DIMEN-

NOTE
TIONS C H E M I S T R Y
OF
HEAD-
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ER THE FINAL CONCLUSION TO THE
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

What you already know What you will learn

• Aufbau principle • Quantum mechanical model

• Pauli’s exclusion principle • Schrödinger’s wave equation
• Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity • Nodes
• Electronic configuration • Probability curves

NEET BOARDS
Quantum Mechanical Model

Quantum mechanics is developed by Werner Nucleus

Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger. This model is Nucleus
-
based on the dual nature of matter. In Bohr’s model,
the electron was assumed to be revolving around the
+ +
nucleus in stationary orbit, whereas in the quantum
mechanical model of the atom, the electron is assumed
as a wave that is propagating in the region around the
nucleus. Electrons are present as clouds around the Bohr’s Model Quantum mechanical
nucleus, which is known as electron clouds. The region of atom model of the atom
in space where the probability of finding an electron is
maximum is known as orbital (more than 95%). Fig. 1: Bohr’s model and quantum
mechanical model
In order to specify the size, energy, shape and orientation of the orbitals, quantum numbers are
required. The four quantum numbers are given as follows:
• Principal quantum number (n)
• Azimuthal quantum number (l)
• Magnetic quantum number (ml )
• Spin quantum number (s)

NEET BOARDS
Schrödinger’s Wave Equation

Schrödinger’s wave equation is associated with the dual nature of the matter. This equation
describes the behaviour of electrons around the nucleus. In this equation, Schrödinger assumed
the electrons as three dimensional standing waves (a standing wave is a wave that oscillates in
time but the position of nodes do not change with time) in the atom and these waves are described
by mathematical function, which is known as wave function.

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Wave function (𝚿)

 chrödinger’s wave equation is solved to get the values of 𝚿 and their corresponding energies.
• S
𝚿 contains all the information of an electron in an atom.
 ave function (𝚿) corresponds to the atomic orbital. The solution of Schrödinger’s wave
• W
equation represents quantum numbers: principal quantum number (n), azimuthal quantum
number(l), and magnetic quantum number (ml). These quantum numbers are the unique
identification number of an electron. The spin quantum number (s) was not derived by the
solution of the Schrödinger’s wave equation, it was additionally added to describe the electron.

On solving equation, we get Quantam numbers

n l ml s

Physical significance of wave 𝚿 and 𝚿2

 ave function (𝚿) is the function of the coordinates (Polar or Cartesian). There is no physical
• W
significance of 𝚿 because 𝚿 consists of imaginary terms.
• P
 robability of finding an electron at a point or in small volume within an atom is proportional
to 𝚿2 at that point.

Important Features of Quantum Mechanical Model

• In Bohr’s atomic model, stationary orbit was considered, whereas in the quantum mechanical
model, when Schrödinger’s wave equation was solved considering the wave-like nature of
electrons, the energy of electrons was found to be quantised, i.e., integral multiples of a fixed
value of energy.
 he concept of orbit was replaced by the concept of the orbitals, by finding the probability of
• T
an electron.
• All the information of electrons around the nucleus is stored in wave function ( 𝚿).

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NEET BOARDS
Nodes

The region where the probability density is zero,

i.e., where the probability of finding an electron is Nodes
zero are known as nodes.
At any node, the value of wavefunction (𝚿) and the
probability of finding the electron, i.e., 𝚿2 , is zero.
Angular
Mathematically we can say it as follows: Radial
nodes (Nodal
ψ =0 Node
planes)
ψ 2 =0

NEET BOARDS
Radial Node

At a particular distance from the nucleus, a spherical region around the nucleus where the
probability of finding electrons is zero is known as radial node or spherical node.
Number of radial nodes in an orbital = n - l - 1
where,
n is the principal quantum number and l is the azimuthal quantum number.
For example,
For 1s orbital, principal For 2s orbital, principal For 2p orbital, principal
quantum number (n) = 1 and quantum number (n) = 2 and quantum number (n) = 2 and
azimuthal quantum number azimuthal quantum number azimuthal quantum number
(l) = 0 (l) = 0 (l) = 1
Number of radial nodes in 1s Number of radial nodes in 2s Number of radial nodes in 2p
orbital = 1 - 0 - 1 = 0 orbital = 2 - 0 - 1 = 1 orbital = 2 - 1 - 1 = 0
That means no radial node is That means one radial node That means no radial node is
present in 1s orbital. is present in 2s orbital. present in 2p orbital.

