Enen2000 - Group Me1 - Crtin Colombo - Building-Integrated Photovoltaics Case Study

Curtin University
Department of Mechanical Engineering

ENEN2000 Engineering Sustainable Development
BUILDING-INTEGRATED
PHOTOVOLTAICS CASE STUDY
Group Members:
D. M. Thavindu Umayanga (20538578)
Dhanuka Gurusinghe (20495741)
Dulara Lakdini Gunarathne (20589233)
D. H. A. Galappththi (20533447)
Udula Dulanaka Athukorala (20533476)
Keran Dias (20463395)
Date of Submission: 3rd October 2022

Unit Coordinator: A/Prof. Wahidul Biswas
Lecturer in-charge: Prof. Shiromi Karunaratne
Table of Contents
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Impacts on Sustainability of BIPV................................................................................................... 4
1.1 The Impacts over Climate Change & Global Warming ............................................................. 4
1.2 The Effects on Land Use and Biodiversity ................................................................................ 5
1.3 The Effects on Water Pollution .................................................................................................. 6
1.4 The Economical & Social Consequences ................................................................................... 6
2. Life Cycle Assessment to focus the Engineering Sustainability Challenges ................................... 8
2.1 Life Cycle of BIPV..................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Hotspots in the Manufacturing Process .......................................... 9
2.3 Examples of TBL Hotspots ...................................................................................................... 10
3. Life Cycle Management & Design to Achieve Circular Economy ............................................... 11
3.1 Waste Management and Zero Waste, Closed Loop Production Principles .............................. 11
3.2 Design for the Environment ..................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Renewable Energy .................................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Cleaner Production ................................................................................................................... 13
4. Engineering Economic Management ............................................................................................. 14
5. Engineering ethics .......................................................................................................................... 15
5.1 Antagonistic Impacts of the Linear System on the Stakeholders ............................................. 15
5.2 Think Globally, Act Locally .................................................................................................... 16
5.3 Mitigating the Future Repercussion of the Disparities of the Circular System as Engineers .. 17
5.4 Other Accountable Factions of Achieving the Change ............................................................ 17
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 18
References .......................................................................................................................................... 19
Appendix ............................................................................................................................................ 24
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~ENEN2000 - Building-Integrated Photovoltaics Case Study~
List of Tables
Table 1: BIPV Adoption’s Enablers & Obstacles
Table 2: Table of Contribution (Appendix)
List of Figures
Figure 1: Life-cycle Emissions for Photovoltaic Electrical Energy Generation
(Meier and Kulcinski 2002)
Figure 2: Schematic illustration of a BIPV system (Biyik et al. 2017)
Figure 3: Types of The Factors How Renewable Energy Adopted
Figure 3: Life Cycle Stages of BIPV (Fthenakis et al. 2011)
Figure 5: The three spheres determining the BIPV integrability (Aaditya and Mani 2013)
Figure 6: Carbon Sequestration Technology (Wright 2022)
Figure 7: Major process of recycling BIPV systems (Senthil 2019)
Figure 8: Construction of a PV module (Kuhn et al. 2021)
Figure 9: Schematic layout of a developed PV ceramic tile (Lyubenova et al. 2018)
Figure 10: Stakeholders Map (Macé et al. 2020)
Figure 11: Solar Photovoltaic Power Potential by Country (THE WORLD BANK 2020)
Figure 12: PV Installation Forecast (IEA 2021)
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Abbreviations
BIPV – Building-Integrated Photovoltaics
PV – Photovoltaics
LC – Life Cycle
LCA – Life Cycle Assessment
BAPV – Building-Applied Photovoltaics
STPV – Semi-transparent Photovoltaics
LCC – Life-Cycle Cost
GHG – Green House Gases
EPBT – Energy Payback Time
TBL – Triple Bottom Line
EoL – End of Life
BOS – Balance-of-System
GHGE – Green House Gas Emission
EPR – Energy Payback Ratio
CE – Circular Economy
CCS – Carbon Capture Storage
CRI – Carbon Recycling International
DSCC – Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
CIGS – Copper Indium Gallium Selenide
SCM – Supply Chain Management
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Introduction
Many challenges have been bought out by the excessive consumption of fossil fuels, such as energy
shortages, environmental pollution, and climatic changes with the rapid globalization and growth in
the population. As an alternative to this, renewable energy technology has been utilized to meet the
public's demand and reduce the negative effects on the ecosystem. Among them, solar power is a
clean and sustainable source of energy that is pragmatic in many innovative ways. And one of the
most favored renewable energy technologies is photovoltaics (PV). Recently, the attention of this has
been turned towards how this technology can be directly applied to the building components in place
of ordinary material to achieve maximum efficiency. This is known as Building-Integrated
Photovoltaics (BIPV).
The BIPV system can act as an individual installment instead of utilizing a common power grid that
operates in the building as an electricity input. BIPV can replace windows, skylights, rooftops, etc.,
while contributing to the buildings' aesthetics, countering to Building-Applied Photovoltaics
(BAPV). It is the most promising technology due to its ability to generate electricity without affecting
the buildings' design, particularly in glazed high-rise buildings combined with semi-transparent solar
cells. This is due to the ability of semi-transparent photovoltaics (STPVs) to generate renewable
energy and provide a decent amount of natural daylight to the occupant (Rababah, Ghazali, and Mohd
Isa 2021). The design considerations for BIPV systems must also consider the building's use and
electrical load, location and orientation, costs, safety codes, and relevant utility issues.
As a multi-functioning module, the cost of conventional materials can be avoided when using BIPV.
Therefore, the incremental cost of PV is reduced, and its life-cycle cost (LCC) is improved as BIPV
will have a lower overall cost than a conventional PV system that requires a separate mounting
system. But it is important that it is viewed in terms of LCC. Other advantages of BIPV systems
include thermal insulation, noise prevention, weatherproofing, privacy protection, etc. Hence, the
global market of BIPV has experienced fast growth in recent years, and it is also predicted that it will
keep on growing due to the serious demand of the construction sector in the future.
