The Quantum

Mechanical Model
RECALL
 What are the principal subatomic
particles?
 Which subatomic particle or particles
 A. identify the atom?
 B. contribute most to the atomic mass and
mass number?
 C. are always equal in number in the
neutral atom?
 How many of each kind of subatomic
particle does an atom have?
 How are these subatomic particles
arranged in the atom?
Niels Bohr
(Born in Denmark 1885-1962)
 Student of
Rutherford
Niels Bohr’s Model (1913)

 Electrons orbit
the nucleus in
circular paths of
fixed energy
(energy levels).
 Electronscan jump from energy level
to energy level.

 Electronsabsorb or emit light energy

when they jump from one energy level
to another.
Max Plank (Quantum Theory)

E=h

E=energy
=frequency
h=Plank’s constant 6.626 x 10-34Js
 Energy emitted by the electron as it leaps
from the higher to the lower energy level is
proportional to the frequency of the light
wave.
 Frequency define the color of visible light.
Quantum
A quantum of energy is the amount
of energy required to move an
electron from one energy level to
another.
Photons
 Photons are bundles of light energy that
is emitted by electrons as they go from
higher energy levels to lower levels.
Excited State and Ground State
 Ground state: the lowest possible energy
level an electron be at.

 Excited state: an energy level higher than

the ground state.
Emission Spectrum
 Light emitted produces a unique
emission spectrum.
Hydrogen Emission Spectrum
Violet
Blue
Red

Balmer
Series
Bohr Model for Hydrogen
 The Bohr model explained the
emission spectrum of the hydrogen
atom but did not always explain those
of other elements.
Quantum Mechanical Model
 1920’s
 Werner Heisenberg (Uncertainty Principle)
 Louis de Broglie (electron has wave
properties)
 Erwin Schrodinger (mathematical equations
using probability, quantum numbers)
Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty Principle

 We can not know both

the position and
momentum of a
particle at a given time.
Louis de Broglie, (France, 1892-1987)
Wave Properties of Matter (1923)
Since light waves have a
particle behavior (as shown
by Einstein in the
Photoelectric Effect), then
particles could have a wave
behavior.
de Broglie wavelength

 h
mv
Electron Motion Around Atom
Shown as a de Broglie Wave
 Davisson and Germer (USA, 1927)
confirmed de Broglie’s hypothesis
for electrons.

Electrons produced a diffraction

pattern similar to x-rays.
Erwin Schrodinger, 1925
Quantum (wave) Mechanical Model
of the Atom
 Four quantum
numbers are required
to describe the state of
the hydrogen atom.
FYI: Schrodinger’s Equations!!!
 is called the wave function and indicates
the probability of where an electron may
be found.
Atomic Orbital:

A region in space in which there is high

probability of finding an electron.
Quantum Numbers:

specify the properties of atomic orbitals

and their electrons.
Four Quantum Numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number
2. Orbital Quantum Number
3. Magnetic Quantum Number
4. Spin Quantum Number
Principal Quantum Number, n
 Indicates main energy levels
n = 1, 2, 3, 4…

 Each main energy level has sub-levels

The maximum number of electrons
in a principal energy level is given
by:
Max # electrons = 2n2

n= the principal quantum number

Orbital Quantum Number, ℓ
(Azimuthal/Angular Momentum Quantum
Number)
 Indicates shape of orbital sublevels
 ℓ = 0 to n-1

ℓ sublevel
0 s
1 p
2 d
3 f
4 g
Atomic Orbital s

2s
The 3 p orbitals

http://www.rmutphysics.com/CHARUD/scibook/crystal-structure/porbital.gif
 The d orbitals
f orbitals
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
 Indicates the orientation of the orbital in space.
 Values of ml : integers -l to l
 The number of values represents the number of
orbitals.
 Example:
for l= 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2

Which sublevel does this represent?

