1

EARLY
THOUGHTS

2
 In the fifth century b.c. the Greek philosopher
Democritus expressed the belief that all matter
consists of very small, indivisible particles, which
he named atomos (meaning uncuttable or
indivisible).
 In 1808 an English scientist and school teacher,
John Dalton, † formulated a precise definition of
the indivisible building blocks of matter that we
call atoms.
 Dalton’s work marked the beginning of the modern
era of chemistry

3
DALTON’S
MODEL
OF THE ATOM
4
1. Elements are composed of minute
indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are alike in
mass and size.
3. Atoms of different elements have
different masses and sizes.
Modernunder
Atoms research has circumstances
special demonstrated that
can
4.
atoms
be
Chemical compounds are
are composed of subatomic
decomposed.
formed by
the union of two or more atoms of
particles.
different elements. 5
5. Atoms combine to form compounds in simple
numerical ratios, such as one to one, two to
two, two to three, and so on.

6. Atoms of two elements may combine in

different ratios to form more than one
compound.

6
 Dalton’s atoms were individual particles.
Atoms of each element are alike in mass and
size.

7
5.1
 Dalton’s atoms were individual particles.
Atoms of different elements are not alike in
mass and size.

8
5.1
H 2 H 1
= =
O 1 O 1

Daltons atoms combine in specific ratios

to form compounds. 9
 C:\Users\charisma\Desktop\The Creation of Chemistry - The Fundamen
tal Laws_ Crash Course Chemistry #3.mp4

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COMPOSITION
OF COMPOUNDS

11
A compound always contains two or 12
more elements combined in a definite
proportion by mass.
 Composition of Water

• Water always contains the same two

elements: hydrogen and oxygen.
The percent by mass of hydrogen in
water is 11.2%.
The percent by mass of oxygen in water
is 88.8%.
Water always has these percentages. If
the percentages were different the
compound would not be water.
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 Composition of Hydrogen Peroxide
• Hydrogen peroxide always contains the same
two elements: hydrogen and oxygen.
The percent by mass of hydrogen in hydrogen
peroxide is 5.9%.
The percent by mass of oxygen in hydrogen
peroxide is 94.1%.
Hydrogen peroxide always has these
percentages. If the percentages were different
the compound would not be hydrogen
peroxide.
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 15

Atoms of two or more elements may

combine in different ratios to produce
more than one compound.
Combining Ratios of Hydrogen and Oxygen

• Hydrogen peroxide has twice as many

oxygens per hydrogen atom as does
water.
The formula for water is H2O.
The formula for hydrogen peroxide is
H2O2.

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17
DISCOVERY OF
IONS

18
• Michael Faraday discovered that
certain substances, when dissolved in
water, conducted an electric current.
 He found that atoms of some elements
moved to the cathode (negative electrode)
and some moved to the anode (positive
electrode).
 He concluded they were electrically
charged and called them ions (Greek
wanderer).
19
• Svante Arrhenius reasoned that an ion
is an atom (or a group of atoms)
carrying a positive or negative electric
charge.
Arrhenius accounted for the electrical
conduction of molten sodium chloride
(NaCl) by proposing that melted NaCl
dissociated into the charged ions Na+
and Cl-.

Δ
NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
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 NaCl → Na + Cl + -

In the melt the positive Na+ ions moved

to the cathode (negative electrode).
Thus positive ions are called cations.
In the melt the negative Cl- ions moved
to the anode (positive electrode). Thus
negative ions are called anions.

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SUBATOMIC
PARTS
OF THE ATOM
22
Particle Charge Location Role
       
 
 
 
       
 
 
 
       
 
 
 
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24
 This is 1 to 5 ten billionths of a
meter.

If
Even
the diameter
smaller particles
of this dot
thanis atoms
1 mm
exist.
then 10These
million
are hydrogen
called subatomic
atoms
particles.
would form a line across the dot.
25
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

26
ELECTRON

27
• In 1875 Sir William Crookes invented
the Crookes tube.

Crookes tubes experiments led the way

to an understanding of the subatomic
structure of the atom.
Crookes tube emissions are called
cathode rays.

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In 1897 Sir Joseph John Thomson
demonstrated that cathode rays:
travel in straight lines.
are negative in charge.
are deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
produce sharp shadows
are capable of moving a small paddle
wheel.
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THIS WAS THE DISCOVERY OF
THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF
CHARGE
– THE ELECTRON.
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PROTON

31
• Eugen Goldstein, a German physicist,
first observed protons in 1886:
Thomson determined the protons’
characteristics.
Thomson showed that atoms contained
both positive and negative charges.
This disproved the Dalton’s model of the
atom which held that atoms were
indivisible.

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NEUTRON

33
• James Chadwick discovered the neutron
in 1932.
Its actual mass is slightly greater than the
mass of a proton.

34
35
IONS

36
• Positive ions were explained by
assuming that a neutral atom loses
electrons.
Negative ions were explained by
assuming that extra electrons can be
added to atoms.

37
 When one or more electrons are lost
from an atom, a cation is formed. 38
5.4
 When one or more electrons are added
to a neutral atom, an anion is formed. 39
5.4
THE NUCLEAR
ATOM

40
• Radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel
in 1896.
Radioactive elements spontaneously emit
alpha particles, beta particles and gamma
rays from their nuclei.
By 1907 Rutherford found that alpha
particles emitted by certain radioactive
elements were helium nuclei.