However, there are many burdens related to using BIPV that a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) research
can help determine. This study will analyze and address the sustainability and its challenges
associated with the life cycle (LC) of BIPV and how it helps achieve a circular economy (CE) from
an engineering viewpoint. This also scrutinizes the engineering ethics of its impact on the community,
the global implication of the approach, future impacts of the gaps in the circular structure, and the
responsibility of engineers in mitigating them when implementing BIPV systems.
1. Impacts on Sustainability of BIPV

1.1 The Impacts over Climate Change & Global Warming
Minimizing pollutants like PMx, SOx, NOx, and CO2 that impact indoor environmental quality or
climate change is considered while implementing new renewable energy systems (Yoo 2019).
Moreover, due to climate change and the depletion of fossil resources, interest in zero-energy
buildings is progressively growing. PV systems use photovoltaic energy to produce electricity
without incorporating emissions (Lee et al. 2014). Nevertheless, all aspects of the system LC,
including production, transportation, and maintenance, are deemed when calculating this study's
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission rates.
As a result of their reliance on the current fossil fuel infrastructure, non-fossil fuel energy systems
have an impact on Greenhouse gas emission (GHGE). Carbon dioxide, a derivate of crude oil ignition,
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is the most significant GHG based on total
global warming. Despite being
significantly less common, methane and
nitrous oxide emissions are each 21 and
310 times more powerful global warming
agents than CO2. An easy and reliable
method for calculating GHGE is net
energy analysis. Energy requirements are
multiplied by fuel-specific emission
factors to estimate GHG emissions
(Figure 1).
The basis for estimating GHGE is the
energy inputs computed for the net energy Figure 4: Life-cycle Emissions for Photovoltaic Electrical Energy
analysis. The BigHorn Center PV system Generation (Meier and Kulcinski 2002)
emits roughly 12.5 tonnes of CO2-equivalent GHGs over the course of its lifetime, as depicted in
Figure 1 (Meier and Kulcinski 2002). The majority are related to the materials and stage of
construction (Figure 1), which are directly related to energy usage. Besides, the BIPV concept, in
which PV panels are integrated into building envelopes, substantially impacts the quantity of heat
transfer through the building fabrics. Furthermore, it could alter the comfort of the inhabitants due to
changes in the thermal resistance of the building envelopes (Ekoe a Akata, Njomo, and Mempouo
2015).
1.2 The Effects on Land Use and Biodiversity
The BIPV system can have substantial environmental
effects, especially from a life cycle viewpoint. This
indicates that extracting, producing, transporting,
utilizing, and disposing of BIPV wastes consumes a
sizable amount of energy. Such waste and emissions are
categorized as direct if they are connected to the
production process and indirect if they were brought on
by using physically harmful fossil fuels. To determine the
break-even point, it is important to evaluate the energy
Figure 5: Schematic illustration of a BIPV system payback time (EPBT), which may impact biodiversity
(Biyik et al. 2017)
through a cyclic process. During its Life Cycle, the GHGE
are another factor to deliberate (Al-Janahi and Al-Ghamdi 2021). As a result of the increased
greenhouse effect and other anthropogenic pressures, the climate and ecosystems of the planet are
likely to undergo unprecedented change, which will have a negative impact on food production (the
process of photosynthesis) and cause harm to both flora and fauna (Dunne, Jackson, and Harte 2013).
Despite this, BIPV cells, such as photovoltaic window glass, PV tiles, or wall claddings, change the
heat transfer coefficients through building partitions in addition to the energy generation (Figure 2)
and have an impact on other aspects of the building (architectural, visual, and functional) (Biyik et
al. 2017; Dobrzycki et al. 2020). However, this heating tendency is not ideal for tropical nations as it
may result in ventilation system failures that could impact building occupants. The land and material
footprints of PV could be reduced by solar pavement and BIPV. BIPV has developed over the years
and is now a factor to be considered when developing urban cities (Wang et al. 2006). This also gives
external aesthetic texture to buildings.
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1.3 The Effects on Water Pollution
As a leading green energy source, photovoltaics in operation has little to no effects in terms of water
pollution. Nevertheless, considering the entire life cycle of BIPV, several likelihoods may result in
minimal pollution. Namely, the manufacturing process. As PV cells are each made with specific
methods and materials; individually, each holds potential for water pollution. For example, in
fabrication processes, if the cells are soldered together with Lead (Pb) solder and then rinsed, the
water used can contain lead as well as Sulphur (S) (a byproduct of silicon solar cells). In addition,
Cadmium (Cd) used in thin-film solar panels can make its way into the water when cleaning the
equipment used in the manufacturing. Generally, wastewater recycling is employed to minimize this
type of pollution (Richard Gaughan 2017). In terms of large-scale photovoltaic use, such as solar
power plants, the impact on water is greater for cooling purposes. This places a great strain on the
limited or regional water resources and runs the risk of spill and contamination. Finally, if suitable
mechanisms are not employed, the disposal of old or damaged cells runs the risk of contamination by
chemicals used (Solar Action Alliance 2016).
1.4 The Economical & Social Consequences
The societal effect of renewable energies in general (Gholami, Khalilnejad, and Gharehpetian 2015;
Hinkle and Kenny 2010) and the BIPV system (Sozer and Elnimeiri 2007) have been the subject of
numerous research studies. However, a few of these studies have attempted to quantify these effects,
and no study has used the monetization value of these effects to evaluate the economics. As a result,
the proposed technique can influence governments or decision-makers to support the technology
through reasonable subsidies and incentives, in addition to the better guiding the end user to make
more informed decisions about adopting BIPV systems. The following is a list of the most significant
societal variables that will be impacted by using BIPV systems.
For a long time, scientists from several fields have been very concerned about the aspects that
influence the diffusion and use of new technologies. The writings on renewable power technologies
and energy policy have further highlighted the particular significance of institutional factors.
However, it has been discovered that product- and adopter-specific characteristics account for most
of the factors that influence the diffusion of innovations (Rogers 1962). This study examines the
adoption of BIPV in relation to three dimensions: product, adopter/stakeholder, and control variables.