Answer: d
Electron Spin Quantum Number, (ms or s)

 Indicates the spin of the electron

(clockwise or counterclockwise).
 Values of ms: +1/2, -1/2
Example:
 List the values of the four quantum
numbers for orbitals in the 3d sublevel.
 Answer:

n=3
l=2
ml = -2,-1, 0, +1, +2
ms = +1/2, -1/2 for each pair of electrons
The Electron Cloud

 The electron cloud represents

positions where there is probability of
finding an electron.
The Electron Cloud
The higher the
electron
density, the
higher the
probability that
an electron may
be found in that
region.
http://www.chemeng.uiuc.edu/~alkgrp/mo/gk12/quantum/H_S_orbital.jpg
The Electron Cloud for Hydrogen

90% probability
of finding the
electron within
this space
Probability Curve for Hydrogen
 Quantum Mechanical Model
 Electrons are located in specific
energy levels.
 There is no exact path around the
nucleus.
 The model estimates the probability of
finding an electron in a certain
position.
PRACTICE
 1. Give the n and l values for the
following orbitals:
 a. 1s
 b. 3p
 c. 5f
 d. 4d
 2. What is the ml values for the following
types of orbitals?
 a. s
 b. p
 c. d
 d. f
 3. How many possible orbitals and how
many electrons can inhabit the energy
level in
 a. 4
 b. 5
 4. State the number of possible electrons
described by the following quantum
numbers:
 =0
a. n = 3, l
 b. n = 3, l = 1

 c. n = 3, l = 2, m = -1
l
 d. n = 3, l = 2, ml = -1, ms = ½
Electron
Configurations
Atomic Orbitals
 Def: 3-D region around nucleus that
indicates the probable location of an
electron
 Energy levels or shells:
 Numbered 1-7
 Smaller number = closer to nucleus, lower
energy
Sublevels
 Each shell has
sublevels
 s
1 – s orbital
 p
3 – p orbitals
 d
5 – d orbitals
 f
7 – f orbitals
Shells and Sublevels
 Shells and sublevels together:
 1s
 2s, 2p
 3s, 3p, 3d
 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, etc.
 s is the lowest energy and f is the
highest
 Orbitals

 Each orbital in a sublevel

can hold a maximum of 2
e-
1 – s 2 e- max.
 3 – p orbitals 6 e- max.
 5 – d orbitals 10 e- max.
 7 – f orbitals 14 e- max.
Electron Configurations
 Arrangement of e- in atom
 Orbital Notation:
 H has 1e-
 Rules:
1. AufbauPrinciple: electron occupies
lowest energy level that can receive it
Electron Configurations
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two
e- in an sublevel orbital can have the
same spin
He – 2e-
3. Hund’s Rule: orbitals of equal energy
are occupied by one e- before pairing up
e-. All single occupied orbitals must
have same spin.
Electron Configurations
 7N
 16S
 22Ti
 53I
Electron Configuration Notation
 51Sb
 28Ni
 80Hg
Some Anomalies
Some
irregularities
occur when there
are enough
electrons to half-
fill s and d
orbitals on a
given row.
Some Anomalies
For instance, the
electron
configuration for
Chromium, is
[Ar] 4s1 3d5
rather than the
expected
[Ar] 4s2 3d4.
Some Anomalies
 This occurs
because the 4s
and 3d orbitals
are very close in
energy.
 These anomalies
occur in f-block
atoms, as well.
 Electron Configurations
A list of all the electrons in an atom (or ion)
 Must go in order (Aufbau principle)
 2 electrons per orbital, maximum
 We need electron configurations so that we can
determine the number of electrons in the outermost
energy level. These are called valence electrons.
 The number of valence electrons determines how
many and what this atom (or ion) can bond to in order
to make a molecule

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14… etc.
 Electron Configurations

2p 4
Number of electrons in
the sublevel

Energy Level

Sublevel

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6
6s2 4f14… etc.
 Let’s Try It!
 Writethe electron configuration for the
following elements:
H
Li
N
Ne
K
Zn
Pb
 Orbitals and the Periodic
Table
 Orbitals grouped in s, p, d, and f orbitals (sharp,
proximal, diffuse, and fundamental)

