NOTES

C H E M I S T R Y

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
DISCOVERY OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

What you will learn

• Discharge tube • Discovery of neutron

• Discovery of electron • Thomson’s model
• Discovery of proton • Rutherford’s model

These discoveries spanned over a period of more than 70 year ( 1850 - 1920 ).
There were many great scientists who contributed to developing our understanding of the atom.

Planck’s SWE
Rutherford’s quantum theory
model

J.J. Thomson’s
model

Heisenberg’s
de Broglie’s uncertainity
hypothesis principle
Bohr’s
model

Fig. 1: Timeline of atomic models

BOARDS NEET
The Discovery of Electrons

• Electrons are the smallest sub-atomic particles and carry a negative charge.
• In 1891, George Johnstone Stoney named the fundamental unit of electricity as an electron.
• J.J. Thomson and his team identified an electron as a particle in 1897.
• The discovery of electrons started about 150 years ago with the invention of the discharge tube
by the English physicist William Crookes.
• This invention is also known by the names Crookes tube, Crookes discharge tube,
or Cathode-ray tube.

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 02

The Discharge-Tube Experiment

The discharge tube was made up of the following parts:

1. A cylindrical hard glass tube.
2. Two metallic electrodes (metal plates) fitted on both the ends of the glass tube.
3. A battery, which is a device wherein a chemical reaction results in the accumulation of negative
charge (electrons) on one end and a positive charge on the other. These positive and negative
ends are known as terminals and are connected to the two metallic plates via metal wires.
4. Connecting wires from the battery to the two metallic plates; the metallic plate connected to
the negative end of the battery becomes negatively charged and the metallic plate connected
to the positive end becomes positively charged.
5. An ammeter, which is a device used to detect the flow of an electric current through the circuit.
6. An outlet in the glass tube fitted with a valve, when the valve is open, there can be a transfer
of matter in and out of the tube. When the valve is closed, the tube is completely sealed off
and no further transfer of matter can occur.
7. A vacuum pump, which is used to remove the gases inside the glass tube.
Initially, the valve is opened, and the glass tube is connected to a vacuum pump via the outlet. The
vacuum pump then sucks the air out of the discharge tube. This leaves behind very little air inside
the glass tube (as it is practically not possible to create a total vacuum). Hence, the air inside the
glass tube is at a very low pressure.
Gas at very low pressure

Discharge tube

Cathode Anode

To vacuum
pump
Ammeter
High voltage
generator
Fig. 2: Experimental setup of the cathode-ray discharge tube
The battery is used to generate a very high potential difference across the metallic electrodes on
the two ends of the glass tube. This means that the metallic electrode connected to the positive
terminal becomes highly deprived of electrons and the electrode connected to the negative
terminal becomes highly rich in electrons. This difference of charge on the two electrodes results
in the generation of a powerful electric field between them. Under the influence of such a strong
electric field, the electrons are emitted from the gaseous atoms/molecules and get propelled to
the positively charged electrode (known as anode). Such an emission of electrons from gaseous
atoms/molecules is known as the discharge of electrons, hence the name, discharge tube.
When the electrons collide with the other end of the glass tube, there is a greenish glow. The glow
could be seen more clearly with the application of a ZnS (Zinc Sulfide) coated on the glass tube
behind the anode.
The glow was believed to be due to some rays. As these rays were coming from the cathode, they
were known as cathode rays.

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 03

The observations from the cathode-ray experiment were as follows:

• Reading of electric current was observed
• Anode end of the tube showed a greenish glow on the ZnS screen behind the anode

Effects of Pressure and Voltage

Why discharge tube is maintained at very Why discharge tube is maintained at very
low pressure: high voltage:

The pressure is basically related to the High voltage inside the cathode ray
number of gas molecules present inside the discharge tube is required to break down
glass tube. A higher number of gas molecules the medium (gas) of discharge tube.
present in the tube would obstruct the flow of Hence, generating positively charged
the electrons. Collisions of the electrons with gaseous ions and negatively charged
the gas molecules could cause the electrons cathode ray beam.
to lose energy or change the direction of Further, the high voltage across the
their flow. This would prevent them from electrodes helps the cathode ray to attain
reaching the anode and a proper glow would higher kinetic energy to overcome the
not be obtained which would hamper the gaseous molecules and ions obstructing
observations. their way and move towards the anode.