NEET BOARDS
Angular Node

It is a plane or a surface passing through the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron
is zero. It may be in the shape of a plane or cone.
Hence,
Angular node = Nodal plane or Nodal cone
Number of angular nodes in any orbital = I; Where, l is the azimuthal quantum number.

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Orbital Azimuthal quantum number (l) Number of angular nodes

s 0 0

p 1 1

d 2 2

f 3 3

Table 1 : Number of angular nodes in different orbitals

NEET
Total Number of Nodes

In the fig. 2, a radial and an angular node has been shown. Angular
node
At the centre, the nucleus is represented, and as the
distance from the nucleus increases, the dark-coloured
region starts where the electron density is very high.
The dotted sphere shown in the figure is known as the
radial node, where the probability of finding an electron
is zero, whereas the light-coloured regions are the region
where the probability of finding an electron is very low.
While solving Schrödinger’s wave equation, an electron Radial
is considered as a wave and not as a particle. So, the node
Dark coloured regions show
representation of a node can be possible. As there are
increased electron density
some points of the wave function that remain in a mean
position (do not move from their original position), these Lighter coloured regions show
decreased electron density
points are known as the node. The orbital shown is the
p-orbital that contains one radial node and one angular Fig. 2: Radial node and angular node
node which is shown by the plane passing through the
nucleus.
Formula of radial node = n - l - 1
Radial node present = 1
Azimuthal quantum number (l) for p-orbital = 1
n-1-1=1
n=3
The orbital shown is 3p orbital.

Total number of nodes = Radial node + Angular node

Total number of nodes = (n - l - 1) + (l)
= (n - l - 1 + l)
= (n - 1)
Hence, total nodes present in the orbital = n - 1

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Nodes of s-orbital

Nodes
Node

1s
In the fig. 3, three s-orbitals are represented. The nodes in these s-orbitals can be discussed as
follows:
Number of radial nodes for an
orbital = n - l - 1
For 1s orbital, principal
quantum number n = 1 and
azimuthal quantum number
l=0
Number of radial node for 1s
orbital = 1 - 0 - 1 = 0
2s
Fig. 3: Nodes of s-orbitals
Number of radial nodes for an
orbital = n - l - 1
For 2s orbital, principal
quantum number n = 2 and
azimuthal quantum number
l=0
Number of radial node for 2s
orbital = 2 - 0 - 1 = 1
3s
Number of radial nodes for an
orbital = n - l - 1
For 3s orbital, principal
quantum number n = 3 and
azimuthal quantum number
l=0
Number of radial node for 3s
orbital = 3 - 0 - 1 = 2

So, 1s orbital does not have any type of node. 2s orbital contains one spherical node as represented
by the uncoloured region as shown in the fig. 3. 3s orbital contains two spherical nodes as two
uncoloured spherical regions as presented in the fig. 3.

Notes

s orbitals do not have any angular nodes.

Nodes of p-orbital

Angular node

Radial node

2p 3p
Fig. 4: Nodes of 2p and 3p
Radial nodes

The radial node of 2p and 3p can be calculated as :

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Number of radial node for an orbital = n - l - 1
For 2p orbital, principal quantum number
n = 2 and azimuthal quantum number l = 1
Number of radial node for 2p orbital = 2 - 1 - 1 = 0
Angular nodes or nodal plane
Number of radial node for an orbital = n - l - 1
For 3p orbital, principal quantum number n =
3 and azimuthal quantum number l = 1
Number of radial node for 3p orbital =
3 -1 -1 =1

The plane passing through the nucleus where the electron density is zero is known as nodal plane.
Number of angular nodes in an orbital = l
For p orbitals, l = 1
So the number of angular nodes p orbital = 1.
z z z
yz-plane
y xz-plane y y

xy-plane x x x

px py pz
Fig. 5: Nodal plane in p-orbitals
 irst orbital is the px orbital, where the maximum electron density is along the x-axis, whereas
• F
the electron density perpendicular to this axis is zero. So, the nodal plane for the px orbital is
the yz-plane.
 econd orbital is the py orbital, where the maximum electron density is along the y-axis,
• S
whereas the electron density perpendicular to this axis is zero. So, the nodal plane for the py
orbital is in the xz-plane.
• Third orbital is the pz orbital, where the maximum electron density is along the z-axis, whereas
the electron density perpendicular to this axis is zero. So, the nodal plane for the pz orbital is
in the xy-plane.
3pz orbital
z
2pz orbital
z
Radial node
xy nodal plane xy nodal plane
(Angular node) (Angular node)