It includes both paradigms. Figure 3 illustrates the
different factors influencing how renewable energy
technologies are adopted. It represents the fundamental
conceptual framework of the study described in this
paper and provides a tool to categorize obstacles and Figure 6: Types of The Factors How Renewable Energy
enablers to the adaptation of renewable technologies. It Adopted
draws on the literature on the diffusion of innovations and the literature on renewable energy. The
main obstacle to wider diffusion turns out to be limited building permissions. Municipal building
commissions work to keep metropolitan areas according to their original character. Even though
many stakeholder respondents acknowledged that rooftop BIPV permissions are more easily obtained
than rooftop BAPV permits due to aesthetic concerns, BIPV facades are still subject to highly tight
regulations and approvals (Curtius 2018). Table 1 shows the BIPV adoption's enablers and obstacles.
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Types of factors Advantages Disadvantages
Product – • Aesthetics • High initial costs not calculated appropriately.
specific • Cost advantages (Replaces the conventional • Complexity (Complex investment calculations,
determinants building materials, mortises investment costs needs to be considered from the beginning).
through electricity generation)
• Positive attitudes towards BIPV instruments • Complexity of invoicing for apartment house
Stakeholder
among homeowners. owners.
determinants
• Reluctance of architects as gatekeepers.
• High transaction costs & overloaded information.
Institutional • Effectiveness of regulatory measures • Policy risks.
determinants (Building codes and energy labels for houses, • Initial dependence on government incentives.
Feed-in tariffs, and one-off investment grants). • Restrictive building permits.
Table 1: BIPV Adoption’s Enablers & Obstacles
A BIPV system's effectiveness can be outline and assessed in terms of the financial repercussions
connected to the system's boundaries. The benchmarks for the cost-effectiveness are biased varying
on the investment decision-maker. The advantages of BIPV encompass a wide range of areas that
either directly or indirectly trade with economic facts. Such that; multi-purpose, electricity
advantages, grid-support benefits, utility control of load growth, demand reduction, and power quality
and dependability. BIPV expenses are determined by the system technology, utility connections costs,
labor, and installation costs, associated building permit costs, maintenance costs, costs for
replacement and repair, and salvage expenses (LLC). Hence Developers of speculative buildings
frequently base their design and investment choices simply on the initial costs.
The costs and benefits of using PV technology as a building component, as demonstrated by BIPV,
may be split between the utility provider and the occupant. The extra costs of setting up and
maintaining a system to generate power for a building owner may be offset by the savings on
electricity purchases or by selling excess energy to the utility provider. To establish rate precedents
and determine an appropriate rate structure for obtaining power from or delivering it to the electricity
grid, guidelines to determine the economic value of a BIPV system might be utilized. This can be
evaluated along with the architectural value (aesthetic) and performance expectations of PV as a
building component (IEA 2002). Even though more recent studies have shown that modern PV
systems are net energy producers, they are still more expensive than conventional energy sources.
Using BIPV systems instead of conventional building materials and avoiding the expense of land
acquisition decreases the net system cost. Additionally, electricity is produced on-site, and
transmission and distribution costs are avoided (Meier and Kulcinski 2002). The worth of a BIPV
system can also be compared to the qualitative benefits and drawbacks related to image, public
perception, visual impact, and environmental impact. BIPV technology reduces CO2 emissions while
producing energy. Therefore, BIPV plays a significant part in economic sustainability given the
definition of a low-carbon economy (a healthy environment indicates a prosperous economy) (Ikedi
2018). Long-term owner-occupants are typically best placed to benefit from a system and are,
therefore, the most likely investors because BIPV systems are capital-intensive investments with low
running costs.
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2. Life Cycle Assessment to focus the Engineering Sustainability Challenges
2.1 Life Cycle of BIPV
Lifecycle thinking, sometimes referred to as a "cradle to grave" approach, where thinking of the
consequences in the environmental, economic, and social effects of a product throughout its LC, has
become an important concept to modern sustainable development. The life cycle stages include all
the raw material, resources, and energy consumed through the manufacturing stages, from raw
materials acquisition to waste management in the End-of-Life (EoL) scenario, as well as
transportation in all of them as given in Figure 4 below. To meet the standards of sustainable
development and for environmental management in any engineering process through LCA, the
conceptual framework developed based on ISO 14040 to ISO 14044 is used (Farjana, Mahmud, and
Huda 2021).
Figure 7: Life Cycle Stages of BIPV (Fthenakis et al. 2011)
In photovoltaic technology, various semiconductor materials are used in PV cell fabrication,

including silicon and non-silicon-based materials and other advanced materials. Among these, silicon
(Si) has proved to be the most reliable (Zhang, Wang, and Yang 2018). A protective material
surrounds these solar modules consisting of Si semiconductors in a metal frame made of Si rubber or
butyryl plastic embedded in ethylene vinyl acetate. Polyester film is used for the backing. The
electronic parts are commonly made of copper (Advameg n.d.). Si is found in certain rocks, sand, and
soil as the most abundant element in the earth's crust.
After obtaining the raw materials, for material processing, the chemical process known as 'the
reduction process' is used to displace one or more elements and produce Si industrially. The silica
sand is cooked at 2,000 degrees Celsius in a furnace along with a carbon source. The raw element is
then cooled to create metallurgical grade silicon. This is usually liquefied again in order to remove
remaining impurities. The manufacturing process is of several steps after purifying the silicon.
Making single crystal silicon (ingots), making solar wafers, doping, and finally placing the electronic
contacts before anti-reflective coating and encapsulating the cell (Advameg n.d.). All the components
are assembled in a workshop, inspected for any cracks on the solar cell, and tested with high-powered
light to see if the solar cells work. The PV system components, excluding the modules themselves,
are referred to as the Balance-of-System (BOS). The BOS comprises several hundred feet of electrical
wiring and conduit, combiner boxes, inverters, circuit breakers, and lightning arrestors (Peng, Lu, and
Yang 2013).
