)-based DSSC, the performance of the red
color was 50% higher than the other two. At lower VLT
(7%), performance was 157% and 133% higher than VLT of
20% and 10%.
Perovskite
The solar cell includes a hybrid organic–inorganic lead type
perovskite–structured compound as the light-harvesting active
layer (Manser et al. 2016). Perovskite materials are low cost
and easy to manufacture. It attained the best research cell
efficiency of 23.3%, which is the highest among emerging
and thin-film technologies. In the case of PV-DSF application,
the perovskite technology achieves the highest energy saving
compared to DSSC for ventilated and nonventilated modes of
operation (Wang et al. 2020). Ghosh et al. (2021) examined
the visual comfort analysis perovskite-based PV window. It
was observed that in terms of economics, Cannavale et al.
(2017b) observed that replacing window glazing from perov-
skite STPV glazing will require additional investment with a
payback period (PBP) of 13 years. However, compared to
other technologies, CdTe and CIGS solar cells, perovskite
Environ Sci Pollut Res
processing cost was better due to its lower material cost and
energy demands.
The PV technology percentage share in BAPV/BIPV sys-
tem is shown in Fig. 3, as it could be seen that in the case of
roof applications, the share of c-Si technology with 70.6% is
mainly dominating the thin film. Due to the higher efficiency
and solar radiation on roofs, c-Si modules are preferred for
roof applications. Whereas in facade application, a-Si-based
glazings contribution is higher 38%, followed by c-Si, CdTe,
and emerging PV technologies covering different facade ap-
plications like STPV window and PV-DSF PV-TW, etc.
Effect of factors on design and performance
of BAPV/BIPV applications
Effect of the air gap, ventilation, and mass rate
The air gap is formed when the PV modules were attached
with horizontal and vertical building envelopes (roof and fa-
cades). The gap protects the envelopes and prevents them
from heat conductivity and humidity. A natural or forced ven-
tilation is developed through the air gap, mitigating the PV
module’s temperature and improving its electrical conversion
efficiency (D’Orazio et al. 2014; Goossens et al. 2018).
Further, ventilated air duct can be utilized for space heating
and other purposes.
BIPV roof
The roof covers the building from the top, protecting it from
external factors. The PV modules can be attached/integrated
on the flat or tiled roof. Figure 4 below depicts PV modules
attached to a sloping roof with a particular air cavity devel-
oped between module and roof. In first (a), natural ventilation
is formed, and no provision of heated air recovery or utiliza-
tion is present. In the second case (b), the heated air in the
cavity is utilized inside the room for space conditioning,
Fig. 3 Studied PV materials in 80.0%
current literature and their
70.6%
percentage share in BIPV/BAPV 70.0%
applications (current literature)
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
11.7%
10.0%
0.0%
c-Si
providing forced ventilation at the top cavity opening.
Table 1 below shows the research findings related to air gap
ventilation and mass flow rate parameters.
D’Orazio et al. (2014) investigated the details for the oper-
ating cell temperature of PV modules in Italy. As shown in
Fig. 5, one of the PV modules (a) was mounted over the roof
with only ventilation duct; the other module (b) was applied
on the rack over the roof with an air gap of 0.2 m and venti-
lation duct of 0.04 m, and the last module (c) was directly
mounted over the roof insulation without duct respectively.
The nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) and Sandia
National Laboratory (SNL) models were used to predict cell
temperature and energy efficiency. It was concluded that due
to better heat exchange and more significant air gap in the
rack-mounted systems, the second module with 0.04-m ven-
tilated duct was enough for reducing the cooling demand of
overheated integrated PV systems, with an annual energy pro-
duction of less than 3% when compared with rack-mounted
one.
Gan (2009) used CFD analysis with the K-epsilon turbu-
lence model to graphically observe the temperature distribu-
tion pattern behind the integrated PV modules and determine
the air gap required to minimize PV overheating. It was found
that as the number of panels increases, the air gap decreases
depending on the roof pitches. From the results, a minimum
air gap of 0.12–0.15 m was observed for multiple module
installations and 0.14–0.16 m for the single module at 40°
roof pitch. Goossens et al. (2018) experimentally observed
that, with provided air gaps (1–5.5cm) and ventilation rates
(1–5m/s) through the duct, the open-circuit voltage and max-
imum power of applied PV system are always higher than
integrated PV without air gap, when compared at the standard
test conditions (STC). Also, the ventilated PV rooftop system
generates 2.6% more electricity than the nonventilated one. In
another experiment, Mirzaei and Carmeliet (2015) developed
a PV roof prototype at a lab-scale shown in Fig. 6. Two types
of arrangement are examined, one with a constant air gap of
10mm between cell and roof, other with the stepped
36% 38%
11.7%
10% 8%
6%
5.8% 4%
HIT c-Si CdTe DSSC
Roof Facade
Table 1 Air gap, ventilation, and mass flow rate effect on BIPV roofs

Ref Location Research Method PV Parameter Research findings

technology

D’Orazio et al. Ancona , Italy NOCT and SNL; experimental m-Si Air gap, natural Produces 4% more energy than the nonventilated one.
(2014) (Mediterranean) ventilation
Gan (2009) Nottingham, UK (temperate ) Graphical and numerical ------- Air Gap, Natural Optimum air gap to minimize PV overheating
optimization ventilation 0.12–0.15 m (multiple modules); 0.14–0.16 m (single module)
Goossens et al. Belgium Experimental m-Si Air gap, natural PV system generates 2.6% more electricity than nonventilated
(2018) ventilation
Poulek et al. Prague (moderate), Athens One node thermal balance; p-Si Natural Increases annual energy production of 3 to 4% (moderate, warm) 5%
(2018) (warm), Riyadh (hot) Experimental ventilation (hot climate) compared to nonventilated
Tripathy et al. New Delhi, India (composite) HDKR (Hay, Davies, Klucher, -------- Natural Flow rate at optimum tilt for maximum thermal and electrical efficiency
(2017) Reindl); energy balance ventilation 7.5 kg/s (opaque), 22.5 kg/s (semitransparent)
Pantic et al. (2010) Montreal, Quebec, Canada Experimental; mathematical m-Si Forced Decreases the PV temperature by 25°C and increasing efficiency by 12 to 13%
(cold and temperate) ventilation
Vats and Tiwari Srinagar, India (cold) One-dimensional energy balance HIT and Forced Increases the room air temperature from 9.4 to 15.2 °C for STPV
(2012) a-Si ventilation
0.85 to 10 kg/s
Mirzaei and N/A Experimental c-Si Natural Ventilation rate increased in stepped arrangement of PV modules on pitched roof
Carmeliet Ventilation
(2015)
Agrawal and Srinagar, India Numerical experimental c-Si Forced Overall thermal efficiency in parallel flow in PV rows was 50% higher than series
Tiwari (2010) ventilation and series parallel combinations of PV rows
Corbin and Zhai Boulder, Colorado Experimental c-Si Natural Natural ventilation found inferior liquid cooling of BIPV/T system
(2010) ventilation
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 4 The layout of a natural and
b forced ventilated BAPV roofs
(Agathokleous and Kalogirou
2016b; Vats and Tiwari 2012)
arrangement of 10mm, 20mm, and 30mm. The results showed
that ventilation rate increased for stepped arrangement com-
pare to the constant air gap configuration
According to Poulek et al. (2018), the nonventilated PV
panel temperature at the Czech University in Prague was
found to be above 80°C. An increase in the operating temper-
ature of PV cells resulted in a 3 to 4% reduction of annual
energy production and a maximum of 5% in hot climatic
zones. Also, with better cooling, the attached PV panel gen-
erates 254.85 kWh/year, and for the roof-integrated PV panel,
246.26 kWh/year. The Hay, Davies, Klucher, Reindl (HKDR)
model was used to obtain the PV module’s insolation and
optimum tilt angle attached on a roof pitch. Further, at an
optimum tilt, it was observed that beyond a mass flow rate
of 7.5 kg/s and 22.5 kg/s, the cell temperature and efficiency
of the opaque and transparent PV become nearly constant
(Tripathy et al. 2017). Pantic et al. (2010) observed that with
the increase in the forced ventilation rate from 1 to 7m/s over a
4.8-m-long PV roof, the PV panel temperature drops by 25°C,
and electrical efficiency increases 12 to 13%. Vats and Tiwari
Fig. 5 Location of the PV
modules (D’Orazio et al. 2014)
(2012) found that for cold climatic conditions, an increase in
mass flow rate of air (0.85–10 kg/s) through the duct increases
the room air temperature from 9.4 to 15.2 °C and 8.3 to 12.3°C
for STPV and OPVT roofs respectively. For the STPV roof
with no duct, the maximum temperature of the room was
reached 22°C when the ambient temperature was 4°C. The
author concluded that the STPV technology without ventila-
tion performs better than ventilated one.
Agrawal and Tiwari (2010) studied the performance of
different series and parallel combinations of roof-attached
PV modules with ventilation provision (see Fig. 7). It was
observed that at constant airflow, the parallel combination
showed higher overall thermal efficiency of 50% than other
combinations. Corbin and Zhai (2010) studied the experimen-
tal model of BIPV/T collector installed on the roof, one with
natural ventilation and the other with liquid as a coolant. The
model was validated using CFD with RNGK-e turbulence
model to determine the amount of heat transferred from the
cell to the coolant with a specific boundary condition. The
achieved efficiency of the cell was 5.3% in liquid refrigerant

Fig. 6 The layout of a developed prototype (Mirzaei and Carmeliet 2015)
Fig. 7 Layout of PV modules attached on the pitched roof having six air inlet spaces and different series and parallel air flows (Agrawal and Tiwari 2010)
Environ Sci Pollut Res
used at 10°C, and it was found better than natural ventilation.
The system’s thermal efficiency was 19%, and the combined
PV/T efficiency was about 34%.
BIPV facade
It is the exterior wall of a building and usually involves de-
signing design elements like windows glazings and shading
devices.
PV-DSF is two-plate layers separated by an air gap, with a
front portion of the PV module, and the rear portion will be a
building wall. Figure 8 below showed two types of arrange-
ments, one provided with dampers for (a) natural ventilation,
other with (b) fan installed on the upper side for forced or
mechanical ventilation. Table 2 below shows the research
findings related to parameters of air gap, ventilation, and mass
flow rate on different BIPV facades.
Peng et al. (2013a) experimentally reported that PV-DSF
(Fig. 9) with a naturally ventilated duct of 400m placed be-
tween PV modules and facade glazing increased the air tem-
perature leaving the duct by 2.2–2.3°C. The experimental
Table 2 Air gap, ventilation, and mass flow rate on PV facades

