Chapter

Modern
12 Physics

REMEMBER
Before beginning this chapter you should be able to:
• Define atom and subatomic particles
• Revise discovery of sub-atomic particles—electrons,
protons and neutrons

KEY IDEAS
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
• Learn about atomic structure and various atomic models
related
• Study about discharge of electricity through gases by
different experiments, such as Millikan’s and Goldstein’s
experiment
• Understand about mass spectrometry and x-rays
• Learn about radioactivity and types of radiations
12.2 Chapter 12

INTRODUCTION
The developments made in a research directed towards understanding the chemical and
physical properties of the matter led the scientists in Europe, during the later half of the 19th
century and the early part of 20th century, to unravel the mysteries of the microcosmic world
of atom. One experiment led to the other and the conclusions drawn from one experiment
or a hypothesis proposed by one scientist would be proved wrong or validated by another
enthusiastic researcher. Several phenomena, which could not be explained on the basis of
Newtonian theories of classical physics could be explained with ease with the help of the
theories of modern physics. From medicine to space research, from agriculture to warfare,
humanity has benefited by these long strides made by Science and Technology.
Here, we shall study the initial developments made in the research of X-rays and radioactivity

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Scientist had recognized atom as the smallest particle of an element. The differences in the
physical and chemical properties of different elements were attributed to the differences in
the atoms of the respective elements. While exploring the structure of an atom, to understand
the differences in the properties of the various elements, Dalton, Rutherford, Bohr and
others had proposed atomic models for that purpose. The following conclusions may be
drawn from these models.
1. Every atom (except Hydrogen atom) is composed of three subatomic particles:
(a) negatively-charged electrons,
(b) positively-charged protons and
(c) neutrons having no net electric charge on it.
2. In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
3. The mass of an electron is approximately 1/1837 times the mass of a proton.
4. The mass of a proton is approximately equal to the mass of a neutron.
5. The mass of a subatomic particle is generally expressed in ‘unified atomic mass units’
(u), which is defined as 1/12th the mass of a C-12 atom.
6. The protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by a nuclear force.
7. The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in a nucleus.
8. The mass number (A) refers to the total number of nucleons—number of neutrons
and protons together.
9. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits having well defined
energies.
10. When an electron moves from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, i.e., moves
closer to the nucleus, the difference in the energy levels is emitted as radiation.
11. When an electron moves to an energy level farther from the nucleus, i.e., it moves from
a lower energy level to a higher energy level, the difference in energy is absorbed.
12. Isotopes are those elements whose atoms have the same atomic number but different
mass number, e.g., Hydrogen (1H1) and Deuterium (1H2).
 Modern Physics 12.3

13. The charge to mass ratio of an electron (e/m ratio) is 1.76 × 1011 C kg–1.
14. The magnitude of charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10−19 C.
15. The mass of an electron is nearly 9.1 × 10-31 kg.
Let us review some of the experiments conducted by Sir J.J. Thomson (1856−1940),
Goldstein (1886) and Robert E. Millikan (1868−1953) which helped in drawing some of the
above mentioned conclusions.

DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES

All gases are bad conductors of electricity at room temperature and at normal pressure. The
same can be said about air which is a mixture of different gases. However, gases become
conductors when high potential difference is applied at low pressures. An electric discharge
tube is a device that is used to study the flow of charges through gases. It consists of a glass
tube with two electrodes fused into it, as shown in the Fig. 12.1.
The discharge tube is filled with a gas through which flow of charges is to be studied and
a high voltage is applied between the electrodes. If the pressure of the gas inside the tube is
at normal atmospheric pressure, no current flows.
On reducing the pressure to about 10 mm of Hg, a luminous discharge with crackling
sound is observed between the two electrodes. On further reduction of the pressure, the
entire space between the electrodes is filled with a nearly uniform luminous glow. The
colour of the glow depends on the gas present in the tube. When the tube is filled with air,
magenta–red glow is observed.

Pressure
gauge Vacuum valve

A C

High voltage mA

F I G U R E 1 2 . 1 An Electric Discharge Tube

On further evacuation of the gas from the tube, at about 4 mm of Hg, the milliammeter
shows deflection indicating conduction of electricity by gases at low pressure. Though no
visible light is seen at this pressure, slight luminous effects are observed at the electrodes. The
glow is interrupted with ‘Faraday’s dark space’. This is called dark discharge.