Integrating the PV cells into the building envelopes such as roofs, windows, walls, and skylights and
its use either as a local system or as a part of the grid is a major stage in the LC of BIPV. It can also
be used to carry out multifunction like thermal insulation, noise prevention, and privacy protection
and has a most promising future with globalization (Zhang, Wang, and Yang 2018). When reflecting
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on BIPV systems compared to other technology, the energy payback ratio (EPR), the relationship
between useful electrical output and total energy inputs, is 6, which is higher than that of gas turbine
technology (4) but lower than that of coal (11), fission (16), fusion (27), and wind turbine (23)
technologies. The net energy analysis, the basis for calculating the GHGE rate of BIPV for every
gigawatt-hour of power produced, is that it produces 39 tonnes of CO2 equivalent (T/ GWeh). This
emission rate is significantly lower than traditional coal (974 T/ GWeh) and gas turbine (464 T/ GWeh)
technologies. However, it is greater than that of fission (15 T/GWeh), fusion (9 T/ GWeh), and wind
(14 T/ GWeh) technologies (Meier and Kulcinski 2000).
The proper process of decommissioning PV cells, disposing, and recycling is essential to ensuring
sustainable and clean energy production. As most PV modules in the market are made of Si solar
cells, the waste mostly includes silicon, glass, polymer, aluminum, and copper. Proper treatment is
necessary to prevent leaks into the ground from PV landfills. About 70% of used modules are
expected to be functional and can be recycled to give them a second life (Wambach, Karsten;
Baumann, Kerstin; Seitz Matthias; Mertvoy, Boris; Reinelt 2020).
Finally, it is also important to consider the transportation of raw materials to the factories where PV
cells are to be manufactured, and transportation used when distributing the manufactured components
to be installed when considering the LCA of BIPV systems.
It is clear from this evaluation that the majority of the BIPV life cycle stages require significant energy
and produce unwanted byproducts. Nevertheless, the energy payback time was less than two years,
while energy return on investment could be as high as 35 times (Ng and Mithraratne 2014). It is
important to utilize modern approaches such as eco-design, product environmental footprint, and
stewardship standards that include a circular economy strategy to save valuable resources and meet
zero waste demands as much as possible. The governments and authorities should develop necessary
policies and legal frameworks for this objective (Wambach, Karsten; Baumann, Kerstin; Seitz
Matthias; Mertvoy, Boris; Reinelt 2020).
2.2 Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Hotspots in the Manufacturing Process
One of humanity's major challenges in this century is sustainable economic, social, and environmental
development. The application of PV technology in building designs, where PV cells become a part
of the building, has become one of the key technologies to meet climate targets as well as social
progress and economic growth (Zafrilla et al. 2019). This section discusses the ways in which
sustainability has become a challenge in BIPV using TBL hotspots in its production process.
As an emerging renewable energy technology, BIPV has the potential to meet a significant portion
of the electricity need of cities globally. However, it is much less understood than that roof-mounted
BAPV systems.
With the increasing electricity demand globally, limited power stations struggle to meet the demand.
Therefore, standalone BIVP systems are introduced. However, BIPV has a high initial investment
capital cost from a stakeholder perspective. The lack of detailed cost data and methods of cost benefits
analysis has made a barrier to BIPV applications (Yang and Zou 2016).
As society calls for industrial production to become more sustainable, it has become crucial to match
this consumer behavior with a great supply of renewable energy. This demonstrates that further
incentives are required as well as government policy support, in order to promote wider BIVP
application.
The environmental benefits provided by BIPV technology are potentially significant. However, it is
still premature to determine the total environmental performance concerning other energy technology
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with the existing studies of LCA. "Differences in scope and methods of existing LCA studies make
it difficult to compare different studies and draw useful synthesis. Further research should focus on
developing clear and consistent terminology, using LCA approaches, collecting data on the effects of
BIPV on building energy performance as well as comparisons with other energy technologies
covering a wide range of environmental impact categories" (Yan 2019).
2.3 Examples of TBL Hotspots
India's installed solar photovoltaic capacity has increased significantly, from approximately 54 MW
in 2010 to an estimated 2632 MW in 2014 (Rahman Mohamed and Lee 2006). In India, the Ministry
of Power primarily governs the power sector. Both the fact that India is experiencing significant
energy deficits and favorable government programs like the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
have contributed to this impressive rise. India is the sixth-largest energy consumer in the world, using
3.4% of all energy consumed worldwide. Maharashtra is the top electricity producer among Indian
states.
Many studies have tried to demonstrate the social and environmental benefits of renewable energies
in general (Sheikh, Kocaoglu, and Lutzenhiser 2016; Jenniches 2018; Gholami, Khalilnejad, and
Gharehpetian 2015) and but there have been few studies that have concentrated on quantifying these
advantages. Additionally, no studies have used the monetized value of these advantages in the
economic analysis of the BIPV system. As a result, the proposed method can influence governments
or decision-makers to promote the technology through sensible subsidies and incentives, in addition
to guiding end users to make more informed decisions about adopting BIPV systems.
Urban regions receive their energy from power plants, often far away from the metropolis, due to
security and environmental concerns. To get the energy to the end customers in such a setup,
transmission and distribution lines are required, which causes the power grid to lose electricity. For
example, in 2014, this value for Norway was roughly 6% (The World Bank Group 2018). Based on
the $0.18/kWh power rate (Statistics Norway 2020) and considering Norway's total 2014 electricity
production of 142TWh. The value is comparatively higher for nations with longer and larger
electricity transmission lines than Norway, such as the USA and Brazil. BIPV is an appropriate
solution for this issue since it eliminates the separation between electricity generation and
consumption locations.
BIPV's integrability deals with the proper PV system as a climate-responsive building envelope while
maintaining its optimal performance and functionality in a way that benefits society at large and is
cost-effective (Figure 5). The challenge lies in integrating society's energy demand and consumption
with the three BIPV components: buildings, PV systems, and buildings. To adapt to societal viability
(energy demand and affordability), a comprehensive examination of the interconnections between
these factors that influence building envelope functionality and PV efficiency is critical and is covered
in the following sections (Aaditya and Mani 2013).