s orbitals
d orbitals
p orbitals

f orbitals
Shorthand Notation
A way of abbreviating long
electron configurations
 Since we are only concerned
about the outermost electrons,
we can skip to places we know
are completely full (noble
gases), and then finish the
configuration
Shorthand Notation
 Step 1: It’s the Showcase
Showdown!
Find the closest noble gas to the
atom (or ion), WITHOUT GOING
OVER the number of electrons in the
atom (or ion). Write the noble gas in
brackets [ ].
 Step 2: Find where to resume by
finding the next energy level.
 Step 3: Resume the configuration
until it’s finished.
 Shorthand Notation
 Chlorine
 Longhand is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
You can abbreviate the first 10
electrons with a noble gas, Neon.
[Ne] replaces 1s2 2s2 2p6
The next energy level after Neon is
3
So you start at level 3 on the
diagonal rule (all levels start with
s) and finish the configuration by
adding 7 more electrons to bring
the total to 17

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

NOBLE GAS CORE ELEMENTS

Z  Last e config
 He 2  1s2

 Ne 10  2p6

 Ar 18  3p6

 Kr 36  4p6

 Xe 54  5p6

 Rn 86  6p6
Practice Shorthand Notation
 Write the shorthand notation for each of
the following atoms:
17Cl

19K

53I

83Bi
 Valence
Valence Electrons
Electrons
Electrons are divided between core and valence
electrons
B 1s2 2s2 2p1
Core = [He] , valence = 2s2 2p1

Br [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5

Core = [Ar] 3d10 , valence = 4s2 4p5
 Rules of the Game
No. of valence electrons of a main group atom = Group
number (for A groups)
Atoms like to either empty or fill their outermost level.
Since the outer level contains two s electrons and six p
electrons (d & f are always in lower levels), the optimum
number of electrons is eight. This is called the octet
rule.
Keep an Eye On Those Ions!
 Electrons are lost or gained like they always
are with ions… negative ions have gained
electrons, positive ions have lost electrons
 The electrons that are lost or gained should
be added/removed from the highest energy
level (not the highest orbital in energy!)
Keep an Eye On Those Ions!
 Tin
Atom: [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p2
Sn+4 ion: [Kr] 4d10
Sn+2 ion: [Kr] 5s2 4d10
Note that the electrons came out of the
highest energy level, not the highest
energy orbital!
Keep an Eye On Those Ions!
 Bromine
Atom: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
Br- ion: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6

Note that the electrons went into the highest

energy level, not the highest energy orbital!
 Try Some Ions!
 Write the longhand notation for these:
F-
Li+
Mg+2

 Write the shorthand notation for these:

Br-
Ba+2
Al+3
Orbital Diagrams
 Graphical representation of an
electron configuration
 One arrow represents one electron
 Shows spin and which orbital within
a sublevel
 Same rules as before (Aufbau
principle, d4 and d9 exceptions, two
electrons in each orbital, etc. etc.)
 Orbital Diagrams
 One additional rule:
Hund’s Rule
 In orbitals of EQUAL
ENERGY (p, d, and f),
place one electron in
each orbital before
making any pairs
 All single electrons must
spin the same way
 I nickname this rule the
“Monopoly Rule”
 Lithium
Lithium
Group 1A
Atomic number = 3
1s22s1 ---> 3 total electrons

3p
3s

2p
2s

1s
 Carbon
Carbon
Group 4A
Atomic number = 6
1s2 2s2 2p2 --->
6 total electrons
3p
3s Here we see for the first time HUND’S
RULE. When placing electrons in a set of
2p orbitals having the same energy, we place
2s them singly as long as possible.

1s
Lanthanide Element
Configurations

4f
4f orbitals
orbitals used
used for
for
Ce
Ce -- Lu
Lu and
and 5f
5f for
for
Th
Th -- Lr
Lr
 Ion
Ion Configurations
Configurations
To form anions from elements, add 1 or more e-
from the highest sublevel.
P [Ne] 3s2 3p3 + 3e- ---> P3- [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]

3p 3p
3s 3s

2p 2p
2s 2s

1s 1s
Write the electron configuration,
draw the orbital diagram, and
identify if it is paramagnetic or
diamagnetic:
 Oxygen (O)
 Mercury (Hg)
 Lead (Pb)
 Uranium (U)
Eleme Z e.c shn OD Para/d
nt ia

Y          
Am          
Se          
Ba          
Xe          
Ac          
Ge