At a pressure of about 1 mm of Hg, a faint pink glow called ‘cathode glow’ is observed at
the cathode and ‘Crookes dark space’ is observed between the cathode glow and the cathode.
Alternate bright and dark patches are seen. These patches are perpendicular to the length of
the tube and are referred to as striations.
12.4 Chapter 12

At around 0.01 mm of Hg, fluorescence of the tube is observed in the form of greenish
yellow light in the region behind the cathode. The fluorescence is caused by the rays emitted
from the cathode, and hence, called cathode rays. Simultaneously, rays called anode rays are
emitted from the anode travelling in the opposite direction and can be seen if the cathode
is perforated as in Goldstein’s experiment. At 0.01 mm of Hg, the whole tube is filled with
Crookes dark space and at a very low pressure of 0.001 mm of Hg, the discharge stops
completely.

Pressure in
S.No. Observations
discharge tube
1. ≥ 12 mm of Hg No current flows through the
gas.
A C

2. 4 mm of Hg An illumination is observed at Cathode glow Anode glow

the electrodes and the rest of the
tube appears dark, called dark dark discharge
A C
discharge or Faraday’s dark space

3. 1 mm of Hg The whole space between the

electrodes is filled with luminous
column. This is called ‘negative
glow’. At the same time, the Faraday’s
positive column shrinks towards dark space
the anode. Crookes dark space
is also observed between the
cathode and the cathode glow.
4. 0.1 mm of Hg The positive column breaks into Striations –veglow
striations.

5. 0.01 mm of Hg The walls of the tube begin to

show fluorescence. The whole Crookes dark space
tube is filled with Crookes dark
space

To study the deflecting property of the cathode rays, J.J. Thomson constructed a modified
discharge tube as shown in the Fig. 12.2.
The cathode rays were observed to deflect towards the positive plate while passing through
an electric field. By measurement of the deflection and knowing the strength of the electric
field, Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio of the cathode rays (e/m = 1.76 × 10+11
C kg–1). These observations led to the discovery of the electron.
 Modern Physics 12.5

Cathode rays
[with P1 positive and P2 negative]
+
P1
A D
+
– C +
–

P2
To vacuum
Cathode Rays [no field between P1 and P2]

F I G U R E 1 2 . 2 AFig.
Modified
(2) Discharge Tube

The modern television picture tube, glow signs, domestic fluorescent tube lights, cathode
ray oscilloscopes are all modified discharge tubes.

MILLIKAN’S EXPERIMENT
Robert Millikan, American Scientist in his experiment allowed atomized oil droplets to fall
through a vertical electric field. Due to atomization, the oil droplets picked up charge and by
measuring the velocity of the droplets as they passed through the electric field, he calculated
the charge on each droplet. From this, he discovered that the charge on a droplet was always
an integral multiple of 1.6 × 10–19C. Combining this value with the e/m ratio determined by
Thomson, the mass of the cathode ray particle (electron) was calculated.

e 1.6 × 10−19
m= = = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
e 1.76 × 1011
m

GOLDSTEIN’S EXPERIMENT
Goldestein’s modified discharge tube had two chambers separated by a perforated cathode. He
observed that on application of high potential difference between the anode and the cathode,
the cathode ray discharge was accompanied by a simultaneous discharge in the chamber
behind the cathode. These rays called ‘canal rays’ were noticed by the glow produced by them
in the chamber.

Canal rays

+ Perforated cathode (–)

Anode (+)
To vacuum system

F I G U R E 1 2 . 3 Goldstein’s experiment

Wilhelm Wien, further modified the double chamber of Goldstein, by making a single
hole in the centre of the cathode and providing an electric field perpendicular to the axis of
the second chamber. He observed that application of electric field (about 2 kV) produced
deflection of the rays, and used Thomson’s method to determine the charge to mass ratio of
the ‘canal rays’.
12.6 Chapter 12

MASS SPECTROMETRY
J.J. Thomson went one step ahead by applying simultaneous magnetic and electric fields
parallel to each other, and observed arc shaped images on a photographic plate. While the
variations in the electric field produced vertical deflections, variations in the magnetic field
produced lateral deflections. (Fig. 12.4)
Magnet