Ref Location Research method PV Parameter Research findings

technology

Peng et al. Hong Kong, (subtropical); Berkeley, Experiment; numerical a-Si Ventilated The air temperature increased by 2.2 to 2.3°C at the outlet.
Environ Sci Pollut Res

(2013a, 2016) California (cool-summer Air gap varied between 200

Mediterranean) and 600mm
Zogou and Volos, Greece Simulation p-Si Case 1: without an air gap Case 2 improves the performance of the system
Stapountzis (Mediterranean) Case 2: 0.15-m air gap at a Case 3 optimized for utilization of ventilated air for space conditioning
(2011) flow rate of 400 kg/h Generation in:
Case 3: 0.15-m air gap at a Case 1: 11.15 kW h/m2 year
flow rate of 133 kg/h Case 2: 11.47kW h/m2 year
Case 3: 11.31kW h/m2 year
Yun et al. (2007) Stockholm, Sweden (humid Simulation m-Si Natural ventilation PV module temperature reduced by 20 °C
continental);
London, U.K (warm and
temperate); Madrid, Spain (warm
and temperate)
Agathokleous Nicosia, Cyprus (hot semiarid) Numerical model using ----- Ventilation rate in duct varied At 0.02m/s, the air temperature leaving the duct was 56°C, while at
and Kalogirou finite element method between 0.02 and 2.5m/s 2.5m/s, it is close to ambient (35°C)
(2017) (FEM)
Shahrestani et al. United Kingdom (temperate) Experimental and c-Si Natural ventilation 0.27 to Annual electricity generation increased up to 4.5 to 5.7%
(2017) numerical 0.55 kg/s
Athienitis et al. Montreal, Canada (humid continental) Experimental p-Si Forced ventilation mass flow Combined electrical and thermal efficiency was 7–17% higher than
(2011) rates between 50 and 130 commercial heat pumps
Kg/h
Kim and Kim Daejon, Republic of Korea (cold and Simulation ----- Case 1: without air gap Electricity generation in case 2 was 6% and 3% higher than cases 1 and
(2012) temperate) Case 2: with air gap (forced 3
outdoor air flow in air gap)
Case 3: with air gap (room air
flow in air gap)
Yang et al. Hot humid (Darwin), warm temperate Simulation a-Si, DSSC, Natural and forced ventilation Natural PV-DSF for total annual energy savings of 34.1%, 86%, and
(2020) (Sydney), cool temperate perovskite 106% annual were reached in Darwin, Sydney and Canberra re-
(Canberra) spectively;
Perovskite performs better than other two.
Preet et al. (2020) Jaipur (composite climate) Experimental CdTe Natural ventilation and forced Power increment of 28% from forced ventilation than natural
ventilation (2 to 5m/s); ventilation; optimum air gap 200mm
air gap 50–250mm
Luo et al. 2018 Changsha, China Experimental a-Si Natural ventilation PV-BDSF saves 1121 Wh/m2/day of heating energy in winter
compared to brick wall.
Yu et al. 2017 Daejeon, South Korea, Simulation c-Si Natural ventilation PV-DSF covers 18% of building energy consumption. Compared to
glass DSF, decreased the energy consumption by 15%
Wang et al. 2017 Harbin, Beijing, Changsha, Simulation and a-Si Natural ventilation Energy saving from PV-IGU is 1.6% better than PV-DSF. SHGC of
Kunming and Hong Kong, China experimental PV-IGU is higher than PV-DSF

Fig. 8 Layout of PV-DSF provided with a natural ventilation and b mechanical ventilation air duct (Agathokleous and Kalogirou 2016)
model of Peng et al. (2013a) was numerically developed by
Peng et al. (2016) in Energy Plus software to simulate it based
on thermal and daylighting performance. It was found that the
optimum air gap of 400–600mm was suitable for the climatic
condition of Berkley, while the minimum air gap of 200mm
must be maintained. The PV-DSF saves energy (35%/year)
compared with nonventilated façade. The PV-DSF generated
about 65 kWh per unit area electricity yearly in Berkeley,
having a monthly average daylighting of 300 lux saving about
50% of light electricity reduction.
Yang et al. (2020) developed a PV-DSF building prototype
in TRNSYS simulation software to evaluate the energy per-
formance with three different PV technologies (amorphous,
organic, and perovskite). It was observed that during the sum-
mer season, the performance of natural and forced ventilations
Fig. 9 Energy flow mechanism in ventilated PV-DSF (Peng et al. 2013a)
Environ Sci Pollut Res
is found better in overall energy saving. However, there is a
minuscule difference observed in both modes. While for win-
ter season DSF without ventilation performs better in heating
load reduction. Among the technologies, perovskite cell with
the generation of about 29.7kWh/m2 year showed better per-
formance than DSSC 15.7 kWh/m2 year and a-Si of 12.7
kWh/m2 year (Yu et al. 2017). A simulation was performed
to compare the performance of PV-DSF to glass DSF. The
heating load of 5.6% for PV-DSF higher than glass-DSF,
while the cooling load was 5.4% lower, nullifying the glass
DSF benefit. Further, due to the generation of 1438 kWh, it
covers 18% of the annual building demand of the building and
reduces the overall consumption of building by 15%. Luo
et al. (2018) compared the performance of photovoltaic blind
double-skin facade (PVB-DSF) and PV-DSF. It was observed
that the thermal performance of PVB-DSF is better than PV-
DSF due to higher SHGC. PVB-DSF saved 1121Wh/m2/day
of heating energy in winter compared to a brick wall. Due to
the blind, a higher temperature in the air cavity gets increased.
In terms of electrical performance, PV-DSF performed better.
The PV-DSF is not found energy efficient in ventilation mode
compared to nonventilation mode. Preet et al. (2020) per-
formed an experimental study on a developed prototype of
PV-DSF in both natural and forced ventilated mode. The
forced ventilation decreases the SHGC from 0.3 to 0.264 in
natural and 0.213 to 0.0172 in forced ventilation mode. It was
observed that with varying forced ventilation rate 2–5m/s and
air cavity from 25 to 250mm improves the power output of PV
modules by 29% compared to natural ones. Wang et al. (2017)
observed that ventilated PV-DSF with SHGC of 0.152 and U
value of 2.535 W/m2k saves about 28% of energy consump-
tion. Zogou and Stapountzis (2011) developed a double-
façade photovoltaic (DFPV) system with an air gap depth of
0.15m between the module and building wall. It was observed
that an airflow rate of 400 Kg/h could decrease the module
temperature up to 19°C when compared to the system without
a flow rate. However, during winter, a 133 Kg/h flow rate was
found to regulate PV panels’ temperature. Also, the electricity
Environ Sci Pollut Res
generation increased by 1.5% for lower flow rate and 3% for
higher one compared to without flow rate system. In another
experiment, Gonçalves et al. (2021) observed that with in-
creased natural ventilation, the module temperature could be
decreased by 10°C and increase the electricity generation by
3.6%. Krauter et al. (2001) found that forced ventilation of 2
m/s results in a maximum reduction of operating cell temper-
atures of 18 K. This leads to an 8% increase in the electrical
power output compared to conventional PV facades. Yun
et al. (2007) found about 2.5% of losses in nonventilated com-
pared to ventilated ones. After providing the ventilation, the
PV module temperature gets reduced from 76 to 55.5°C. This
leads to an increase of 1.3% in absolute PV efficiency.
Agathokleous and Kalogirou (2017) designed a 3D model of
PVDSF in COMSOL simulation software. The temperature
distributions were observed for ventilation rate, ranging from
0.02 to 2.5m/s, and validated with the experimental data.
According to the results, at 2.5m/s, a 23°C reduction in mod-
ule temperature was observed. However, there was minimal
variation in the temperature (about 1–2°) of the second skin
(wall). Shahrestani et al. (2017) calculated the performance of
a naturally ventilated BIPV facade by performing an experi-
ment and developing a numerical model in TRNSYS to vali-
date the system’s thermal performance. The results showed
that the ventilated PV facade contributes a 4% increment in
annual electricity when there is no shading, while fixed ven-
tilation rates equal to 0.27 to 0.55 kg/s on the back of each PV
module increase the efficiency from 4.7 to 5.7%. In adjacent
shading, the fixed ventilation increases the generation effi-
ciency by 3.4 to 4.2%. Athienitis et al. (2011) studied an
experimental prototype of unglazed transpired collector
Fig. 10 Schematic for BIPV/T
system (Athienitis et al. 2011)
(UTC) with 70% area covered with black-framed PV mod-
ules, and the remaining area has a porosity of 0.6% for
allowing the fresh air as shown in Fig. 10. It was observed
that there was no significant change in the heat transfer coef-
ficient between the rear side of the PV module and the UTC
surface at a high insolation level. Therefore, the system’s
overall performance (electrical and mechanical) seems feasi-
ble at a lower range of insolation level (500w/m2) and mass
flow rates between 50 and 130 Kg/h, respectively UTC
without PV modules. However, Gonçalves et al. (2020) found
that the exterior convective heat transfer (hext) coefficient
influences the most PV module performance. It was conclud-
ed that for low hext, the design of the air cavity must be
optimized. Lau et al. (2018) observed that the enlarged size
of bottom openings compared to top openings in the ventilated
facade can decrease the PV surface temperature by 9°C of a
naturally ventilated facade. Further, a tilted facade at 30°
concerning prevailing winds can achieve higher power gener-
ation. Kim and Kim (2012) studied BIPVT and the BIPV
system with the help of the TRNSYS software. They com-
pared 3 cases with the nonPV integrated building, case 1,
BIPV system without any gap; case 2, BIPV system with
outdoor airflow (0.02 kg/s m2), an air gap (0.1m); case 3,
BIPV/T system with indoor airflow (0.02 kg/s m2) an air
gap (0.1m); all systems are placed at the south facade of the
building. The result showed that in the case 2, annual electric-
ity generation was 6% and 3% higher than in cases 1 and 3,
respectively. It was observed that outdoor air is more benefi-
cial for BIPV system cooling.
Tina et al. (2020) studied the performance of ventilated
facades integrated with bifacial PV modules. It was observed
Table 3 Air gap, ventilation, and mass flow rate on PV wall

