Quantum Theory

and the Atom

ELECTRONS IN ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

PREPARED BY: KARINA M. GENTON

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

 Explain how the Quantum

Mechanical Model of the atom
describes the energies and positions
of the electrons
 Learning Goals

 Compare the Bohr and quantum mechanical models of

the atom.
 Explain the impact of de Broglie’s wave particle duality
and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle on the current
view of electrons in atoms.
 Identifythe relationships among a hydrogen atom’s
energy levels, sublevels, and atomic orbitals.
 Bohr’s Model of the Atom
Einstein’stheory of light’s dual nature
accounted for several unexplainable
phenomena, but it did not explain why
atomic emission spectra of elements were
discontinuous.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom

In 1913, Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist

working in Rutherford’s laboratory,
proposed a quantum model for the
hydrogen atom that seemed to answer
this question.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom

The lowest allowable energy state of an

atom is called its ground state.
When an atom gains energy, it is in an
excited state.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
 Bohr suggested that an electron moves around the nucleus
only in certain allowed circular orbits.
 Bohr’s Model of the Atom

Each orbit was given a number,

called the quantum number.
Bohr orbits are like steps of a
ladder, each at a specific distance
from the nucleus and each at a
specific energy.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom

Hydrogen’s single electron is in the n = 1

orbit when it is in the ground state.
When energy is added, the electron moves to
the n = 2 orbit.
 Bohr’s Model of the Atom
The electron releases energy as it falls back
towards the ground state.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom

 Bohr’s model explained the hydrogen’s spectral

lines, but failed to explain any other element’s
lines.
 For this and other reasons, the Bohr model was
replaced with a more sophisticated model called the
quantum-mechanical or wave-mechanical model.
 Quantum Mechanical Model

 Louis de Broglie (1892–1987) hypothesized that

particles, including electrons, could also have
wavelike behaviors.
 Electrons do not behave like particles flying through
space.
We cannot, in general, describe their exact paths.
Quantum Mechanical Model

 Heisenberg
showed it is impossible to take any
measurement of an object without disturbing it.
 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it
is fundamentally impossible to know precisely both
the velocity and position of a particle at the same
time.
Quantum Mechanical Model

The only quantity that can be

known is the probability for an
electron to occupy a certain
region around the nucleus.
 Quantum Mechanical Model

 Schrödinger treated electrons as waves in a model

called the quantum mechanical model of the
atom.
 Schrödinger’s equation applied equally well to
elements other than hydrogen (unlike Bohr’s model).
Quantum Mechanical Model

Orbitals are different from orbits

in that they represent probability
maps that show a statistical
distribution of where the electron
is likely to be found.
Quantum Mechanical Model

 Inthe quantum-mechanical model, a

number and a letter specify an orbital.
 The lowest-energy orbital is called the
1s orbital.
Itis specified by the number 1 and
the letter s.
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

The number is called the Principal

quantum number (n) and it indicates
the relative size and energy of atomic
orbitals.
n specifies the atom’s major energy levels,
called the principal energy levels.
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

 Energy sublevels are contained within the principal energy

levels.
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

 Each energy sublevel relates to orbitals of different shape.

s, p, d, f

s, p, d
s, p
s
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
s sublevel:
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

 p sublevel:
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

 d sublevel:
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

 f sublevel:
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

 Orbitals are sometimes represented by dots, where the dot

density is proportional to the probability of finding the
electron.
 The dot density for the 1s orbital is greatest near the
nucleus and decreases farther away from the nucleus.
 The electron is more likely to be found close to the nucleus
than far away from it.
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals

 Atany given time, hydrogen’s electron can

occupy just one orbital.
 When hydrogen is in the ground state, the
electron occupies the 1s orbital.
 When the atom gains a quantum of energy, the
electron is excited to one of the unoccupied
orbitals.
Quantum Numbers

 A setof quantum numbers gives an information

about the atomic orbital where an electrons may be
found
 A. principal
 B. Azimuthal
 C. Magnetic
 D. Spin
A. Principal quantum number (n)
- indicates the energy level
n= 1,2,3,4 ….

B. Azimutham Quantum Number (ℓ)

- specifies the sublevel or subshell
ℓ= 0 to n-1
c. Magnetic quantum number (mℓ)
- indicates the specific orbital within the sublevel
where the electron is found
-ℓ to +ℓ

Example: 0
n=1, ℓ = 0 , mℓ =

n =2, ℓ = 0,1 , mℓ =
0, -1, 0, +1
D. Spin quantum Number
-according to Pauli Exclusion Principle,
only a maximum of two electrons can
occupy an orbital, and they must have
opposite spins to minimize repulsion
between them.
+ ½ or - ½
7 | 36

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1.What are the possible sets of quantum
numbers that can describe a 2p electron in
an atom?
2. Give the set of quantum numbers for
each of the six electrons that occupy the
4p orbitals
3.Give the electron configuration of Li.
Give the set of quantum numbers that
describe the outermost electron in lithium
as shown in the orbital diagram below.

4. Give the set of quantum numbers of Cr

Determine the element whose outermost valence electron is
represented by the following quantum numbers.
a. n=1, l= 0, ml= 0, ms=-1/2
b. n=2, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2
c. n=3, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2
d. n=4, l=2, ml= 0, ms= +1/2
e. n= 6, l=0, ml= 0, ms= -1/2
Which of the following are permissible
7 | 40

sets of quantum numbers?

 n = 4, l = 4, ml = 0, ms = ½
 n = 3, l = 2, ml = 1, ms = -½
 n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = ³/²
 n = 5, l = 3, ml = -3, ms = ½
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