Fig. 6: Radial and angular nodes for 2pz and 3pz orbitals

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Nodes of d-orbital

Radial nodes

The radial node of 3d and 4d can be calculated as:

Number of radial node for an orbital = n - l - 1 Number of radial node for an orbital = n - l - 1
For 3d orbital, principal quantum number n = 3 For 4d orbital, principal quantum number n = 4
and azimuthal quantum number l = 2 and azimuthal quantum number l = 2
Number of radial node for 3d orbital = 3 - 2 - 1 = 0 Number of radial node for 4d orbital = 4 - 2 - 1 = 1

Angular nodes or nodal planes

Number of angular nodes in an orbital = l

For d orbitals, l = 2
So number of angular nodes in case of d orbitals = 2
The shape of d-orbitals are double dumbbells. Except for the dz2 orbital, all the electron density of
d-orbital is either in between the axes or along the axes. The electron density in dz2 orbital is along
the z-axis and a ring is found around the z-axis in a perpendicular plane i.e. xy plane.
• In dzx orbital, the electron density is in between the z and x-axis. There are two perpendicular
planes (xy and yz) passing through the nucleus where the electron density is zero. Those
perpendicular planes are known as the nodal planes of the dzx orbital.
• In dyz orbital, the electron density is in between the y and z-axis and two perpendicular
planes (xz and xy) are passing through the nucleus where the electron density is zero.
Those perpendicular planes are known as the nodal planes of the dyz orbital. Similarly, dxy
orbital has two perpendicular planes (xz and yz) passing through the nucleus where the
electron density is zero. Those perpendicular planes are known as the nodal planes of the
dxy orbital.
z z z
yz-plane yz-plane
y y y
xy-plane xy-plane
x x x
xz-plane xz-plane

dxy dyz dzx

Fig. 7: Nodal planes in non-axial d-orbitals

z z
• In d(x2 - y2) orbital, the electron density lies along the
x and y-axis. The orbitals have two nodal planes y y
in mutually perpendicular planes in between the
axes where the electron density is zero.
x x
• d z2 orbital consists of two lobes along the z-axis
and a ring in the xy plane. dz2 does not have any
type of nodal planes. It has two nodal cones. d x 2 - y2 dz2
Fig. 8: Nodal planes in axial d-orbitals

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Finding the orbital having same number of nodes

Which of the following orbitals have the same number of radial and angular nodes?
(a) 4p (b) 3p (c) 5d (d) 6f

Solution

For being same angular and radial node of an orbital,

Angular node = Radial node
l = (n - l - 1) 2l=n-1
l+l=n-1 n=2l+1
For an equal number of radial and angular nodes, 2l + 1 should be equal to the principal quantum
number
Principal Azimuthal
Option Orbital quantum number (n) quantum number (l) (2l + 1)

(a) 4p 4 1 (2 × 1 + 1) = 3

(b) 3p 3 1 (2 × 1 + 1) = 3

(c) 5d 5 2 (2 × 2 + 1) = 5

(d) 6f 6 3 (2 × 3 + 1) = 7

From the given table, 3p and 5d orbital has the same value of n and (2l + 1).
Hence, option (b) and (c) are the correct answers.

Finding the correct pair regarding the property

Choose the correct pair regarding the properties given in the brackets.
(a) 4d > 5s (Angular node) (b) 4s = 4p (Energy in hydrogen atom)
(c) 3d > 4s (Radial node) (d) 4s > 3s (Radial node)

Solution

Angular node is dependent on the azimuthal quantum number (l). For d-orbital, l = 2
(a) 
and for s-orbital, l = 0. So, the angular node in d-orbital is greater than that of s-orbital.
Therefore, option (a) is the correct answer.
(b) For a single electron species, the subshell with the same principal quantum number (n) will have
equal energy. So, option (b) is the correct answer.