Figure 5: The three spheres determining the BIPV integrability (Aaditya and Mani 2013)
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3. Life Cycle Management & Design to Achieve Circular Economy
The circular economy (CE) is a concept related to material circulatory and zero-waste ecosystems
and optimizing the economic system's performance. It is a production and consumption model
involving the reuse, recycling, remanufacturing, etc., of the existing materials for as long as possible
and extending their life cycle (Biswas 2022).
With the exponential growth of the world's population, the demand for finite raw materials has also
increased. So, it has become crucial to apply eco-efficiency to boost the transition toward a CE and
empower the sustainability of any design. This section discusses potential applications of ecological
strategies of BIPV systems throughout their life cycle.
3.1 Waste Management and Zero Waste, Closed Loop Production Principles
In the manufacturing process of the BIPV, CO2 equivalent gases occur as waste resulting in global
warming, as discussed in previous sections. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) can be introduced to
defeat this issue. Carbon sequestration is the process of removing and securely storing carbon that
would otherwise be released into the atmosphere as a consequence of industrial activities. CCS is
vindicated to allow the use of fossil fuels while decreasing CO2 emissions into the environment and
lowering the effect of climate change. Intending to cut emissions and provide a new source of raw
materials for use in the manufacturing of gasoline, food, and cement; scientists are boosting efforts
to convert waste CO2 from industry into compounds like methanol (ANTHONY KING 2018). The
method used by Carbon Recycling International (CRI) produces
methanol in a way that is immeasurably more sustainable.
Monoethanolamine (MEA) is the most widely utilized
absorbent for CO2 osmosis (Butenandt, Weidel, and
Schloßberger 1949). Below is a portrayal of this process'
fundamental reaction. Geologic sinks (deep saline formations,
depleted oil and gas reservoirs, enhanced oil recovery, and un-
mineable coal seams) & the deep ocean are two forms of storage
medium. Figure 6: Carbon Sequestration Technology
(Wright 2022)
C2H4OHNH2 + H2O + CO2 ↔ C2H4OHNH3 + HCO3 + -
EoL management for PV panels is consistent with a global transition to sustainable long‑term
development, can enable significant market price and conduce to new sectors. The recycling or reuse
of diminishing metals and materials from BIPV waste is vital for a closed circular economy and the
biodiversity challenge, even if the current technique of PV waste disposal involves sending them to
landfills (IRENA 2021). The existing obstacles with recyclable advanced solar energy materials have
been the subject of ongoing research efforts aiming to discover a feasible solution. The components
of PV systems' productive lifespan are comparatively minuscule relative to the buildings. Thus,
replacing and recycling the various solar system components presents numerous impediments and
challenges. According to the current base case, the payback period for recovering from BIPV is
anticipated to be 15 years (Senthil 2019). Recycling and material recovery will be preferable to panel
disposal as present PV installations approach their ultimate decommissioning stage. BIPV systems
need a range of techniques to recover cell components such as silicon, glass, plastic, aluminum, and
silver using mechanical, thermal, chemical, and thermal methods (Pyro or hydroprocessing,
shredding, physical processes, cathode recovery, and acid recovery). In accordance with the current
PV installation scenario, it was predicted that Australia's solar PV waste would likely total over 40000
tonnes by the end of 2030 (Senthil 2019). The burgeon of BIPV is anticipated to create a vigorous
ancillary market for panel materials and components. The electrical components can be directly
shared with other consumers or purposes to make the most of their useful lives. The composition of
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panels is estimated to require less raw material as research and development, and technological
advancements continue with a growing industry.
Within a decade, the modern movement toward BIPV installations in developed and developing
countries has resulted in the installation of gigantic EoL PV systems. Therefore, legislation and
supportive socioeconomic policies are urgently needed to address the problems with BIPV waste
management. The major process of recycling BIPV systems is exhibited in Figure 7 (Senthil 2019).
Systems for converting and storing renewable energy are successfully adapted and commercialized
on both small and large scales when they are reliable, cost-effective, and recyclable. Solar energy and
storage system production that is
green and effective, as well as its
integration into building envelopes,
are crucial for replacement or
retrofitting. All stakeholders
involved need to be more
knowledgeable about recovery
technologies, the value of
improved environmental quality,
and better energy security, in Figure 7: Major process of recycling BIPV systems (Senthil 2019)
addition to the advantages of local economic growth that are tailored to the broader global
perspective. In lieu of its critical function in meeting forecast challenges, the recycling and recovery
industry sectors can provide a wide range of academic fields with various career options.
3.2 Design for the Environment
A BIPV module should produce the electricity yield mainly, and affordable cost also meets the
aesthetic requirements. The design is not permanent, and minor changes are possible if a lower price
and a higher power output can be reached. Therefore, to produce a sound module, the components
must be mindful of various technical design alternatives by distinguishing between the laminate and
the extra features, such as the mounting system and the junction box. The design possibilities are the
cell layer, which is covered with several solar cell connections. A solar cell layer, two insulation
layers entirely encircling the cell layer, and a front and back cover are the main components of a PV
module. This arrangement is frequently referred to as a laminate. The construction of a PV module
has shown in Figure 8. A junction box and a frame are linked together to enable the mechanical and
the electrical connection, respectively.
The bypass diodes are in the junction box
and the junction box may not be necessary
all the time. The module becomes more
critical in these situations as the whole
system is typically employed in integrated
PV systems. The junction box provides the
Figure 8: Construction of a PV module (Kuhn et al. 2021) connection to link the model’s electricity,
and the box size can be reduced by combining the bypass diodes. In this case, the junction box only
serves as a connection box. A BIPV module uses more complicated mounting techniques than a
conventional module, which connects to the racks via the frame. The mounting system provides the
building with mechanical connection and stability. Various glass mounting solutions are frequently
used for BIPV. Examples include experienced structures with modules with insulation, ventilation,
or cooling built into the back and easier mounting on common substructures (Kuhn et al. 2021).