Positive Plate
Photographic Plate
Ion Beam
Electric Field Y

Negative
Plate

Magnetic Field
X
Magnet
Z
Image of Ions Image of Ions
of mass m1 of mass m 2

FIGURE 12.4

This has formed the basis of mass spectrometry, a method used to identify different atomic
and molecular content in vapours and to determine the composition of materials.
X-RAYS
While conducting experiments with the discharge tube, Wilhelm K. RÖentgen discovered
that some unknown radiations were emitted from those parts of the discharge tube struck by
the cathode rays, when the applied voltage is high. Sometimes referred to as Roentgen rays,
these radiations were commonly called X-rays, meaning unknown radiations.
The gas chamber used for producing X-rays was constructed by Coolidge. A filament ‘F’
connected to a low voltage supply acts as a cathode. The anode is connected to the target ‘T’.
Generally heavy metals like molybdenum, lead, etc., are used as target. Electric and magnetic
fields at the plates P and Q control the acceleration of the cathode rays from the filament.
High speed cathode rays emitted by the filament strike the target and emit X-rays. The
intensity of the X-rays is controlled by the filament voltage and the voltage applied across the
electrodes determines the energy of the X-rays produced.
B
P

T
cathoderays
A +
F

L.T
X-rays
F I G U R E 1 2 . 5 Coolidge tube
 Modern Physics 12.7

X-rays are now widely used in medical field for not only scanning the internal organs,
but also in treatment of cancer. However, they have harmful side effects. X-rays are
electromagnetic radiations and the range of their wavelength is 0.1 Å to 100 Å. Like all other
electromagnetic radiations, they also travel in straight line with a speed of 3 × 108 m s–1.
Unlike cathode rays or canal rays, X-rays are not affected by electric or magnetic fields
indicating that they are not charged particles. They can penetrate through matter which is
normally opaque to visible light. This property is useful not only in X-ray photography of
internal organs but also in scanning luggage for security reasons at places like airports, Metro
Stations, etc.
Their ability to penetrate matter is used in X-ray diffraction to study molecular and crystal
structures of substances, detecting defects in castings, etc.

RADIOACTIVITY
Certain substances like salts of uranium, emit visible light when irradiated by ultra-violet
rays, and continue emission of visible light even after the exposure to UV rays is stopped.
While investigating the connection between this phenomenon called phosphorescence and
the X-rays, Henri Becquerel discovered that the uranium salts affect photographic plates
irrespective of whether they were exposed to sunlight (UV rays) or not. This prompted him
to conclude that the uranium salts continuously emitted some special rays which he called
‘weak X-rays’. They were also initially referred to as ‘Becquerel rays’.
It was subsequently found that thorium also exhibited similar property. Madam Mary
Curie and Pierre Curie discovered that a substance which they later named as Polonium,
isolated from the mineral pitchblende is 400 times stronger than uranium in emitting the
‘Becquerel rays’. They were also able to isolate radium which was found to be 900 times
stronger than uranium, when in small concentrations, and a million times more powerful
when in pure form.
It was found that several other substances with atomic number greater than that of lead
were emitting such radiations. This process in which the unstable nuclei of certain elements
have the property of self-disintegration and spontaneous emission of radiations is called
‘radioactivity’. Further research on these radiations revealed that this spontaneous emission of
radiations is independent of the chemical and physical state of the element, and the radioactive
property could be observed even when those substances were detonated with explosives.

a, b, g RADIATIONS
Analysis of the ionizing rays (radiations) emitted by the radioactive substances revealed that
these radiations consisted of primarily three types of rays—α rays, β rays and γ rays.
radioactive substance

× × × × × ×
× × × × × ×
× × × × × × α
× × × × × × γ
× × × × × ×
× × × × × ×
× × × × × × β
× × × × × ×

Lead
with a fine Magnetic field
FIGURE 12.6
12.8 Chapter 12

E γ
α

α γ β
– +
X X X X X X
β
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X
Radioactive
material
Block of lead

F I G U R E 1 2 . 7 Deflection in Magnetic field F I G U R E 1 2 . 8 Deflection in Electric field

Properties of a, b, g-rays

1. a-rays (alpha rays)

(a) Ionized helium atoms.
(b) Positively-charged particles.
(c) Deflect towards the negative plate when passing through an applied electric field.
(d) Deflect in magnetic field, in accordance with Fleming’s left-hand rule.
2. b-rays (Beta rays)
(a) Highly-energized electrons.
(b) Negatively-charged particles.
(c) Deflect towards the positive plate when passing through an electric field.
(d) Deflect in magnetic field, in accordance with Fleming’s left-hand rule.
3. g-rays (gamma rays)
(a) High energy electromagnetic radiation.
(b) Electrically neutral.
(c) Emerges undeflected when passing through electric or magnetic fields.