References Location Research method PV Parameter Research findings

technology

Dehra 2017 Montreal, Quebec, Canada (cold Simulation p-Si Natural and forced ventilated The combined thermal and electrical efficiency in the case of a fan-assisted
and temperate) (with and without fan system was 8% higher than a natural one
assisted)
Jie et al. (2007) Hefei, China (humid subtropical) Experimental p-Si Natural and forced the indoor temperature increased to 14.40°C in comparison to that of PV-TW
ventilation without a DC fan.
(with and without fan
assisted)
Ahmed et al. Kirkuk city, northern Iraq Experimental p-Si Forced ventilation Increases the thermal and electrical efficiency about 15% and 33%, respectively
2019a, 2019b semiarid climate
Lai and Lin (2011) Taiwan (tropical) Experimental; ----- Ventilated air flow between For 0.5 m/s, 1.0 m/s, and 2.0 m/s, BIPV wall save 3.8–4.1 (kWh), 4.3–5.7 (kWh)
simulation 0.5 and 2 m/s and 8.5–10.7 (kWh)
Elsayed (2016) Dar-AlSalam, (tropical) Numerical c-Si Natural ventilation Modules on an 80° slanted vertical wall reduce heat transfer by 132 kWh/m2
Koyunbaba et al. Izmir, Turkey (Mediterranean) Experimental; a-Si Natural ventilation Linear relation found between ventilation rate and incident solar radiation
(2013) heat transfer using
Monte Carlo
Irshad et al. (2015) Perak, Malaysia Simulation ----- Forced ventilation Double glass filled with and without argon PV-TW is preferable over the single
glass at a ventilation rate of 1.5 m/s.
Islam et al. 2021 Asir, Saudi Arabia, PVTW Numerical a-Si Natural ventilation Heat gain reduced in PVTW by 33% than TW and suitable for semiarid region.
Jiang et al. (2018) Limassol, Cyprus Experimental p-Si Natural ventilation An optimum air gap of 0.1 m is found suitable for a naturally ventilated system.
(subtropical-Mediterranean)
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 11 PV-Trombe walls
provided with summer and winter
vents at the top and bottom cavity
opening (Ji et al. 2007)
that compared to ventilated and nonventilated conventional
PV facades, the bifacial showed an increment in peak power
output of 2.9% and 4.4%, respectively.
PV-Trombe wall
A massive wall is provided with an air gap between external
semitransparent photovoltaic (STPV) glazing and a blackened
opaque wall acting as a thermal. The wall faces the equator
and stores the thermal energy from incoming solar radiation,
which can be utilized per seasonal requirements. As shown in
Fig. 11, seasonal air vents are provided at the bottom and top
of the wall, followed by the natural ventilation process. An
optional forced ventilation provision is provided at the top of
the winter vent. Table 3 below shows the research findings
related to air gap, ventilation, and mass flow rate for different
BIPV walls.
Dehra (2017) investigated the energy performance of a PV
solar wall to evaluate the buoyancy-induced/fan-assisted ven-
tilation systems. A vertical wall was developed for investiga-
tion in Quebec, Montreal, Canada. The experimental results
showed that the maximum combined electrical and thermal
efficiencies were 31.4% and 37% for buoyancy- and fan-
assisted systems. The performance model was proposed and
validated with the experimental result and found to be in good
agreement. Ahmed et al. (2019a, 2019b), from experimental
and numerical results, observed that the PV-TW with DC fan
increases the thermal and electrical efficiency by about 15%
and 33%, respectively. Jie et al. (2007) studied the PV-TW
assisted with a small DC fan in Hefei, China. The average
indoor air temperature increased by 0.5°C in addition to a
reduction of 1.28°C of PV cell temperature. The paper also
indicates that the maximum indoor temperature increased to
14.40°C in comparison to that of PV-TW without a DC fan. It
was reported that the experimental average electrical efficien-
cy of the PV-TW-assisted DC fan was 10 to 11% due to the
glass cover. A numerical model was developed by Elsayed
(2016) to optimize the thermal performance of photovoltaics
attached to multistoried residential buildings of an urban area
in DarAslam. The results obtained from the model get validat-
ed by simulations in TRNSYS and EnergyPlus; CFD simula-
tion by PHOENICS software. It was observed that by varying
the air gap depth from 3 to 22cm, the heat gain was reduced;
beyond 22cm, it increased due to convective laminar heat
flow. The paper also reported that an 80° slanted vertical wall
could reduce heat transfer by 132 kWh/m2, with a 50% reduc-
tion in cooling load and 250–300 kg reduction in CO2 emis-
sions. Xu and Su (2014), with the help of CFD simulations,
observed that with an increase in air gap depth from 0.1 to
0.4m, the ventilation rate increases; beyond 0.5 m, the rate
decreases due to reverse flow at its top. Peng et al. (2013b)
varied the air gap between PV and wall from 0.05 to 0.25m,
and observed that the annual heat gain through the PV wall
reduced up to 0.06m after it starts increasing. Compared to a
normal wall, the PV-TW reduces the building cooling load by
31.1kWh/m2 in summer and the 3.1kWh/m2 heating load. The
ventilation area of the BIPV wall system was 2.5m2. The
ventilated BIPV wall saves energy between 3.8 and 4.1 kWh
at the wind velocity of 0.5m/s and is at maximum between 8.5
and 10.7 kWh at a velocity of 2.0 m/s, respectively. It was
estimated that 70 to 201 kg of CO2 emissions might be
reduced each month, depending on the wind velocity
varying from 0.5 to 2.0 m/s. Irshad et al. (2015) developed a
double glazed PV-TW and compared its performance in
TRNSYS at different ventilation rates (0.5–2 m/s). It was ob-
served that both argon and nonargon double glazed PV-TW
for tropical locations perform better at a wind speed of 1.5m/s
compared to single glazed PV-TW. The double glazed PV-
TW maintains room temperature below 27°C and maximizes
PV efficiency to 18%. Jiang et al. (2018) and Agathokleous
et al. (2018) studied the experimental analyses of naturally
ventilated vertical BIPV systems in outdoor and indoor
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 12 Increment in energy

generation of PV modules from
natural and forced ventilation Facade/Forced
compared to without ventilation Volos, Greece, (Mediterranean) Facade/Forced
Kirkuk city, northern Iraq,(semi-arid) Facade/Forced

Daejon, (Cold and Temperate) Facade/Forced

Riyadh (Hot) Roof/Natural

Athens (Warm), Roof/Natural
Prague (Moderate), Roof/Natural
Belgium (Temperate) Roof/Natural
Ancona,Italy,(Mediterranean) Roof/Natural

0% 2% 4% 6% 8%

conditions. The author developed a Simulink model in
COMSOL Multiphysics using the developed equation for
heat transfer coefficients, and the model was validated with
the experimental data. It was seen that an air gap of 0.1 m
could create adequate airflow on the naturally ventilated
system. Islam et al. (2021) observed the performance of PV-
TW with ventilation blinds compared to conventional TW. It
was found that the heat gain in PV-TW is 33% less compared
to the conventional one. For the semiarid region, a PV-TW is
preferred over a conventional one. Koyunbaba et al. (2013)
designed a PV-Trombe wall (PV-TW) on the façade of the test
room and used CFD simulation to determine the temperature
and velocity distribution of air Monte Carlo model for model-
ing of radiation and heat transfer. It was observed that with an
increase of solar radiation and the opening of wall ducts, the
natural ventilation rates increase at 638.6W/m2 from 0.013 to
0.035 kg/s 750.88W/m2. The electrical and thermal efficien-
cies of the STPV solar cell have been calculated as 4.5% and
20.3%, respectively. Ji et al. (2007) numerically observed that
providing curtain shading with ventilated PV-TW decreases
the room temperature by 2°C and increases the module elec-
trical efficiency by 1%. Lai and Hokoi (2017) designed a
prototype of a PV-integrated curtain wall with a certain air
gap from outer building skin, provided with the louvers on
top, with the help of CFD analysis of airflow patterns behind
the wall. It was observed that louvers increase the overall heat
transfer coefficient (U) compared to a fully open outlet at the
top. Also, it was found that the prototype’s electrical efficien-
cy was 16–44% higher than the conventional BIPV (panel
directly attached to the exterior wall of the building) system.
Figure 12 below shows the percentage increment in energy
generation (from 1.5 to 6%) of PV technologies compared to
the nonventilated system after natural or forced ventilation
was provided by Zogou and Stapountzis (2011), Kim and
Kim (2012), Poulek et al. (2018), Ahmed et al. 2019a,
2019b, D’Orazio et al. (2014), and Goossens et al. (2018). A
maximum reduction of 5% was observed in natural ventilation
mode. It can be interpreted that natural ventilation is common-
alty preferred in roof applications due to tilted attachment and
high efficiency (crystalline) of PV modules. In the facade
case, a maximum reduction of 6% was observed; STPV type
glazings are commonly used with different CCR and conver-
sion efficiency.

Effect of STPV glazing design

STPV glazing

STPV technologies replace conventional window glazing.

Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of a c-Si STPV glazing (Park et al. 2010)
These glazings found beneficial in reducing lighting demands,
heat gain, and generating energy. Figure 13 depicts different
layers of STPV glazings. It is glass to glass technology, where
opaque c-Si cells uniformly spaced and encapsulated between
transparent glasses using ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA).
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 4 Best PV glazings over conventional glazings

References Location PV PV glazing type Succeeded by In terms

Chow et al. (2009) Hong Kong, China a-Si Forced ventilated double-pane PV 1. Naturally ventilated double-pane PV glazing Reducing HVAC consumption
2. Nonventilated PV double- and single-pane
glazings
Tak et al. (2017) Incheon, South Korea Organic Changeable organic semitransparent Double-glazed low-E (DGL) Energy saving
solar cell window (COSW)
Ghosh et al. (2019) United Kingdom m-Si Vacuum PV (VPV) glazing Double-pane PV glazing 1. Thermal comfort,
(Temperate) 2.PV temperature reduction
Wang et al. (2016) Hong Kong, China a-Si PV insulating glass unit (PVIGU) 1. Low e-glass Energy saving
2. Single clear glass
Yoon et al. (2013) Yongin, Gyeonggi-Do, South a-Si Double-pane PV window with Double-pane regular glazing Temperature regulation
Korea Transparent conductive oxide (TCO)
Qiu et al. Hong Kong, China a-Si VPV IGU Single-pane: Energy saving
(2019a) 1. Clear
2. PV glazing
Double-pane:
1. Clear
2. PV glazing
Chae et al. (2014) Miami, Phoenix, Los Angeles, a-Si Two flat-type and one textured-type s Double-pane clear glazing. Energy saving
Chicago, Baltimore olar cells double-pane glazing
Peng et al. (2019) Berkeley, California c-Si PV insulating glass unit (PVIGU) Low-E glazing Reduction in daylight glare
probability
Chialastri and Isaacson Palo Alto, California c-Si Three-pane low -E coated and ventilated PV Double-pane low-E coated and Increment in ventilated air
(2017) glazing ventilated PV glazing temperature

Fig. 14 Three panes ventilated glazing system (Chialastri and Isaacson
2017)
Variability in glazing design is evolved during the encap-
sulation process, where the PV cells get laminated with tinted,
tempered, and various coated glass (Wang et al. 2016). The
thermal performance of glazing is increased by using different
gasses like argon, krypton, and other inert gasses, which helps
improve the thermal and optical properties, viz., SHGC, U
value, and visible transmittance. The feasibility of different
STPV glazing was analyzed regarding their electrical and
thermal performance compared to other conventional glaz-
ings. Table 4 below depicts different types of STPV glazing
succeeded from conventional glazings.
Placing PV glazing as the outer pane and clear pane as
inner pane developed a double-pane PV glazing and further
provided ventilation provision (Chow et al. 2009). It was ob-
served that forced ventilated double-pane PV cuts down the
HVAC power consumption by 82% compared to single-pane
absorptive glazing, followed by naturally ventilated double-
Fig. 15 Distribution of glazings in PVIGU (Wang et al. 2016)
Environ Sci Pollut Res
pane PV glazing (60.6%) and nonventilated PV double-
(57.8%) and single-(25.8%) pane glazings. In addition, all
types of PV glazings unable to maintain DA of 300 lux.
Chialastri and Isaacson (2017) developed an optimal proto-
type having a PV module inside the double glazing forming a
three-pane system provided with ventilation. The prototype
consists of low-E coating at the different surfaces (2, 3, and
5) and 70% of NIR absorbance on surface 3 (shown in Fig.
14). The coating trapped the long infrared radiation inside the
glazing and increased the ventilated air temperature to 65°C,
due to which the thermal efficiency of the pane increased to
44%, while electrical efficiency remains low between 6 and
8%.
Chae et al. (2014) fabricated two flat-type and one
textured-type a-Si solar cells forming double-pane glazing
with an air gap of 13mm and 4 mm of clear glass at the rear
side, thus changes the optical and electrical properties of glaz-
ing. It was seen that all three types perform well in lower
latitude and midlatitude cities by decreasing the cooling ener-
gy requirement with a maximum reduction of up to 30% from
textured ones. But in higher latitudes, all technology increases
the heating load from 45 to 63% compared to double-pane
clear glazing. The energy generation from glazing ranged
from 30 to 62 kWh/m2. Kapsis and Athienitis (2015) studied
the performance of semitransparent poly-Si, a-Si, and organic
cell technologies. It was observed that the 10.9-mm-thick
technologies with a transmittance of 10% at the outermost
layer of double glazed followed by 12.7-mm sealed argon
gas cavity and 5.9-mm low-E glazing at its rear side, showed
the lowest annual end-use electricity consumption (as low as 5
kWh/m2/year). Wang et al. (2016) analyzed the performance
of amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV insulating glass unit (PVIGU)
with the help of numerical simulation and experimental results
in Hong Kong. From the results, an optimum composition of
PVIGU unit was given (in Fig. 15), consisting of an outside
layer of 2mm of semitransparent a-Si PV sandwiched between
3-mm tempered followed by 9-mm sealed air cavity and 5.85-
mm low-E glass. The energy-saving potential of optimized
PVIGU was 25.5% and 10.7%, respectively, compared with
single clear glass and low-E glass. Compared to clear glass as
a rear sheet of PVIGU, the low-E glass as rear sheet can reduce
energy consumption by 3%. Ghosh et al. (2019) developed a
one-dimensional numerical model for both 8-mm double-pane
and 12-mm vacuum-based multicrystalline semitransparent
laminated glazing followed by vacuum layer and low-E coat-
ed rear glass. The results from the model are compared with
the experimental data obtained through the test setup at the
laboratory scale for the temperate climate of the UK. The
vacuum STPV showed a temperature difference of 24°C com-
pared to double-pane STPV, enhancing thermal comfort by
about 39%. Yoon et al. (2013) developed a double-pane PV
window with transparent conductive oxide (TCO) coated
front glass over a 10-mm transparent a-Si module followed
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 16 Cross-sectional view of

vacuum PV–insulated glass unit
(Zhang et al. 2016a)

by a 12-mm air gap and a rear sheet of 5-mm clear glass. It was
observed that due to the additional thickness of the front glass,
the daytime surface temperature of the PV window was 1°C
below and approximately 2°C higher in the nighttime than the
regular double-pane window.
Park et al. (2010) studied the performance of p-Si STPV
glazing, with bronze color glass materials are used on the rear
side. During testing of STPV author decreed power generation
of 0.48%/°C for indoor conditions and 0.52%/°C for outdoor
conditions. It was seen that in the winter season, compared to
clear glass, the bronze color glass increases the PV module
temperature by 2–3°C as it depends on seasonal radiation
gain, whereas in summer, the variation was minimal. Peng
et al. (2019) introduced a novel CSI-based STPV glazing with
IGU; it reduced DGP up to some restrictions compared to
clear glass. The SHGC of PV-IGU compared to low-E glazing
is 0.25, but its higher U value leads to the heat dissipation
issue. In terms of generation and saving, south and south-
west orientation were found suitable for the PV-IGU glazing.
It was concluded that optimized placement of low-E coatings
can counter heat dissipation issues.
Qiu et al. (2019a) developed a novel type of a-Si STPV
glazing laminated on glass with a transmittance of 20%, com-
bined with insulated vacuum glazing known as vacuum pho-
tovoltaic insulated glass unit (VPVIGU) (see Fig. 16). The
experimentally calculated U value of VPVIGU was 1.5
w/m2k. Further, simulation in Energy Plus and Berkeley win-
dow optimisation tool reported that the cooling load was
reducted upto 14.2% for south orientation windows. In anoth-
er study conducted by Qiu et al. (2019b), the vacuum glazing
was not found suitable for moderate climate conditions
(Kunming) as it increases the cooling load, double-glazed
PV window is found better for moderate climate. Tak et al.
(2017) studied the performance of changeable organic

Table 5 Performance values of STPV glazings

References Performance value R (m2k)/ SHGC Tvis

W

Qiu et al. (2019a, VP VIGU (a-Si-laminated glass + low-E coated vacuum glazing) 1.80 0.14 0.12
2019b)
Tak et al. (2017) COSW (organic solar cell + 12.7-mm air gap filled with argon gas +3-mm clear glass ) 0.39 0.42 0.21
Chae et al. (2014) PV1 (3-mm glass with 120-nm untextured a-Si solar cell + 13-mm air + 3-mm clear glass) 0.39 0.40 0.28
PV2 (3-mm glass 180-nm untextured solar cell + 13-mm air + 3-mm clear glass) 0.38 0.33 0.13
PV3 (3-mm glass with 180 textured a-Si solar cells + 13-mm air + 3-mm clear glass) 0.36 0.24 0.05
Wang et al. (2016) BIPV IGU ( a-Si PV laminate + inside layer of glass sheet + intermediate sealed 9-mm air cavity) 0.29 0.25 N/A
Yoon et al. (2013) BIPV double windows (10-mm PV single sheet module + 12-mm air space + 5-mm clear glass) N/A 0.19 N/A
Peng et al. (2019) STPV window (IGU) (11.25-mm BIPV outboard laminate on 5-mm clear + inboard glass lite with 0.61 0.14 N/A
12-mm air gap)
Didoné and Wagner Low iron 3 mm/organic PV/air 12 mm/low-E 3# 3 mm 0.60 0.22 0.23
(2013) a-Si thru laminated low iron 3 mm+air 12 mm+low-E 3 coated 3-mm glass 0.60 0.13 0.09
Lee et al. (2014) DSSC glazing + low-E glass + clear glass 1.19 0.15 0.20
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

The a-Si generates 318 kWh, and c-Si generates 664 kWh annually
semitransparent glazing. A simulation was performed for dif-
ferent colors of organic cells. It was seen that for all orienta-

A maximum energy saving of 30% was achieved during the

tions (S, E, W), the STPV performs better than the double-
glazed low-E window, 14.80 kW/m2 (south), 11.51 kW/m2
(east), 15.02 kW/m2 (west). Also, a little variation was ob-

a- Si and c-Si a-Si (0.8); c-Si (1) Reduces the room temperature by 0.5°C to 2°C.
served in the SHGC of glazings when the color of cells gets
changed.
It was seen that change in glazing design, the performance
of glazings gets varied which can further influence the build-
ing overall energy demand. Some of the performance values
found in the literature were shown in Table 5. Compared to
other STPV glazings, vacuum-based PV glazing showed the
highest R and lowest SHGC value. Further, all other glazing R
Optimum CCR 0.69

From 0.30 to 0.90 Optimum CCR 0.62

Optimum CCR 0.72

0.42,0.62, and 0.83 Optimum CCR 0.62

Research findings

value is in a range between 0.29 and 0.39. The vacuum-based

PV technology was found favorable in different climatic con-
simulation

ditions except the one with temperate climate (Qiu et al.

2019a, 2019b), increasing the building cooling load.

Effect of cell coverage ratio

From 0.1 to 0.8

0.62, 0.72, and

0.69 and 0.77

It is a factor where the number of cells in the glazing decides

0.85

its performance on a visual, thermal, and electrical basis.

CCR

Table 6 below shows the different CCR, and optimized values

reported (Karthick et al. (2018a). The integrated or attached
technology

PV provides shading on the enclosed envelope area, which

affects the building’s performance in terms of cooling load
-------
m-Si

C-Si

C-Si
-----
PV

Singh and Chaudhary (2020). Also, an adjacent shading is

caused by nearby high-rise buildings on both vertical and
Experimental

Experimental

Experimental
Experimental

horizontal envelopes or building own envelopes. The shading

Theoretical
Theoretical

can partially or fully cover the PV strings attached or integrat-

Research
method

ed into the buildings, which affects the system’s actual output.