BOARDS NEET
Observations and Characteristics of Cathode Rays

1. Cathode rays move from cathode to anode.

When the electrons are discharged from the cathode and collide with the other end of the
glass tube, there is a greenish glow. The glow could be seen more clearly with the application
of a ZnS (Zinc Sulfide) coating on the glass tube behind the anode.
2. Cathode rays travel in a straight line with high velocity in the absence of external electric &
magnetic fields.
It was determined that cathode rays travel in a straight line as an obstruction in their path,
such as a metallic cross placed inside the glass tube, and formed a sharp shadow in the flow
on the other end. This is comparable to the formation of a shadow when an object is placed
in the path of light, which travel in straight line.
Metal cross (Anode)

- +
Cathode Shadow of the
metal cross

To vacuum
pump
Ammeter
High voltage
generator
Fig. 3: Experimental setup to show cathode rays travel in straight line

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3. Cathode rays are more efficiently observed with the help of a fluorescent or phosphorescent
material like ZnS.
Note: Fluorescent or phosphorescent materials are those that emit light when particles carrying
energy are incident upon them. Thus, they were used to observe and study various energetic
particles.
4. Cathode rays rotate the light-paddle wheel placed in their path.
The paddle wheel is made up of a light material such as a cork, and is free to rotate horizontally.
It has blades attached to it, facing perpendicularly to the cathode. Hence, the movement of
the paddle wheel means that it is being pushed due to the collision of some material with it
(similar to how a light-paddle wheel would rotate if one blows air on it).
Light paddle wheel

- +
Cathode Anode

To vacuum
pump
Ammeter
High voltage
generator
Fig. 4: Experimental setup to show particle nature of cathode ray
This led to the conclusion that the cathode rays contain material particles having both mass and
velocity. Their collision generates a mechanical force enough to impart momentum to an object.
5. Cathode rays are produced from the electric discharge at negative terminal and ionization
of gaseous medium.
Cathode rays are made up of high-velocity particles discharged from the cathode. When these
collide with the few gas molecules present in the glass tube, it causes the ionization of the
gaseous medium. In this process, they further pluck more negatively charged particles (electrons)
from the gas molecules along with positively charged ions, serving as another source of the rays.
6. Cathode rays are deflected in the presence of an external electric field.
When an external electric field was applied, by placing two electrodes perpendicular to the straight
line between the cathode and anode, it resulted in a change in the direction of flow of the cathode
rays. This was determined by a greenish glow that was observed on the side of the glass tube,
close to the positively charged plate that was placed for generating an external electric field.
This confirmed that the particles forming the cathode rays were negatively charged, as they
were attracted to the positively charged terminal.
Anode
-

Cathode

Ammeter
+
High voltage
generator
Fig. 5: Experimental setup for deflection of cathode ray in presence of external electric field

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7. Cathode rays are deflected in the presence of a magnetic field.

When an external magnetic field was applied across the glass tube by putting it between the
north pole and south pole of a magnet, it was observed that the green glow of the cathode rays
is deflected to one side of the glass tube. It should be noted that only the charged particles
(and not neutral particles) can be influenced by an external magnetic field. This would further
confirm that the cathode-ray particles have a negative charge on them.

Anode

Cathode
Ammeter
High voltage
generator
Fig. 6: Experimental setup to show the influence of magnetic field on cathode ray

Contribution by J.J. Thomson

Thomson calculated the ratio of the charge (denoted by e) on a single particle in the cathode rays to
its mass (denoted by m). This was done by applying electric and magnetic fields (of known strengths)
perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of the cathode rays, across the glass
tube. The angles by which the cathode rays deviated from their straight line path was measured.
Anode
+
Cathode

Ammeter -
High voltage
generator
Fig. 7: Experimental setup to determine the e/m ratio
Calculations based on these observations determined the value of the e/m ratio, where
e
= 1.758820 × 1011 C/ kg
m
(where C stands for Coulomb, which is the S.I. unit of charge)
It was speculated that such a high ratio could be produced if
a) The charge on the particles forming cathode rays was very high, or
b) The mass of the particles was very low
Later on, experiments by Millikan determined the charge on the electron (e), which was found to
be very low (-1.6 × 10-19 C). By dividing the value of e determined by Millikan by the e/m ratio found
by Thomson, the mass of a cathode-ray particle was calculated. The value of this mass was found
 
 −19
1.6 × 10 C 
to be very small  = 9.109 × 10 −31 kg  .
 1.758820 × 10 11 C 
 kg 
 

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Thus, the mass of a cathode-ray particle came out to be lower than the known mass of an atom by
degrees of around 10-3.
Until the time of Millikan’s experiment, the atom was believed to be the ‘smallest, indivisible particle’.
The discovery of a particle with less mass than that of an atom proved Dalton’s atomic theory to to
be incorrect.
Furthermore, the e/m ratio calculated by Thomson was found to be constant. It was independent of
the material used for the cathode and the nature of the gas inside the discharge tube. This meant
that the particles forming cathode rays were present in all elements and hence were fundamental
particles (electrons).