12
3.3 Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is the energy produced from sources that do not exhaust over time or can be
replenished over one’s lifetime. Among all energy sources solar energy is the most efficient
renewable energy source, as well as in the long run, solar energy is both beneficial in both financially
and environmentally. It is abundant and can even be harnessed in a cloudy weather. In BIPV systems
solar energy is converted into electrical energy through the photovoltaic panels and unlike traditional
solar modules, BIPV can generate power through both direct and diffused radiation (Mohanram
2018). Even though not every place is equally endowed with solar energy, a significant contribution
to the small-scale individual BIPV systems is possible.
As described in social and economic consequences associated with the BIPV systems above, adoption
of these systems are much more accelerated than it used to be with the depletion of fossil fuels and
more costly energy sources. As a renewable energy source, solar energy has zero cost in production
or produce any harmful emission during electricity generation. It can easily meet the local demands
of the building and used as a stand-alone system.
This also helps in reducing the dependance on imported fuels which in turn benefits financially for
the user as it is readily available for many. Therefore, the user can diversify their economies and
protect them from the unpredictable price swings of fossil fuels. With the rapid drop in renewable
energy technologies the cost of electricity from solar power has fallen by 85 percent between 2010
and 2020 in USA. Independent systems also offers a way out of on-grid system and any large-scale
failure associated with it as the raw material of the production is solar energy. And according to
International Energy Agency (IEA) by 2030 cheap electricity from renewable sources could provide
up to 65 percent of world’s total electricity supply (Nations n.d.).
Transitioning from non-renewable energy sources is also the factor in addressing the climate crisis.
Use of renewable energy according to the World Resources Institute, will minimize the use of
resources and cut the global greenhouse gas emission by 39 percent, equivalent to 22.8 tons
(Simarmata and Monica, n.d.).
However, for the use of solar energy as a renewable and truly clean power source, the equipment
must be manufactured, deployed, and decommissioned in a responsible, safe, and sustainable way so
that the CE will create multiple opportunities for return cycles that avoid disposal. It will also support
the development of shorter, transparent, and diverse clean energy supply chains in addition to creating
an increase in jobs and sustainable businesses (Simarmata and Monica, n.d.).
3.4 Cleaner Production
By substituting traditional structural materials with PV technologies and utilizing PV to generate
visually pleasing benign power, PV technologies increase a building's capabilities (Baljit, Chan, and
Sopian 2016). Cleaner production technology has solved the economic, social, and environmental
problems caused by BIPV systems.
Both active and passive cooling may be used to reduce elevated temperatures caused by BIPV.
However, passive methods are more effective in lowering temperatures in retrofit buildings. Snow,
dust, and surrounding buildings can block the view of BIPV applications (Ghosh 2020). Snow-
covering PV is best served by the hydrophobic (ice-phobic) self-cleaning coating, although anti-
soiling hydrophobic and hydrophilic coatings are also appropriate (Ghosh 2020). Also, BIPV systems
cost a lot to set up and install. Nevertheless, it presents a fantastic chance to install large-scale grid-
connected PV systems inexpensively because silicon prices have dropped dramatically by 90%
(Ghosh 2020). Grid-connected PV systems are widespread now, and smart grid power distribution
systems are establishing themselves. BIPV installation is simpler than non-integrated PV system
13
installations since it does not require extra building space or other assembly materials like brackets
and guide rails (Ghosh 2020; Liu et al. 2021; Baljit, Chan, and Sopian 2016). As a result, employing
an integrated BIPV design can lower a project's overall construction and material costs. One of the
PV industry's fastest-growing market categories is BIPV systems. After 2020, the BIPV market is
anticipated to expand at a 30% annual pace (Liu et al. 2021).
The amount of photovoltaic (PV) waste generated because of the exponential annual rise in PV
installations throughout the world is a significant problem. By 2050, it is anticipated that there will
be between 60 and 78 million tons of PV waste in circulation (Liu et al. 2021). This review will
examine and decide the most effective approaches to recycling obsolete modules. It will consider
some of the most recent advancements in recycling techniques at both an industrial and laboratory
scale, as well as existing design constraints, focusing on the largest recovery of module components.
Circular challenges, opportunities, models, and justifications are provided for careful examination of
closed-loop recycling in addition to different open-loop cascading possibilities. Adopting ideas from
the CE would increase recycling and recovery rates and help balance environmental factors like
pollution from manufacturing (Ghosh 2020). First-generation crystalline silicon (c-Si) modules have
dominated the market for the past 40 years with a market share of 80–90%, and they will account for
most of the forthcoming PV waste stream (Ghosh 2020). Layers of various materials, including glass,
metal, semiconductors, and polymers, are firmly bonded to form these PV modules. The quantity of
possible recycling is constrained by this design, and it is difficult to maintain and reuse these parts.
Here is a guide on grasping c-Si PV module manufacture and approaching the challenge of recycling
this massive and unavoidable waste stream.
4. Engineering Economic Management

To manage the total life cycle of BIPV and assist in achieving circular economy (CE), the approach
in the sustainable production and consumption must be revised. Considering that the new buildings
today will be a long-term investment for the future the design must be well thought out for all its
stakeholders. As discussed above, many ecological strategies are applicable for this. This section
details academic studies references of such applications in light of the topics evaluated.
Establishing CCS and CRI methods, as mentioned above will help in GHGE reduction and its effects
in climatic changes significantly, thus brining the overall LC of BIPV system towards a greener
technological production. Furthermore, combining a heat recovery unit in the system to take
advantage of wasted heat during electricity generation increases the efficiency and takes the
maximum use of the design. A study done on this, and its analysis of life cycle energy consumption
determines that the energy payback within their predicted life of at least 20 years. It also proves that
a combination of heat recovery unit with a BIPV system reduces the EPBT of a typical BIPV system
(Crawford et al. 2006). The design of this technique opens pathway into new zero waste engineering
solutions and energy management.