Such loss in the PV output is termed shading loss (Shahrestani
et al. 2017). Karthick et al. (2018a) developed a semitranspar-
STPV-skylight

ent photovoltaic modules–based skylight with different CCR

STPV skylight
STPV glazing

STPV glazing
Greece (Mediterranean) STPV glazing
BIPV/BAPV

of 0.62,0.72, and 0.85 (shown in Fig. 17), respectively. It was

STPV roof

observed that the CCR of 0.62 suitable for maximum daylight

system

availability of 850 lux with an appropriate daylight factor of

4%, while the 0.72 is found to be the optimum value for both
New Delhi (composite)

daylighting and reduction in cooling load.

India (hot and dry)

India (hot and dry)

Different CCR values observed by authors

Vats et al. (2012) theoretically observed the exergy and

Srinagar (cold)

energy performance of different STPV technologies installed

Wuhan, China
(temperate)

on the roof for different CCR of 0.42,0.62, and 0.83. A one-

Kovilpatti,

Kovilpatti,
Location

dimensional quasisteady-state energy balance equation was

developed for predicting the PV and room temperature. The
thermal energy and exergy in HIT at 0.62 were found higher
by 83 kWh and 32kWh than 0.83. while maximum annual
Singh et al. (2021a, 2021b)
Skandalos and Karamanis

thermal energy for a-Si was 79kWh, and 61kWh was found
Karthick et al. (2018b)

Karthick et al. (2018a)

at 0.62 and 0.83, respectively. It was observed that CCR of

Vats et al. (2012)

0.62 was suitable for both a-Si and HIT technology regarding
Xu et al. (2014)

thermal exergy and energy point of view.

Singh et al. (2021c) proposed a straightforward method-
(2016)
Table 6

ology to estimate the energy generation and daylight

Ref

availability from the STPV skylight for different CCR.

Environ Sci Pollut Res
The author seasonally calculated the optimized values of
CCR between 0.57 and 0.62 for the composite climate. At
a CCR of 0.62, the condition of maximum generation and
daylight above 300 lux was available. Skandalos and
Karamanis (2016) examined the effect of cell coverage
ratio on the energy efficiency of the STPV (a-Si, c-Si)
module with their optical and thermal characterization.
Later, the characterized data simulates the STPV test mod-
el in the software (TRNSYS, LBNL, WINDOW 6.3, and
OPTICS). It was observed that both modules were found
better as a window than conventional glazing with the op-
timal CCR of 1 and 0.8 and saving the energy of 531 kWh
and 482 kWh, respectively. The technologies were able to
reduce glare by around 30%. For visual comfort, combined
integration of a-Si and c-Si was found suitable, shown in
Fig. 18. Xu et al. (2014) developed a model to examine the
effect of optimal PV CCR in overall energy consumption,
WWR, and building orientation. The PV CCR that varied
from 0.1 to 0.8, showed a 5.5% decrement in the efficiency
of the PV system, and at the same time, it reduces the
heating and cooling load of the building. The established
techniques and properties are incorporated in Energy Plus
software to perform the parametric analysis. The author
found that the optimal cell coverage ratio saves up to
30% of electricity compared with the minor favorable cov-
erage ratio, with an average of 13% saving. It was conclud-
ed that optimal PV CCR’s for the rooms with small room
depth was relatively small compared to more considerable
room depths. Karthick et al. (2018b) developed BIPV
modules for two-cell coverage ratios of 0.69 and 0.77.
The modules were used as a south-facing window, and
their performance was compared with double clear glass
Fig. 17 Image of STPV skylight
having CCR of (a) 0.72 (b) 0.62
Karthick et al. (2018a)
(DCG). It was observed that compared to DCG, the BIPV
window, by minimizing the heat gain of around 75%, was
able to reduce the cooling load of 1.2kWh/day during May.
When both power generation and thermal performances are
considered, a lower CCR of modules has preferred the
module with a lower cell coverage ratio is better than the
other. Also, it is estimated that 0.4 kW power could be
saved in cooling load during peak sunshine hours.
Jiang et al. (2008) conducted a study on different cov-
erage ratios of PV glazing incorporated with the Trombe
wall (TW) with the help of a heat balance equation to
predict the electrical efficiency of PV cells. It was observed
that for all CCRs between 0.2 and 0.8, the maximum in-
door air temperature increased by more than 6.8°C. With
an increase in coverage ratio in summer and the increase of
cell temperature, the cell efficiency further decreases.
However, in winters, the efficiency decrease was less than
0.5%. For both air and water (Ji et al. 2006), the system
thermal efficiency and heat gain decrease with increment
in CCR.
CCR is an essential parameter in designing STPV glaz-
ings. Figure 19 below depicts the optimum CCR values for
the given locations. Generally, a higher CCR is preferred
for roof applications due to the high availability of beam
radiation; the generation is high, and daylight requirement
(300 lux) is also maintained. Whereas for windows, the
more diffuse radiation, fulfilling the daylight availability
becomes more feasible than increasing the generation.
Here, the range of CCR varies between 0.55 to 1
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 18 a The a-Si PV window, b the window with typical spaced c-Si PV cells with holes, and c the reference window (Skandalos and Karamanis 2016)

Effect of window to wall ratio, transmittance, and
orientation
The window as an envelope, various factors are evolved and
interrelated. WWR is one factor that affects the building’s
energy performance. It is the ratio of glazing area to wall
surface area. The value of WWR (0–100%) (Ng et al. 2013)
will also depend upon the PV glazing transmittance and its
orientation on the building. Table 7 below depicts different
research findings for different WWR and transmittance at giv-
en locations. The glazing orientation relation with locations
was given in Fig. 22.
Ng et al. (2013) performed the parametric analysis of semi-
transparent PV (STPV) technologies (a-Si and μc-Si) by the
varying WWR from 10 to 100% in Energy Plus software
model. For WWR (70–100%) of STPV module, it was ob-
served that an energy-saving rate between 16.7 and 41.3%,
whereas the other conventional windows (double-glazed, low-
E, and tinted low-E glazing) showed consistent savings of
5.4%, 7.3%, and 12.0% respectively. Barman et al. (2018)
designed and simulated the CdTe-based STPV window using
Window7.3 and Energy Plus software with two different
WWR (20% and 50%) and visible transmittance of (7.0%,
12.3%, 17.7%, 25.2%, and 32.7%). They were observed that
higher WWR (> 20%) and visible transmittance generate
more energy and visual effect for the south-facing window.
The saving in net energy was observed at WWR of 50% for all
types of CdTe technology. Sun et al. (2018) investigated the
performance of CdTe-based STPV glazing at fixed transmit-
tance of 10% for different climatic zones of China. Various
combination of STPV glazing and clear glazing from 0 to
100% and WWR from 30 to 75% as shown in Fig. 20 was
simulated. A higher WWR ≥ of 45% with more than 50%
STPV glazing was found suitable for all the locations. It was
seen that with an optimized combination, a maximum reduc-
tion of 73% in energy consumption could be achieved. It can
be concluded that a higher percentage of STPV glazing is
required to increase the system’s energy efficiency. As per
climate conditions, higher energy saving is achieved for cold
and temperate (Harbin, Beijing Kunming) climate; lower per-
formance was seen in a hot climate (Guangzhou)
Miyazaki et al. (2005) found an optimum transmittance of
40% and WWR of 50% for an office building in Japan at
different orientations through energy simulation using
Energy Plus. Also, with lighting control, a reduction in energy
consumption by 55% was observed compared to without

Fig. 19 Optimized values of

CCR to 0.72, for composite and CCR
cold climates similar CCR of 0.62
is seen, it can be said that the CCR
for roof application is higher than New Delhi,India (Composite) Skylight
the facade
Srinagar,India (Cold) Roof

Kovilpa, India, (Hot and Dry) Skylight

Kovilpa, India, (Hot and Dry) Window

Wuhan, China, (Temperate) Window

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Table 7 Details of WWR, transmittance, and orientation

References Location Research method PV Parameter Research findings

Ng et al. Singapore (Tropical) Simulation a-Si WWR 10–100% WWR 70–100% preferred for all the building orientation
(2013)
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Barman Jaipur, India (composite climate) Experimental CdTe WWR Maximum generation 119.6 kWh/m2 and energy
et al. From 20 to 50% consumption saving 60.4% at WWR 50% compared
(2018) varied in step of to conventional window
10%
Transmittance
7.0%, 12.3%, 17.7%,
25.2%, and 32.7 %
Miyazaki Tokyo, Japan (humid subtropical) Simulation a-Si WWR Maximum generation 8.6 kWh/m2 year
et al. From 30 to 50% (WWR=50% and transmittance 40%)
(2005)
Do et al. Houston, TX (hot and humid) Simulation ----- WWR Annual total energy savings between 7.8 and 38.9%
(2017) Varied from 10 to (for WWR 10–90%)
90% (20% interval)
Transmittance 10%,
20%, 40%
Didoné and 1. Fortaleza (tropical) Simulation Organic/a-Si WWR Energy generation gets double for WWR > 50%
Wagner 2. Florianopolis (subtropical) Brazil thru 1. <50%
(2013) 2. >50%
Cannavale Bari, Italy (warm and temperate) Simulation Perovskite WWR 18% energy saved for WWR of 32%
et al. 1. 19%
(2017b) 2. 32%,
Transmittance
42.4%
Liao and Xu Wuhan, China (temperate) Experimental a-Si WWR Average energy saved 6.5% (20% transmittance)
(2015) From 20 to 60% and 4.9% (32 % transmittance)
varied in step of
10%
Transmittance
20% and 32%
Zhang et al. Hong Kong, (subtropical) Experimental, Sandia a-Si WWR Saved 16% and 18% of energy compared to single-
(2016) Array Performance 41% and double-pane glazing.
Model (SAPM)
Kapsis and Toronto, Canada (humid continental) Simulation 1. p-Si WWR Both WWR and transmittance of 10% favorable for
Athienitis 2. a-Si 1. 40% overall performance
(2015) 3. Organic 2. 60%
Transmittance
(10%, 20%, 30%,
40%, and 50%)
Sun et al. Harbin (serve cold), Beijing (cold), Shanghai (warm and Simulation CdTe WWR A higher WWR >45%, with optimized combination of
2018 temperate), Guangzhou (hot), and Kunming Sandia Array 30–75% clear and PV glazing a reduction in energy consumption of
(temperate) Performance Model Transmittance 73%
(SAPM) 10%
Madrid (dry-summer subtropical) Simulation a-Si WWR Energy saving found between 18% to 59%
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