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(c) Radial node for 3d orbital Radial node for 4s orbital

Principal quantum number (n) = 3 Principal quantum number (n) = 4
Azimuthal quantum number (l) = 2 Azimuthal quantum number (l) = 0
Radial node = n - l - 1 Radial node = n - l - 1
=3-2-1 =4-0-1
=0 =3
The radial node in 4s orbital is greater than that of the radial node 3d orbital.
Option (c) is not the correct answer.
(d) Radial node for 4s orbital Radial node for 3s orbital
Principal quantum number (n) = 4 Principal quantum number (n) = 3
Azimuthal quantum number (l) = 0 Azimuthal quantum number (l) = 0
Radial node = n - l - 1 Radial node = n - l - 1
=4-0-1 =3-0-1
=3 =2
The radial node in 4s orbital is greater than that of the radial node in 3s orbital.
Option (d) is the correct answer.
Hence, the options (a), (b) and (d) are the correct answers.

NEET BOARDS
Probability Curves

Probability Curves

𝚿R vs r curve 𝚿R2 vs r curve

Wave Function (𝚿)

Density of electron clouds is spherical. The probability density of electrons is maximum at the
nucleus and decreases as the distance from the nucleus increases.
Number of radial nodes in 1s orbital
1s orbital Radial node = n - l - 1
The value of n = 1 and l = 0 =1-0-1=0
This means the graph of 𝚿R vs r and 𝚿R2 vs r, will never cut r axis.

In the fig. 8, the graph of 𝚿R vs r and 𝚿R2 vs r has been shown. The value of 𝚿R and 𝚿R2 is maximum
when the distance between the nucleus and electron is tending to zero and as the distance
increases, the value of 𝚿R and 𝚿R2 decreases. Due to the absence of radial nodes, the curve will
not attain zero value.

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 10

𝚿R 𝚿R2

r r
Fig. 9: Radial probability of 1s
Number of radial nodes in 2s orbital
For 2s orbital, the value of n = 2 and l = 0
Radial node = n - l - 1
=2-0-1=1
This means the graph of 𝚿R vs r and 𝚿R2 vs r, will cut r axis only at one point.

𝚿R Node
𝚿R2

r r
Fig. 10: Radial probability curve for 2s
The distance from the origin where the graph cuts/touch the x-axis, i.e., the values of 𝚿R and 𝚿R2
are zero, is the distance from nucleus where node is present. In the above graph of 𝚿R vs r and
𝚿R2 vs r, there is one such point where the graph cuts/touch the x-axis. So, 2s orbital has one radial
node. In 𝚿R2 vs r graph, the graph will not attain negative value because the square of any term is
always a positive quantity. While going from 𝚿R to 𝚿R2 , the position of the node does not change,
i.e., the value of both the graphs will be zero at the same value of r.
Similarly, 3s orbital will contain two radial nodes (two points of intersection between x-axis and
curve) and 4s orbital will contain three radial nodes (three points of intersection between r-axis
and curve).

p-orbital

p-orbitals are dumbbell-shaped and consist of two lobes. p-orbitals lie along the axis. There are
three p-orbitals: px, py and pz, which are oriented towards the x, y and z-axis, respectively.
The number of radial nodes in 2p orbital can be calculated as follows:
For 2p orbital,
n = 2 and l = 1 𝚿R 𝚿R2
Radial node = n - l - 1
=2-1-1=0 r r
In the fig. 11, the radial probability curve for 2p orbital
has been shown. In graph of 𝚿R vs r and 𝚿R2 vs r,
the values of 𝚿R and 𝚿R2 are zero at nucleus. As the
distance increases from the nucleus, there exists a
point where the values of 𝚿R and 𝚿R2 are maximum.
This distance from the nucleus has the maximum
values of 𝚿R and 𝚿R2 , and is known as the maximum Fig. 11: Radial probability curve for 2p

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 11

probable distance. The curve corresponding to the wave function of 2p orbital does not intersect
the x-axis at any point. So, no radial node is found in 2p orbital.
3pz orbital
z
2pz orbital
z
Radial node
xy nodal plane xy nodal plane
(Angular node) (Angular node)

Fig. 12: Radial probability curve for 2pz and 3pz

In the fig. 12, a 2p orbital is shown, which has 1 nodal plane passing through the nucleus. It does not
have any radial node, whereas in 3p orbital, one radial node and one nodal plane is shown.