Using a renewable energy as an energy source has an overall reduction in GHGE in the usage stage
of the BIPV Life cycle. Additionally, according to a collaborative project between research
institutions and companies aiming to develop BIPV glass tiles for innovative architectural application,
a method similar to Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSCC) technology used grants for the maximum
optimization of solar radiation. TIFAIN tiles used in this project are assembled using an electrode as
a glass that allows to obtain personalized shapes. This provides an improvement to the cell’s
efficiency. This also requires fewer active materials as it is laid only in areas reached by solar radiation
(Tomasetta and Zucchella Anna Maria Ferrari 2017). This application can be used to replace the
window glasses of a building design without having a negative visual impact.
Production of photovoltaic eco-ceramic is also newer conception of the architectural domain that
permits easy installation of the PV modules. The schematic design of the module is shown in the
Figure 9. Since this design is based on Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) (CuIn₍₁₋x₎Ga₍ₓ₎Se₂)
14
based semiconductors) technology, it adds value to the final product as a sustainable and low-cost
method (Lyubenova et al. 2018).
As engineers, the approach to the CE is
to discover and develop sustainable
designs and engineering methods to
improve the reuse, repair,
remanufacture, and recycle production.
The above-described methods are
supported approaches by research, used
in the development of BIPV systems in
an effort in transiting it to CE.
Figure 9: Schematic layout of a developed PV ceramic tile
(Lyubenova et al. 2018)
5. Engineering ethics
5.1 Antagonistic Impacts of the Linear System on the Stakeholders
As the BIPV systems cover many areas, the
stakeholder amount is very high. Therefore,
they were categorized into three main parts,
which are primary, secondary, and third.
According to Figure 10, system operators,
bankers, BIPV installers, and architects are
the primary stakeholders because they
directly impact the business model applied to
the BIPV system (Macé et al. 2020). This
impact can be in various forms, such as the
installers in the construction sector can
directly influence the installation cost for
BIPV systems, and the bankers or the leasing
companies can directly influence financial
conditions.
Additionally, these primary stakeholders are Figure 10: Stakeholders Map (Macé et al. 2020)
frequently aware of clients' problems,
motives, and benefits when purchasing and installing the BIPV systems. Some stakeholders are not
directly dealing with the selling process, and others have alternative options for not to involve in the
selling process. However, they can offer any product or service relative to any combination of
building materials. The person responsible for creating a new business model must grasp the target
market's needs and understand the motivations of the other parties involved. The value associated
with the fresh business model may be low for some first-level stakeholders, while it may be great for
others. Irrespective of whether they offer products, services, or both, the companies that have BIPV
systems as part of their core business are undoubtedly the stakeholder with a major interest in creating
a new business model.
The secondary stakeholders are represented in conjunction with the most important stakeholders.
They are often stakeholders with the capacity to indirectly influence the BIPV system's business
model. For example, BIPV will be a niche product until there is a bigger push for solutions from the
customers, but they can continue to operate in a neighboring market sector (Macé et al. 2020). It is
crucial to incorporate each of these stakeholders to maximize the effectiveness of the business models
used with the BIPV systems and fully utilize them. The company that stands to gain the most
15
financially from creating a company model is usually the one that does it directly. This is often the
stakeholder whose company depends on the BIPV industry's success, such as BIPV producers and
specialized suppliers. The stakeholders with a moderate interest level typically only have a few BIPV
projects annually and view this as responsible for marketing. The stakeholders identified as having
low interests often have little contact with the BIPV industry and are not overly dependent on the
income generated by this line of work.
5.2 Think Globally, Act Locally
The phrase "think globally, act locally" has proven crucial to the fight against climate change. It
symbolizes the notion that engineers should integrate environmentally conscious solutions into
regular decisions and actions rather than waiting for significant breakthroughs to "repair the world"
(Mohammed and Osman 2015). Despite having a trivial effect when taken individually, these can
have a profoundly transforming influence. BIPV systems have been introduced to the industry by
discoverers as a solution for the energy demand because it is one of the most sustainable approaches
to producing energy. This will reduce the emission GHGs; hence global warming competencies not
just over the vicinity; it contributes to the build-up of the ozone layer (Improve atmospheric
conditions) (Jäger-Waldau et al. 2020). The solar radiation distribution & urbanization driven concoct
this development (BIPV instead PV panels). Hence, the regions like Australia, India, US, African
continent (countries adjacent to the equator) have high capabilities (Figure 11), thus responsible for
generating electricity utilizing this formula (THE WORLD BANK 2020). In order to promote BIPV
applications, the U.S. government started the "Ten Million Solar Roofs Program" in 2010 (Zhang,
Wang, and Yang 2018). The studies forecast about 28 GW development in PV based energy
production in Australia (IEA 2021). The duty of ethical engineers is to escalate the technology to
optimize productivity and replicate distribution & transmission networks to distribute the surplus to
required countries.
Figure 11: Solar Photovoltaic Power Potential by Country Figure 12: PV Installation Forecast (IEA 2021)
(THE WORLD BANK 2020)
Engineers must address the impacts associated with the derived BIPV technique to fill the gaps. Waste
management methods relating to the life cycle thinking need to be implemented to overcome
disposals because they indirectly affect climate actions (the e-waste metals accumulate in the air after
heat treatments). For example, a procedure to separate metals in removals needs to be investigated as
it is a vital phenomenon. A process to recycle & reuse Lithium-ion in PV storage system batteries has
to be considered seriously to tackle is issue to direct waste management hierarchy. Besides, CCS can
be identified as a moral finding to diminish the waste CO2 (zero waste technology) produced in the
manufacturing cycle of the BIPV into future usable materials. Australia's newly announced net zero
strategies for carbon neutrality by 2050 indicate a substantial dependence on clean energy
knowledges, including "ultra-low-cost" solar PV (IEA 2021). The role of engineers is to edit and
improve this facility to accommodate the coming times (Figure 11). The Forestation under limitations
16
also can be suggested to facilitate this problem. The above also leads to an answer for food production
as a concomitant. The above story demonstrates the importance of the above slogan to point out the
duty of engineers to address this linear system.