WWR suitable for in reducing glare and daylight availability.

control. Do et al. (2017), with the help of software simulation

Positive energy savings between 3 and 8% for all climates

DOE2.1e, found that, by lighting control of STPV glazing, the
energy can be saved from 3 to 14% for the different orienta-

A 10% transmittance maintains UDI500lux-2000lux

tions. The orientation of the window differs in terms of
energy generation and saving. An east facing was preferred
for energy saving, whereas south-facing was found better
in the case of generation. It was also observed that with
higher WWR, the overall performance of STPV was better.
Didoné and Wagner (2013) calculated the energetic perfor-
mance of STPV technology (a-Si thru) and other windows
for the two cities (Fortaleza/CE and Florianopolis/SC) of
Brazil. From the simulation results of EnergyPlus and
Research findings

Daysim/RADIANCE, it was observed that the STPV with

WWR > 50% generates electricity by two times. Also, it
showed the best energetic performance for different orien-
tations of the facades, while the performance of the low-E
window was best for the orientation which receives the
The transmittance of

most negligible solar radiation. Olivieri et al. (2014) ana-

20% and 50%
Transmittance

lyzed the performance of STPV for different WWR and

60% and 75%
Transmittance

Orientation

transmittance of STPV glazings. It was found that for

Parameter

0 to 32%
33–88%

10–50%

WWR> 33 to 88%, the energy can be saved from 18 to

WWR

59%. It was seen that for higher WWR, the transmittance

of 16% showed the best performance compared to 32%. It
can be concluded that for WWR, lower transmittance can
Simulation, experimental c-Si, CdTe

be a suitable option for improving energy performance.

Cannavale et al. (2017a, 2017b) examined perovskite-
p-Si
PV

based heterojunction solar technology’s performance with

a window to wall ratio (WWR) of 19% and 32% south-
oriented test room. It was observed that compared to con-
Research method

ventional glazing (clear glass and solar control glass), the

perovskite technology able to reduce daylight glare proba-
Theoretical

bility (DGP) by 12–23% and maintain useful daylight illu-

minance (UDI) above 70%. Regarding architectural inte-
gration, the technology (transmittance of 42%) was found
continental), Osaka (warm and temperate) Kagoshima

superior to a-Si glazing (7% transmittance). Based on the

Aomori (warm and temperate), Matsumoto (humid

transmittance, Liao and Xu (2015) investigated two

silicon-based STPV glazings with high transmittance
(32%) and the other with low transmittance (20%) for dif-
ferent room depths and WWR. The PV glazing was com-
pared with traditional glazing (single, double, low-E dou-
Harbin, Shanghai, and Guangzhou

ble glazing) in the overall energy performance (energy

consumption generation). It was observed that except for
Sapporo (humid continental),

the low-E glazing, both a-Si technologies perform better

(warm and temperate)

than another conventional glazing for rooms with smaller

depth and higher WWR for fixed WWR of 50% (Yun et al.
2007). An increase in room depth (from 7 to 13 m) de-
creases the overall performance in energy. Zhang et al.
Location
Table 7 (continued)

(2016) calculated the energy performance of a-Si thru

STPV glazing and compared it with single and double-
pane glazing. The results were obtained with the Sandia
References

Wah et al.

Array Performance Model (SAPM) and Energy Plus (EP)

Sun et al.

(2005)
Olivieri

2014

2020
et al.

software. According to results, the UDI was 72%, but the

DA was only 40%, due to which it lags in daylighting
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 20 Combination of STPV and clear glazing at WWR between 30 and 75% (Sun et al. 2018)
availability by almost 50%, compared to another glazing.
The glazing performs better for south and south-west ori-
entations in terms of energy generations and saving. Sun
et al. (2020) found that the c-Si technology, if provided
with higher WWR (60% or 75%) at higher latitude, it ful-
fills the daylight availability and reduces the glare issue.
While CdTe technology with 10% transmittance found ca-
pable of maintaining UDI 500lux-2000lux during working
hours of an office building. Chow et al. (2009) observed
that both single- and double-pane a-Si PV–encapsulated
glazing due to low transmittance (10%) was found inferior
to the single-pane and double absorptive glazing in terms
of providing visual comfort even after adding the energy
generation benefits from the PV. Kapsis and Athienitis
(2015) analyzed the performance of double glazed STPV
for two WWR (40% and 60%) and visible transmittance
(10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%) for the cooling-
dominated building zone. It was observed that at a WWR
of 40%, the energy conservation was higher by 11% than a
WWR of 60%. This was due to lower solar heat gain and
exterior U value. However, the lighting load gets increased
by 9%. At WWR of 60%, the electricity production was
increased by 50%. For both WWR and transmittance of
10%, the end-use energy consumption was low as 13
kWh/m 2 /year. It was seen that depending upon the
cooling-dominated location, a transmittance of 10% was
preferred for both WWR. Researchers Wah et al. (2005)
and Wong et al. (2008) found that compared to opaque
technology, a roof-integrated silicon-based semitranspar-
ent technology (STPV) with 50% transmittance showed
the positive energy savings varied from a minimum of
3% for Kagoshima to a maximum of 8.7% in the city of
Aomori, Japan.
A maximum and minimum range of WWR studied by
the authors is given in below in Fig. 21. In the case of
Singapore, since they are nearer to the equator, the avail-
ability of diffuse radiation is higher; WWR range 70–100%
is preferred. The energy-saving for WWR was found be-
tween 16 and 41.3%. While in tropical and subtropical
cities of Brazil, a maximum energy saving of 42% was
found. A maximum range of transmittance was found be-
tween 2 and 42% for different locations. In the case of
Tokyo, an optimum WWR of 50% at a transmittance of
42% found suitable, saving energy consumption by 55%
compared to a single-glazed window. For Jaipur, a maxi-
mum saving in consumption was found 60.4% compared to
a conventional window. It can be concluded that for STPV
glazings, a higher WWR is preferred for improving overall
energy performance.
Figure 22 below shows the favorable orientation for gen-
eration and energy-saving as mentioned by Ng et al. (2013),
Didoné and Wagner (2013), Miyazaki et al. (2005), Barman
et al. (2018), Do et al. (2017), Zhang et al. (2016), and Maturi
et al. (2015). It can be seen that the orientation for which
glazing facing the equator at zero azimuth is favorable for
maximum power output or generation. For a location like
Fortaleza, Brazil, west orientation was preferred for a genera-
tion close to the equator. Similarly, for Singapore, all the ori-
entations are suitable due to the higher availability of diffuse
radiation. The orientation receiving less radiation viz. north/
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 21 WWR and transmittance

opical l),Can ), ),Braz erate) e),Ind (Tropi

mer con subtr (Subtr and posite Singa
subtr nenta opical opical Temp climat pore

ada Japan il , Italy ia cal)

values for different locations

- to,(H Humi orian War Jaipur

sum umid d opolis m ,(com
d,(dry Toron ,( cal);Fl Bari,(
Fortal

Tokyo (tropi
eza
Madri

)
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Tvis1 Tvis WWR max WWR min

south is not favorable for PV technology. For that, other glaz- length (L) and fixed length of PV module (Fig. 24 ) in
ings like low-E glazings can be one of the best-suited options. Honk Kong. It was observed that for a maximum genera-
tion, the tilt of 20° was recommended, while for combined
electrical generation and cooling load reduction achieved
PV shading of on envelopes
for an optimum tilt varies 30 to 50° depending upon the
different variable length of PV. For fixed-type cladding, 0°
The integrated or attached PV on facades and roof provides
tilt was found favorable. In the case of energy saving (Sun
shading on the enclosed envelope area, which affects the
et al. 2012), southwest orientation saves maximum energy
building’s performance in terms of cooling load (Singh and
compared to other. However (Sun et al. 2015) for the same
Chaudhary 2020).
tilt angle and overhang length, the annual cooling
reduction ratio decreases with an increase in WWR. In
Effect of the tilt angle of PV shading devices on the facade another study. Zhang et al. (2017) found an optimal angle
for electricity generation was 30°; for both electricity gen-
PV shading devices The PV cladding/louver are attached to eration and the cooling load reduction, the optimum angle
the primary structure of a building as external surfaces. It was 20°.
helps to reduce the building energy demand by controlling Paydar (2020) found a fixed-length portable PV system
heat conduction through the building and controlling the suitable as a shading overhang for optimizing both electricity
daylight entrance, and improving the system’s overall generation and thermal load reduction on the south-facing
efficiency. Some of the standard shading devices are shown window in Tehran. It was observed that the PV module’s
in Fig. 23. position should change by changing the tilt angle twice a year
Sun and Yang (2010) obtained the optimum tilt angle (25 and 65°). Compared to fixed BIPV shading at 35° and 40°,
(βopt) for two types of PV cladding, one with a variable a reduction in the thermal load of 12% and 15% was observed;
however, the yearly electrical generation was only 2% higher
for movable PV than fixed PV shading. Li et al. (2019) deter-
Singapore(1.3521°N)
All mined the optimum tilt angle for photovoltaic shading systems
Agrigento(37.3089°N),Italy
S (PVSS) on the top row of a multistory building and
Florianopolis(27.5986° S),Brazil
N subadjacent lower rows using Energy Plus software for differ-
Fortaleza(3.7327°S),Brazil
W ent cities in China. The shading from the upper PV row on
Frankfurt(50.1109°N),Germany S
Tokyo(35.6762° N),Japan sw lower rows was considered using a 3D calculator in System
S Advisor Model (SAM). It was found that the length of PV
Jaipur(26.9124°N),India SW
S modules varied from 0.664 to 1.156m for various tilts (0 to
Berkeley(37.8715° N),U.S sw
S
Honk-Kong(22.3193°N),China sw 90°). The CEB is found maximum for the optimum length of
S
Houston(29.7604° N),U.S E 1.156m for all cities, whereas the optimum tilt of 55° and 50°
s
for cities Harbin and Beijing at lower altitude angles respec-
0 1
Saving Generaon
tively, while for the cities Changsha, Kunming, and
Guangzhou, the optimum PVSS tilt angles are 40°, 40°, and
Fig. 22 Favorable orientation for BIPV/BAPV applications 30° respectively. Peres et al. (2020), in a software simulation,
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 23 Types of PV shading devices (Zhang et al. 2018)
observed the performance of PV louvers as a shading device.
It was found that as the number of PV louvers increases, the
power output decreases. Hence, we can conclude that the
buildings’ net energy demand can be a deciding factor in
selecting louvers. Mesloub et al. (2020) found an optimum tilt
of 30 in terms of power output and reduction in glare for three
PV shading configurations, (i) inclined single, (ii) a louver of
ten tilted slats outward, and (iii) a louver of five tilted slats
outward. However, unfilled egg-crate PV configuration due to
high energy conversion efficiency generated additional energy
found suitable for the hot desert climate. Taveres-Cachat et al.
(2017) study the different configurations of multiple louvers
on the facade for the tilt between 0 and 45. It was observed
that louvers with lower tilt angles 0° and 15° favorable for
power generation and maintaining UDI above 50%.
Fig. 24 The schematic of the
shading-type BIPV claddings
(Sun et al. 2010)
Jayathissa et al. (2017) used the shading of PV modules inte-
grated with the facade to optimize the building’s net energy
demand, as shown in Fig. 25. The configuration of BIPV
modules was dynamic, which allows maximum solar radia-
tion on the modules. The remaining radiation, which pene-
trates on windows and walls, was represented with the help
of the resistance-capacitance thermal model; for optimizing
heating and lighting minimization, the modules adjusted at
90° to the vertical plane. When optimizing for PV and cooling
demand, the modules get adjusted between 15 and 45° to the
vertical plane. It was found that the dynamic configuration
saves about 20 to 80% of the thermal and electrical demand
of energy when compared with the static configuration; how-
ever, the results obtained are sensitive to the location of the
building.