Finding the number of quantum numbers

Find the number of quantum numbers obtained on solving the Schrödinger equation.
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 1

Solution

Three quantum numbers: principal quantum number(n), azimuthal quantum number(l) and magnetic
quantum number (ml) have been found from the solution of Schrödinger’s equation.
Spin quantum number was not found by the solution of Schrödinger’s equation.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

Finding the number of total nodes

Which of the following has the maximum number of total nodes?

(a) 5s (b) 5p (c) 5d (d) All have the same number of nodes

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Solution

We know, total number of nodes in any orbital is given by = n - 1

(a) For 5s, the value of n = 5. So, total number of nodes = 5 - 1 = 4
(b) For 5p, the value of n = 5. So, total number of nodes = 5 - 1 = 4
(c) For 5d, the value of n = 5. So, total number of nodes is = 5 - 1 = 4
So, all the options have the same number of total nodes.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

Finding the nodal plane

3py orbital has ______ nodal plane.

(a) XY (b) YZ (c) ZX (d) All of these

z
Solution

py orbital can be shown as follows: y

From the given figure, it can be seen that the py orbital has a nodal x
plane perpendicular to the y-axis, i.e., zx-plane.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
py

Finding the correct statement regarding the orbital

Consider the following statements:

(a) Electron density in the xy-plane in 3py orbital is zero.
(b) Electron density in the xz-plane in 3px orbital is zero.
(c) 2s orbital has zero nodal plane.
(d) For 2pz orbital, xy is the nodal plane.

Which of these is/are incorrect statement(s)?

(a) a and c (b) b and c (c) Only b (d) a and b

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Solution z

(a) We know, the electron density is zero corresponding to the nodal y

plane. For the py orbital, the nodal plane is perpendicular to the
y-axis, that is, zx and not xy.
x
Hence, this statement is not correct.

py

(b) We know, the electron density is zero corresponding to the nodal y

plane. For the px orbital, the nodal plane is perpendicular to the
x-axis, that is, yz and not xz.
x
Hence, this statement is not correct.

px

(c) Nodal plane (Angular node) = l (Azimuthal quantum number)

For s-orbital, l = 0 z
Hence, 2s orbital have no nodal plane present in it.
Hence, this statement is correct. y
(d) We know, the electron density is zero at the nodal plane. The
perpendicular plane to the pz orbital is xy-plane. So, xy is the nodal x
plane.
Hence, this statement is correct.
pz
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

Finding the correct graph of 𝚿2 vs r for 2s orbital

The probability density curve for 2s electron appears as follows:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

𝚿2 𝚿2 𝚿2 𝚿2

r r r r

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Solution

All the graphs between 𝚿R2 and 𝚿R for s-orbital start from a fixed value of 𝚿R2 and 𝚿R Also, 2s
orbital consists of one radial node (2- 0 -1 = 1).
 he graph of 𝚿R2 vs r is starting from infinite but it is not touching the r-axis. So, this representation
(a) T
of 𝚿R2 vs r is not correct because it depicts no radial node, whereas 2s has one radial node.
 he value of 𝚿R2 is always positive. The curve will not attain the negative value. Hence, this
(b) T
option is not correct.
 he graph of 𝚿R2 vs r for 2s orbital always starts from a fix value of 𝚿R2 and not from zero .So,
(c) T
this option is not correct.
 he graph of 𝚿R2 vs r is starting from a fix value of 𝚿R2 and the curve is touching the r-axis. Also,
(d) T
the value of 𝚿R2 is positive for all the values of r and it also depicts one radial node. So, this
representation of 𝚿R2 vs r is correct.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

Finding the orbital having 2 spherical node

Which of the following orbitals has two spherical nodes?

(a) 2s (b) 4s (c) 3d (d) 6f

Solution

For an orbital with principal quantum number in n, number of spherical node = n - l - 1

Where n is the principal quantum number and l is the azimuthal quantum number.
According to the given data, n - l - 1 = 2
⇒n=3+l
Hence, the condition of having two spherical node: n = 3 + l

Principal Azimuthal
Option Orbital quantum number quantum number Value of 3 + l
(n) (l)
(a) 2s 2 0 3

(b) 4s 4 0 3

(c) 3d 3 2 5

(d) 6f 6 3 6

For a 6f orbital, the value of principal quantum number (n) and (3 + l) are the same. Hence, 6f
orbitals have two spherical nodes.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

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Finding the orbital represented by wave function

Which orbital is represented by the complete wave function, 𝚿4, 2, 0?