BOARDS NEET
Discovery of Anode Rays

The German physicist Eugene Goldstein reasoned that there would be positively charged particles
present during the cathode-ray experiment, as the material inside the discharge tube had initially
been electrically neutral. To prove the existence of positively charged particles, he suggested an
improvisation in the cathode-ray experiment itself.
Goldstein repeated the experiment by using a perforated cathode. It means that the metal plate
attached to the negative end of the glass tube had been drilled to create holes across it.
Anode -

Perforated cathode
+

Fig. 8: Experimental setup for anode ray detection

When the high-velocity cathode rays collided with the gas molecules in the tubes, they plucked
away electrons, generating positively charged gas ions in the process. These positive ions also
had the high velocity imparted to them due to the strong attraction from the negatively charged
electrode, i.e., the cathode. As the high-velocity positive ions moved towards the cathode, some
collided with the metal surface and some were able to pass through the holes present therein.
These positive ions then passed through the cathode to collide with the wall of the glass tube
behind them. This was observed in the form of a pinkish glow on the cathode end of the glass tube.
This pinkish glow was attributed to a stream of particles with a charge opposite to the cathode rays
(as they moved in the opposite direction). This stream of positively charged particles was known
as anode rays, analogous to the cathode rays. They were also sometimes known as canal rays, as
they would travel through the canals, that were the holes in the cathode.
The following were the observations of Goldstein’s experiment and the characteristics of the
anode rays.
1. The existence of positively charged particles was shown using anode rays.
2. Anode rays travel in straight lines in the absence of both external electric and magnetic fields.

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3. Anode rays are deflected from their straight-line course by the application of external electric
and magnetic fields. This meant that the anode rays too were electrically charged. Also, as
they were deflected away from the positive plate of the external electric field and towards its
negative plate, it was further confirmed that the anode rays were positively charged.
4. Properties of anode rays depend on the nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube. The
colour of the glow observed on the glass walls opposite to the anode could sometimes vary. The
e/m ratio of the anode rays also varied depending on the gas being used in the discharge tube.
This meant that unlike the cathode rays, the anode rays were not fundamental particles.

Discovery of the Proton

The e/m ratio of anode rays depended on the gas being used. As the value of e was the same for
all positively charged particles, the e/m would be the highest for the lightest gas (whose particles
would have the lowest value of m).
In 1919, Ernst Rutherford performed Goldstein’s experiments using the lightest known gas in the
universe—hydrogen. The anode-ray particles obtained from the same would be lightest among
all the anode-ray particles (although still heavier than the electrons). These particles were named
protons.

BOARDS NEET
Discovery of the Neutron

James Chadwick discovered neutrons in 1932. Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and have
the mass slightly greater than that of protons.
Mass of a neutron is 1.67 × 10-27 kg.

Experiment for the discovery of neutron

α particles Neutrons Protons

α particles Source

Detector and
counters for
protons
Beryllium Paraffin wax
Fig. 9: Experimental setup for discovery of neutron
First of all, let us understand alpha particles and radioactivity.
Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, also known as a helium nucleus (He2+).
Radioactive substances are those that emit particles (like α, β, γ) by the decay of nucleus. For
example, Uranium (Mass number 238) is a radioactive isotope.
The experiment contained a source of α particles. The alpha particles (helium nucleus, He2+) are
bombarded on a thin sheet of beryllium, from which the neutrons came, but since the neutrons are
not charged particles they are difficult to detect.
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However, when the neutrons collide with a paraffin wax sheet, the protons (H+) are emitted, which
are charged and hence, they could be detected using a detector and counter for protons.
The nuclear reaction that is happening is
2
4
He2+ + 49Be → 612C + 01n
Where,
2
4
He2+ is helium nucleus with atomic number (Z) 2 and mass number (A) 4 amu
4
9
Be is beryllium with atomic number (Z) 4 and mass number (A) 9 amu
6
12
C is carbon with atomic number (Z) 6 and mass number (A) 12 amu
1
0
n is neutron

BOARDS NEET
Atomic Models

With the discovery of electrons, protons, and neutrons, scientists were curious to know the atomic
picture. Several atomic models were proposed and considered to have a greater understanding.