Fig. 25 A real example of PV integrated facades at different orientation
(Jayathissa et al. 2017)
Different tilt angle (Prasad and Snow Dr; Schüco 2018;
Yoo et al. 1998; Reijenga and Architecten 2001; Paydar
2020; Li et al. 2019; Mesloub et al. 2020; Sun and Yang
2010) of PV claddings was found in the “Effect of the tilt
angle of PV shading devices on the facade” section and
Table 8, as shown in Fig. 26. It was seen in the figure that
most of the locations have fixed tilt angles. An adjustable tilt
angle was seen for three locations, which improves the sea-
sonal performance of PV cladding. It was observed that the
optimum tilt angle increases with an increase in latitude.
Except for the higher latitudes of Wunnenberg, Germany,
and Petten, the Netherland has a lower tilt angle. It can be
due to a different design in cladding and PV technologies like
STPV glazings.
Effect PV shading on the roof
PV technologies, when attached to the roof due to the shading
it reduces
Singh and Chaudhary (2020) simulated a PV attached to
the roof of weaker section houses in Design Builder software.
Due to the shading effect, a maximum reduction of 3.7°C in
the room temperature was observed during typical summer
days. The shading effect gives credibility to the low cost and
high U value material used as a conventional material. Kotak
et al. (2014) used the CIBSE (Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers) method to obtain the sol-air tem-
peratures above and below the 7 kWp rooftop attached solar
panels (see Fig. 27) further used to obtain the impact of shad-
ing in the reduction of the roof-induced building cooling load.
A 73 to 90% reduction in cooling load was observed in India’s
five different climatic locations. This was due to a significant
reduction in room temperature and roof surface absorptance.
Also, the annual electricity generation from PV panels was
estimated at 11.9 MWh from a 90-m2 rooftop for the exact
locations.
Environ Sci Pollut Res
In an experimental study, Dominguez et al. (2011) ob-
served that the daytime ceiling temperatures of the PV at-
tached to the roof were 2.5 kW lower than that of the exposed
roof under the PV arrays of the roof (Fig. 28). The annual
cooling load of the roof decreased by 38% (9.69 kWh/m2)
from the exposed roof (16 kWh/m2) leads to energy savings.
Wang et al. (2020) evaluated the shading and power output
performance of horizontal and tilted at 30° rooftop PV mod-
ules. Due to lower radiation levels in winters, the energy sav-
ing performance was higher for tilted PV, while horizontal
configuration performance was high in summers. Ban-Weiss
et al. (2013) found that due to the PV shading effect, the roof’s
solar absorbance decreases to 0.38 from 0.75, resulting in a
reduction in roof surface temperature nearly by 5°C in sum-
mer Davidsson et al, 2012, Gok et al, 2020, Hachem &
Elsayed, 2016, Irshad et al, 2013, Konttinen et al, 2006.
Also, the heat flux was reduced up to 0.1 kWh/m2 from 0.3
to 1.0 kWh/m2. The annual cooling and heating energy saving
per unit conditioned roof area was estimated at nearly 9.4
kWh/m2 and 0.8 kWh/m2, respectively, and primary energy
saving was 0.2 kWh/m2.
Effect of adjacent shading on PV
Zomer and Rüther (2017a, 2017b) proposed the shading index
(SI) on a time basis to represent shading losses for the BIPV
system. A 3D model of physical setup was developed in
ECOTECT to study the shading effect for the cities of
Singapore and Florianopolis (see Fig. 29). The author estab-
lishes a relation between shading fraction and incident radia-
tion and found that the percentage difference between the two
cities was slight on an annual basis which was about 2% for
Singapore and 7% for Florianopolis. Further, the author ana-
lyzes the entire operating systems installed in Singapore and
Florianopolis and observed that the calculated SI and PR re-
sulted between 0.85 and 0.90 annually, which was very reli-
able accurate measurements.
Zomer et al. (2020) performed the shading analysis of dif-
ferent PV configurations using Ecotect, Sun Eye, and PV
Syst. It was observed that the ground mounted (GM) PV at
lower height suffered most of the shading loss from 3.2 to
9.6% and the PR between 73 and 76%. The BAPV roof with
crystalline technology has a PR of 77%, and the CdTe tech-
nology shows the best PR of 92%. It was seen that for the
BAPV system, the azimuth angle from 0 to 270° and tilt angle
from 0 to 20°, the annual irradiation loss was under 4%.
Compared to GM, the yield was 0.5 %, and PR of 13% was
higher.
The author suggested that to overcome the shading loss on
the BAPV system, extra string configuration equivalent to
percentage shaded string can be provided in the system. Lee
et al. (2017) calculate the shading effect from the louvers and
adjacent buildings on the PV window using the software.
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 8 Real projects with their tilt angles at a given latitude

Referenc Latitude, Figure Tilt

es longitude angle

(Prasad 49.58°N, Between

and 11.02°E 0° and
Snow Dr, 90°
2005)

(Schüco, 49.65°N, Adjusta

2018) 9.95°E ble
between
10° and
45°

(Schüco, 51.52°N, 30°

2018) 8.70°E

(Yoo et 37.3°N, A fixed

al., 126.6°E angle of
1998) 55.5°

(Reijenga 52.76° at a 37°

and N, tilt
Architect 4.67° E
en,
2001)

(Roberts 44.28°N, A fixed

and 11.88°E angle of
Guarient 70°
o,
2009)

According to him, around 4 to 7% of insolation was blocked
by louvers and adjacent buildings. Due to this, the PR of south
facade window arrays gets decreased from 0.8 to 6.86%, de-
pending upon installed height and sky view component by the
adjacent building. Chan (2019) analyzed the effect of shading
by adjacent buildings on PV glazings for different sky view
factors (SVF) (0.16 to 0.95) at different building orientations
using Energy Plus software. From the simulation, the PV
electricity energy ratio (PVEE) ratio with and without adjacent
shading effect found between 0.18 and 0.84 (Cannavale et al.
2017b). In the case of perovskite-based STPV glazing, adja-
cent shading from the building reduced the energy saving to
14%. Wu et al. (2020) examined the power output perfor-
mance of the STPV facade under shading from the building
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 26 Tilt angles for a particular

latitude Tilt angle v/s Latude
Giebelstadt,(49.65°N),Germany 10 45
Erlangen,(49.58°N),Germany 0 90
Peen,(52.76°N )Netherlands 37
Gihung,(37.3°N ),South Korea 55.5
Faenza (44.28°N, ),Italy 70
Wünnenberg (51.52°N ),Germany 30
Hail (27.70° N ),Saudi Arabia 30
Tehran (35.68° N), Iran. 65
25
Hong Kong (22.31° N, ),China 30 50
Guangzhou (23.12° N, ), China 30
Kunming (24.88° N, ), China 40
Changsha (28.22° N, ), China 40
Beijing (39.90° N, ), China 50
Harbin (45.80° N ), China 55
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

lt angle lt angle

eave. A minuscule annual reduction of 3.9% in power output
was observed; it was concluded that shading from building
eaves should be neglected during the designing of STPV fa-
cades. In another study, Peng et al. (2019) found that com-
pared to vertical shading, horizontal shading pattern effects
more on the vertical configuration of laminated PV-IGU unit
as given in Fig. 30, the PV string configurations. It was sug-
gested to avoid such shadings to reduce power output by 50%
compared to nonshaded one, because the horizontal shade
device cast shadow, which diminished the current flow
through all the parallel strings Prasad & Snow, 2005,
Roberts & Guariento, 2009, Singh & Singh, 2021.
Effect of opaque PV as a building material
Aaditya et al. (2013) and Aaditya and Mani (2018) observed
that replacing conventional building material stabilized mud
block (SMB) with PV technologies (see Fig. 31) increases
degree discomfort hours (DDH) of the building approximately
by 2–3 times. Also, a significant variation of up to 50% in
individual panel efficiency and year-round array system effi-
ciency was observed.
Singh et al. (2021b) evaluated the performance of the PV
module as a roof of a nonconditioned building using the
Fourier admittance method for the composite climate. It was
observed that the system increases the average room temper-
ature by 6.58°C, which increases the room discomfort and
additional cooling load by 94.7 kWh (Akata et al. 2017;
Akata et al. 2015). A PV, integrated roof system over the false
ceiling of the building, gets developed and simulated using
Design-Builder and Energy-Plus software to study the effect
of the PV system on indoor environment/comfort parameters
for Yaoundé, Cameroon. With constant air properties and no
HVAC system cases, it was observed that the system increases
indoor air temperature by 4°C compared to the nonintegrated
PV system in both cases. The maximum air gap temperature
between the aluminum sheet metal and the wood-based false
ceiling was 49.61°C and 48.12°C for North and South
orientations.