5.3 Mitigating the Future Repercussion of the Disparities of the Circular System as Engineers
In consideration of the issue given in the project itself, those issues can be mitigated with a proper
understanding and by possessing enough responsibilities as a professional engineer. Following
Engineers Australia, the chord of professional ethics should be able to demonstrate integrity, train
leadership, promote sustainability, and practice competently. In the case of demonstrating integrity
on BIPV system expansion, engineers must work in accordance with their conscience & morality to
smooth the procedure by values of honesty & gratitude (Code-1). Code numbers 2.1 & 2.2 guide the
engineers to address the glitches accompanied by the BIPV improvement by pointing out the practice
competencies. Hence, the duty of Engineers is to study the present factors to interpret & innovate new
answers for the future market of BIPV. Engineers are the leading responsible party to mitigate the
earlier discussed issues in the LC of BIPV to achieve CE. Thereby, leadership guidance is vital to
support, communicate and encourage others to work on motivative premises to get effective and
efficient outcomes, as elaborated in Code 3 of Engineering Ethics (Engineers Australia 2018). From
the social infrastructure perspective, professional engineers are responsible to deliver the massage of
BIPV to the stakeholders to compete with competitors in the industry.
Sustainability promotion (Code 4) is well considered in all the fields, such as stakeholders,
environment, and community (Engineers Australia 2018). So, in such a way, consideration of the
global challenges that will come across with the use of PV can be reduced with the supervision of a
professional engineer who passes the above responsibilities as well as in the case of practicing
competently, that one should possess enough knowledge and skills about the selected section. Then
it will lead to mitigating the problems with the proper understanding and being prepared for the issues
that will come across in the near future. The role of sustainable engineers is to manipulate Engineers
Australia Sustainability Policy delivery into the BIPV case study.
In the application of sustainability policy for those issues, one can get rid of all those concerns and
discover proper solutions too. In agreement with the sustainability policy, the use of resources should
not exceed the limits of regeneration, and non-renewable energy sources should create enduring asset
value and be limited to applications where substitution with renewable energy sources is not practical
(Engineers Australia 2014). As the engineering design is a whole system-based thing, it further leads
to understanding the whole process and mitigating the issue in such a way. Engineers suggest that
global challenges of using photovoltaics, such as potential induced degradation effect, micro crack,
electrical issues, inverter faults, delamination, and internal corrosion, can be prevented if it was
created under the supervision of a responsible engineer.
5.4 Other Accountable Factions of Achieving the Change
As a Profession Engineering/Professional engineer, the role is to take accountability and
responsibility for the good and negative choices. Demonstrating dependability and credibility.
Displaying flexibility and patience even in the face of unforeseen challenges (Nguyen 2021). The
skill of inspiring a group of people to perform flexible work for the greater good and by employing
renewable energy or cutting back on waste, many environmentally friendly firms aim to lessen their
environmental impact. Companies can become more sustainable by encouraging equality and
diversity in the workplace or by implementing community-oriented initiatives.
Many other parties are needed to ensure a project's sustainability other than the engineers. Some of
them are managers, employees, customers, and suppliers. A sustainability manager specifically works
to ensure that a company's sustainability objectives are not overlooked in the pursuit of expansion
17
and more revenue (Daren 2022). The company is more likely to prioritize sustainability projects when
one employee is focused solely on those objectives. Employing a sustainability manager gives
initiatives to advance sustainability structure and responsibility.
A company's attempts to take into account the effects of their products' trip through the supply chain,
from acquiring raw materials to manufacturing, storage, distribution, and every transportation
connection in between, are referred to as supply chain sustainability. The objective is to benefit the
people and communities in and around their operations while minimizing environmental harm from
elements, including energy consumption, water consumption, and waste creation. While conventional
supply chain management focuses on operations' speed, cost, and reliability, sustainable supply chain
management adds to the goals of upholding environmental and societal values. This involves solving
global problems, including corruption, fair labor practices, deforestation, water security, and climate
change. Companies worldwide attempt to cut waste, lower carbon emissions, and improve working
conditions. By examining sustainability indicators in supply chain management (SCM) of BIPV
systems, they watch various programs, such as those that prioritize recycling products and resources
or encourage greater social responsibility among suppliers (Luther 2021).
The consumer also has a role to play in the sustainability of a product. Businesses have a significant
impact on helping people develop sustainable behaviors that benefit billions of people. Because it can
be challenging to develop sustainable habits and make sustainable decisions, there is still a significant
gap between what consumers say they would like to do and what they actually do. Building
sustainable habits can be made simple, pleasurable, and economical by businesses that assist
customers in bridging the "say-to-do gap" (The World Economic Forum 2022)While influencing the
BIPV industry, these companies can have an impact. Some of the few efforts a company may take to
ensure consumers' sustainability habits are: Make it easy for consumers to make sustainable choices,
establish incentives to mold sustainable habits, and use existing customer data and expertise to take
actions.
Conclusion
Throughout this study, the utilization of renewable energy sources as a green and sustainable method
of engineering is evaluated, and it is clear that BIPV systems hold one of the greatest advantages with
great potential for more improvement. It can be concluded that, with the support of the government
and various organizations, increasing the attention given to the development of this engineering
expansion will provide many benefits for all its stakeholders, social, economic, and environmental,
as a whole.
18
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23
Appendix
Name of Task 1 Task 2 Task 3

Task 5
Task Concl Proof Refer
the Intro usion Reading
a b c d a b c a b e h 4 a b c d ence
Student
Thavindu
20538578
x x x x x x x x x x
Dulara
x x x x x x x x x
20589233
Dinuka
x x x x x x
20533447
Udula
x x x x
20533476
Dhanuka
x x x
20495741
Keran
x x
20463395
Table 2: Table of Contribution
24

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Curtin University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Date of Submission: 3rd October 2022

1. Impacts on Sustainability of BIPV

Figure 7: Life Cycle Stages of BIPV (Fthenakis et al. 2011)

In photovoltaic technology, various semiconductor materials are used in PV cell fabrication,

4. Engineering Economic Management

Name of Task 1 Task 2 Task 3

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