Thomson’s Model of Atom (Plum Pudding Model)

J.J. Thomson proposed that an atom was a sphere of continuous positive charge, in which
negatively charged electrons were embedded in the most stable electrostatic arrangement.
He made an analogy with the watermelon and the plum pudding, in which the seeds and dried
raisins are embedded respectively. So, Thomson's model is also known as the plum pudding, the
watermelon, and the raisin pudding model.

Positively
charged matter

Electrons

Fig. 10: Thomson’s model of an atom

Postulates of Thomson’s model
• The mass and the positive charge is uniformly distributed within the atom. An atom has a
spherical shape with a radius of about 10-10 m.
• The negatively charged electrons are embedded in the uniformly distributed positive sphere.
• The atom was neutral due to a counterbalance of the positive and the negative charges.
• The stability of the atom was attributed to electrostatic-force balance between the opposite
charges.

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Drawbacks
• The model was not consistent with the results of the experiments that happened later on.
It was not able to explain the scattering experiment of Rutherford.
• The theory did not mention anything about the nucleus of an atom.
• It failed to explain how the positive charge holds on the electrons inside the atom.

NEET BOARDS
Rutherford’s Model of Atom (1911)

Experimental Setup

Rutherford and his two students performed the scattering experiment,

where a thin, gold foil (10 nm) was bombarded with a beam of alpha
particles (in the given Fig.10). The source of the alpha particles was
radium (a radioactive element), which was kept in a lead box with a slit to
allow a narrow beam of alpha particles bombarding on the gold foil. The
target (thin, gold foil) was surrounded by a circular screen coated with
fluorescent zinc sulphide (ZnS) material to detect the alpha particles that
produce a flash/fluorescence on striking the ZnS screen.

When an 𝞪–particle strikes the screen, a glow is produced at that point on the screen
(see the Fig.10).
ZnS glow
ZnS screen

Lead box

Gold foil
Source of
𝞪–particles

Fig. 11: Experimental setup of Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment

Observations and Conclusions

Observation Conclusion

Most of the alpha particles passed through the

Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
foil without any deflection.
Few alpha particles were deflected by Positive charge is not uniformly distributed
small angles. throughout the atom.
Positive charge is concentrated in an very
Very few alpha particles (1 in about 20,000)
small region of the atom. Positively charged
rebounded completely, i.e., deflected by 180°.
core was named nucleus.

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Gold atom

Alpha particles

Nucleus
Fig. 12: Schematic molecular view of gold foil

Key features of Rutherford’s model

• An atom consists of a small positively charged core at the centre that almost carries the entire
mass of the atom. It is like a football in a huge football stadium. The size of the marble is similar
to the size of the nucleus and the size of the stadium is similar to the size of the atom.

1 mm

m
0
10

Fig. 13: Comparison of a cricket stadium with an atom

• The nucleus is surrounded by electrons revolving in many circular paths known as orbits.

Orbit

Electron - + Nucleus
Felectrostatic

Fig. 14: Force of attraction between electron and nucleus

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Based on the representation of an atom

Alpha particles are represented by

a) Li+ b) He2+ c) He d) None of the above

Solution

A helium atom, after removing its electrons, is known as an alpha particle. Hence, an alpha particle
is represented as He2+. The correct answer is option b.

Based on cathode rays and anode rays

Select the incorrect statement.

a) Cathode rays have only charge and no mass.
b) Anode rays are deflected by electrical and magnetic fields.
c) Canal rays is a name for a beams of positive charged particles.
d) Anode rays do not originate from the anode.

Solution

Cathode rays have mass as they can make a peddle wheel rotate. Anode rays are deflected by
electrical and magnetic fields. Canal rays is another name for anode rays. Anode rays originate
from gas molecules. The correct answer is option a.

Find the mass of an atom

The mass to charge ratio (m/e) for a cation is 1.5 × 10-8 kg/C. What is the mass of this ion?
a) 2.4 × 10-19 g b) 2.4 × 10-24 g c) 2.4 × 10–27 g d) 2.4 × 10-30 g

Solution

e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
m
= 1.5 × 10 -8 kg /C
e
m = (1.6 × 10-19 C) . (1.5 × 10-18 kg/C)
m = 2.4 × 10-24 g
The correct answer is option b.

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Based on Rutherford’s scattering experiment

Imagine that in an atom, about 50% of the space is occupied by the atomic nucleus. If a silver foil
is bombarded with alpha particles, what would the majority of the alpha particles do?
a) Be scattered b) Be absorbed by the nucleus
c) Pass through the foil undeflected d) Get converted into photons

Solution

Positively charged nucleus will repel the positively charged alpha particles and hence, they cannot
be absorbed by the nucleus. So they will be scattered.
Correct answer is option a.

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