Discussion

This review aims to identify the various aspects considered by

the researchers in PV integrated systems. The section dis-
cusses the following points observed during the review pro-
cess about the different aspects and parameters.

& An air gap depth in BAPV roof ranges from 0.04 to 0.16m
(D’Orazio et al. 2014; Gan 2009; Goossens et al. 2018)
Fig. 27 The shaded area under the roof attached PV module on rooftop was found suitable depending upon the number of panels,
(Kotak et al. 2014) panel temperature, and power generation. A roof pitch
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 28 Thermal infrared image
of ceiling of exposed roof and PV
attached roof (Dominguez et al.
2011)
would be a more predominant aspect for temperature re-
duction in BIPV and BAPV structures. Relatively pitched
roofs should be preferred for better heat transfer and ven-
tilation (Mirzaei and Carmeliet 2015).
& The variability in air gap depth depends on climatic con-
ditions and the pressure difference required to maintain the
flow (natural or forced). The parameter must be optimized
for the BIPV surface. Too low and higher air gap depth
would hinder the airflow through the duct as reverse flow
phenomena occur due to external wind speed. Buoyancy
and wind speed are the main driving forces responsible for
optimizing the air gap and maintaining the duct’s required
velocity and temperature profile. It can be interpreted for
ventilated BIPV facades and walls that due to different air
mass flow rates (Peng et al. 2013a, 2016; Zogou and
Stapountzis 2011; Agathokleous and Kalogirou 2017;
Shahrestani et al. 2017; Athienitis et al. 2011; Lai and
Lin 2011; Irshad et al. 2015) and different roughness co-
efficient of skin/layer, the shear stress and air velocity
profile are not evenly distributed between the layers
(higher on inner skin/layer of PV modules), which affect
Fig. 29 Shading analysis for
Singapore (left) and Florianópolis
(right) on April 13, at noon
(Zomer and Rüther 2017b)
the heat transfer and surface temperature of the layers.
Also, there is a difference in the U value of the layers
(PV module and wall), due to the combined effect of fac-
tors as mentioned above, a reduction in the module tem-
perature was observed from 10 to 20°C (Zogou and
Stapountzis 2011; Gonçalves et al. 2021; Krauter et al.
2001; Agathokleous and Kalogirou 2017). In contrast, a
minimal reduction in the temperature of 1 to 2°C
(Agathokleous and Kalogirou 2017) was observed for
the second-skin/wall.
& It is observed that depending upon the climatic conditions,
the free-standing or BAPV on the roof blocks the direct
radiation on the roof, lowering the surface temperature and
building cooling load. The shading may be helpful in the
replacement of conventional building material with low
cost and high U value local materials (Singh and
Chaudhary 2020).
& It appears that replacing building material with opaque PV
systems increases the room or false ceiling temperature
from 4 to 8°C (Singh et al. 2021b; Akata et al. 2017;
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 30 Impact a horizontal shading and b vertical shading on PV string configuration (Peng et al. 2019)

Akata et al. 2015), which is not suitable for maintaining
comfort level for hot climatic conditions. However, direct
integration of PV may increase the room temperature in
cold climatic conditions. For improving the feasibility of
PV as a building material, optimized insulation can be
provided for different climatic conditions.
& The integration of PV technologies with the envelope
must be done during the early stages of the building design
and construction, so that these technologies can replace
the conventional materials and aesthetic potential will be
explored.

Fig. 31 Actual setup developed at CST, IISc, Bangalore, India, by Aaditya et al. (2013) and Aaditya and Mani (2018)
Environ Sci Pollut Res
& In the case of PV windows, the results indicate that for all
types of STPV technologies, climatic conditions, and
building orientation, the WWR of 50% or above (Ng
et al. 2013); Barman et al. 2018; Miyazaki et al. 2005;
Do et al. 2017; Didoné and Wagner 2013) is preferred
depending upon the respective room depth. Compared to
other technology (CdTe, c-Si, perovskite, organic), the a-
Si technology, because of low transmittance ranging from
7 to 40% (Viola et al. 2015; Roy et al. 2019; Liao and Xu
2015; Kapsis and Athienitis 2015; Didoné and Wagner
2013), was not found consistent in terms of maintaining
the desired daylight autonomy (DA) (threshold value: 300
lux). The a-Si technology is not recommended for the
orientation, which receives less amount of direct solar
radiation.
& A minimal variation in energy generation from low to high
transmittance was observed for a-Si (Liao and Xu 2015),
so it preferred to be used up to its higher transmittance
limit for maximizing the saving in energy consumption.
& The placement of low-E coating on the rear side of the
STPV glazings (Kapsis and Athienitis 2015; Chialastri
and Isaacson 2017; Wang et al. 2016; Ghosh et al. 2019)
is found suitable in enhancing their energy-saving poten-
tial, and this is due to their low SHGC of 0.43. Further, the
placement at multiple locations (Chialastri and Isaacson
2017) can increase the thermal efficiency of the PV
glazings.
& The DSSC technology with a liquid electrolyte has a pos-
itive temperature coefficient, due to which it shows better
performance than other PV technologies in hot climatic
conditions. It was seen that with optimum transmittance
between 25 and 50%, the technology (Selvaraj et al. 2019;
Chung et al. 2020; Yoon et al. 2011) performs better in
terms of energy generation and controlling the daylight
glare probability (DGP). However, other parameters like
UDI, DA, and CRI, which can compensate for the lighting
comfort and artificial lighting controlling, can be studied
in the future.
& It was observed that a lower cell coverage ratio (CCR) was
preferred for different building envelopes, as it maximizes
the thermal efficiency and lux level (Karthick et al. 2018a;
Vats et al. 2012; Karthick et al. 2018b, Singh et al. 2021a,
2021b). At higher CCR, the electrical generation gets
maximized, but the overall electrical efficiency is reduced
in the summer months. Room depth and WWR are also
important parameters for determining the optimum CCR.
Conclusion
In this review, all the applications BIPV/BAPV systems
were reviewed like PV-roof, PV-TW, PV-DSF, PV-
claddings, and STPV glazings. All the applications were
showed dual behavior of producing electricity as well re-
ducing the building load. Depending upon the climatic lo-
cations and building load, a ventilation provision was pro-
vided in the roof and facades. The ventilated air through
the air cavity improves the PV surface temperature and can
be utilized for space heating and other purposes. It im-
proves energy generation and saves percentage share.
Similarly, in the case of STPV window glazing, through
variability in size and transparency of glazing, optimized
parameters were determined to improve the overall thermal
and visual comfort and energy generation. Based on the
review, it can be concluded that
& In roof- and facade-based BAPV/BIPV applications, both
the c-Si and a-Si technologies are dominated, with the
percentage share above 70%.
& The air cavity depth in building attached PV roofs ranges
from 0.04 to 0.16m.
& With the increase in the ventilation rate, a maximum tem-
perature reduction of 20°C and 25°C was observed for the
PV facade and tiled PV roof. However, a minimal reduc-
tion of 1–2°C was observed in the facade/wall surface.
& The provision of natural and forced ventilation behind the
BIPV/BAPV applications can increase electrical energy
generation from 1.5 to 6%.
& The performance values of glazing R, SHGC, and Tvis
depend upon its design. It was seen (in Table 5) compared
with different PV glazings, a vacuum-based a-Si glazing
showed the lowest SHGC of 0.12 and high R-value 1.8
(m2k)/W.
& The parameters WWR, transmittance, and orientation are
interrelated and depend upon the latitude. It was seen that
for all PV technologies glazing types, and any orientation,
a higher WWR > 30% is required concerning transmit-
tance. It can be said that STPV technologies have different
optimized values of WWR, transmittance, and other glaz-
ing properties compared to conventional glazings.
& CCR is one of the critical factors in designing STPV glaz-
ings. Variability in CCR leads to change in overall thermal
and electrical efficiency. For skylights and STPV win-
dows, an optimized range of CCR was found between
0.55 and 0.72.
& The latitude and climate of a given location play a vital
role in designing STPV glazing technologies and also,
selecting proper orientation for maximum energy genera-
tion and saving.
& In terms of the building material aspect, replacing building
material with opaque PV systems increases the room or
false ceiling temperature from 4 to 8°C. In cold climate
conditions, STPV glazing on the roof increases the maxi-
mum room temperature up to 22°C.

& The DSSC technologies are best suited in hot climatic
conditions and perform well on diffuse radiation availabil-
ity. However, limited research was conducted on the
emerging technologies for actual building envelopes.
Future research possibilities
The following are the future research possibilities, identified
from the current literature review:
& The authors studied the opening of duct and air cavity ratio
impact on ventilation rate as discussed above. However,
room depth and window placement are the novel param-
eters for designing ventilated PV-DSF, PV-TW, and other
applications.
& The overall thermal performance of the STPV technolo-
gies can be improved by using low-E glazings and coat-
ings. The placement of coatings can be examined to de-
crease the U value and SHGC of the STPV glazing.
& The energy conversion efficiency of PV-IGU must be im-
proved and eliminated through better heat removal
provision
& Optimization between the indoor temperature, power gen-
eration, and PV cell coverage ratio (CCR) to analyzed
rigorously.
& Various authors studied the impact of DSSC glazing tech-
nology on DGP. However, more study is required for
other parameters like UDI, DA, and CRI, compensating
the lighting comfort and artificial lighting control. Also,
vacuum-based double-pane DSSC glazing can be one of
the options for future research.
& The impact of adjacent shading from buildings, especially
in dense areas, must be considered during the study.
Further, an estimated reduction PR of different thin films
and emerging technology must be studied under the adja-
cent shading. Accordingly, the design of PV cell configu-
ration can also be adjusted as per the adjacent shading in
location.
Availability of data and materials Not applicable
Author contribution Digvijay Singh and Rubina Chaudhary, conceptu-
alization; Rubina Chaudhary and Alagar Karthick, supervision; Digvijay
Singh, Rubina Chaudhary, and Alagar Karthick, methodology; Alagar
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Karthick, Digvijay Singh, and Rubina Chaudhary, investigations and
writing; Digvijay Singh and Rubina Chaudhary, original draft; Digvijay
Singh and Rubina Chaudhary writing — original draft; Digvijay Singh
and Rubina Chaudhary Karthick, validation.
Declarations
Ethics approval Not applicable
Consent to participate Not applicable
Consent for publication Not applicable
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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