(a) 4s (b) 3p (c) 4p (d) 4d

Solution

A wave function is represented as 𝚿n, l, m,

Where n is the principal quantum number, l is the azimuthal quantum number and m is the magnetic
quantum number.
On comparing, we get,
𝚿n, l, m = 𝚿4, 2, 0
n = 4, l = 2, m = 0
So, the given orbital is 4dz2.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

Finding the radial node

Find the number of radial nodes of 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals.

(a) 0, 1, 2 (b) 2, 1, 0 (c) 2, 2, 2 (d) 1, 3, 5

Solution

Step 1: Calculating the radial node for 3s
orbital
For an orbital, having principal quantum number
n, the number of radial nodes = n - l - 1
Where n is the principal quantum number, l is
the azimuthal quantum number.
For 3s orbital, principal quantum number
(n) = 3 and azimuthal quantum number (l) = 0
Putting the values, we get,
3-0-1=2
Hence, the number of radial nodes in 3s orbital
is 2.
Step 2: Calculating the radial node for 3p
orbital
For 3p orbital, principal quantum number (n) = 3
and azimuthal quantum number(l) = 1
Putting the values, we get,
3-1-1=1
Hence, the number of radial nodes in 3p orbital
is 1.

Step 3: Calculating the radial node for 3d orbital

For 3d orbital, principal quantum number (n) = 3 and azimuthal quantum number (l) = 2
Putting the values, we get, 3 - 2 - 1 = 0
Hence, the number of radial nodes in 3d orbital is 0.
So, the number of radial nodes of 3s, 3p and 3d electrons are 2, 1, 0, respectively.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

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Finding the correct statement regarding an electron

What is the nature of electrons in an atom according to the Schrödinger model?

(a) Particle only (b) wave only
(c) Particle and wave nature simultaneously (d) Sometimes waves and sometimes particles

Solution

According to the Schrödinger model, the nature of the electrons in an atom is as a particle and a
wave simultaneously.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.

Finding the non-directional orbital

Which orbital is non-directional?

(a) s (b) p (c) d (d) All of the above

Solution

s-orbital is spherical in shape. So, it is non-directional, whereas p-orbital is dumbbell-shaped, d

orbital is double dumbbell-shaped, and both of them (p and d) are directional in nature.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.

Finding the correct statement regarding the nodes

Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) Number of angular nodes = n - l - 1 (b) Number of radial nodes = l
(c) Total number of nodes = n - 1 (d) All of the above

Solution

a) Number of angular nodes = l. So, this option is not correct.

b) Number of radial nodes = n - l - 1. So, this option is not correct.
c) Total number of nodes = n - 1. So, this option is correct.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.

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Summary

• Quantum mechanics is developed by Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger. Quantum

mechanics is based on Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
 chrödinger’s wave equation is based on the dual nature of the matter. In this equation,
• S
Schrödinger assumed the electrons as three dimensional standing waves.
• All the information about the electron in an atom is stored in its orbital wave function 𝚿 and
quantum mechanics make it possible to extract this information out of 𝚿.
• Probability of finding an electron at a point or small volume within an atom is proportional to 𝚿2
at that point/region.
• The region where the probability density is zero, that is where the probability of finding an
electron is zero is called node.
• The spherical region around the nucleus where the probability of finding electrons is zero is
known as radial node.
Radial node = n - l - 1, where n is the principal quantum number and l is the azimuthal quantum
number.
• A plane or a surface passing through the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron
is zero is known as angular node. It may be in the shape of a plane or cone.
Number of angular node in any orbital = l
Where l is the azimuthal quantum number.
• Total number of nodes = n - 1.
• There are two probability graphs for the orbitals. They are as follows:
1. 𝚿R vs r
2. 𝚿R2 vs r
• The graphs of 𝚿 vs r and 𝚿R2 vs r for the s-orbitals start from a fixed value of 𝚿 and 𝚿R2 .
R R

• For p-orbitals probability curve, there exists a point where the values of 𝚿 and 𝚿R2 are maximum.
R
The number of points where the value of 𝚿R and 𝚿R2 will be zero depends on number of radial
nodes.

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