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THE RUTHERFORD
EXPERIMENT

42
• Rutherford in 1911 performed experiments
that shot a stream of alpha particles at a
gold foil.
Most of the alpha particles passed through
the foil with little or no deflection.
He found that a few were deflected at large
angles and some alpha particles even
bounced back.

43
 Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment.
44
5.5
• An electron with a mass of 1/1837 amu
could not have deflected an alpha
particle with a mass of 4 amu.
Rutherford knew that like charges repel.
Rutherford concluded that each gold
atom contained a positively charged
mass that occupied a tiny volume. He
called this mass the nucleus.

45
• If a positive alpha particle approached
close enough to the positive mass it
was deflected.
Most of the alpha particles passed
through the gold foil. This led
Rutherford to conclude that a gold atom
was mostly empty space.

46
Because alpha particles have relatively
high masses, the extent of the
reflections led Rutherford to conclude
that the nucleus was very heavy and
dense.

47
GENERAL
ARRANGEMENT
OF SUBATOMIC
PARTICLES
48
• Rutherford’s experiment showed that an
atom had a dense, positively charged
nucleus.
Chadwick’s work in 1932 demonstrated
the atom contains neutrons.
Rutherford also noted that light,
negatively charged electrons were present
in an atom and offset the positive nuclear
charge.

49
• Rutherford put forward a model of the
atom in which a dense, positively
charged nucleus is located at the
atom’s center.
The negative electrons surround the
nucleus.
The nucleus contains protons and
neutrons

50
 51
5.6
ATOMIC
NUMBERS OF
THE ELEMENTS
52
• The atomic number of an element is
equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus of that element.
The atomic number of an atom
determines which element the atom is.

53
54
55
 atomic number

H
Every atom with an
atomic number of 1
is a hydrogen atom.

1 proton in the
nucleus
1 56
 atomic number

C
Every atom with an
atomic number of 6
is a carbon atom.

6 protons in the
nucleus
6 57
 atomic number

U
Every atom with an
atomic number of
92 is a uranium
atom.

92
92 protons
in the
nucleus
58
The mass number minus the atomic
number equals the number of neutrons in
the nucleus.
mass
109
number
atomic
number
47 Ag
atomic number of
mass number - =
number neutrons
109 - 47 = 62
59
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC
NUMBER

60
            
ELEMENT Z A P e- n
 
     
Oxygen 8 16      
     
Calcium   40   20  
     
Mercury     80   121

     
Silver 47       61

     
Strontium   88   38   61
ISOTOPES OF
THE ELEMENTS

62
• Atoms of the same element can have
different masses.
 They always have the same number of protons,
but they can have different numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei.
 The difference in the number of neutrons
accounts for the difference in mass.
 These are isotopes of the same element.

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 Isotopes of the Same
Element Have

Equal numbers of protons

Different numbers of neutrons

64
Isotopic Notation

65
Isotopic Notation

6 protons + 6 neutrons
12
6 C
6 protons

66
Isotopic Notation

6 protons + 8 neutrons
14
6 C
6 protons

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Isotopic Notation

8 protons + 8 neutrons
16
8 O
8 protons

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Isotopic Notation

8 protons + 9 neutrons
17
8 O
8 protons

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Isotopic Notation

8 protons + 10 neutrons
18
8 O
8 protons

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 Hydrogen has three isotopes

1 proton 1 proton 1 proton

0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons
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 Examples of Isotopes
Element Protons Electrons Neutrons Symbol

Hydrogen 1 1 0 1
1 H
Hydrogen 1 1 1 1
2 H
Hydrogen 1 1 2 1
3 H

Uranium 92 92 143 92
235 U
Uranium 92 92 146 92
238 U

Chlorine 17 17 18 17
35 Cl
Chlorine 17 17 20 17
37 Cl
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ATOMIC MASS

73
• The mass of a single atom is too small to
measure on a balance.
 Using a mass spectrometer, the mass of the
hydrogen atom was determined.

74
 A Modern Mass Spectrometer

Positive ions
formed from
sample. Electrical field
From the intensity and positions
at slits A mass
of the lines Deflection
accelerates on the mass of spectrogram
spectrogram,
positive the different
ions. positive ions is recorded.
isotopes and their at
occurs relative
amounts can be determined.
magnetic field. 75
5.8
 A typical reading from a mass spectrometer. The two
principal isotopes of copper are shown with the
abundance (%) given. 76
5.9
Using a mass spectrometer, the mass of one
hydrogen atom was determined to be 1.673
x 10-24 g

77
This number is very small.

small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small
small

78
 The mass of a hydrogen atom is
very small.

Numbers of thisthis
To overcome sizeproblem
are too small for of
a system
practical use.
relative atomic masses using “atomic
mass units” was devised to express the
masses of elements using simple
numbers.
1.673 x 10-24 g

79
The standard to which the masses of all
other atoms are compared to was chosen
to be the most abundant isotope of
carbon.

12
6 C 80
A mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units
(amu) was assigned to

12
6 C 81
1 amu is defined as exactly equal to 1
the mass of a carbon-12 atom 12

1 amu = 1.6606 x 10-24 g

12
6 C 82
Average atomic mass 1.00797 amu.

H 83
Average atomic mass 39.098 amu.

K 84
Average atomic mass 248.029 amu.

U 85
AVERAGE RELATIVE
ATOMIC MASS

86
• Most elements occur as mixtures of
isotopes.
 Isotopes of the same element have different
masses.
 The listed atomic mass of an element is the
average relative mass of the isotopes of that
element compared to the mass of carbon-12
(exactly 12.0000…amu

87
To calculate the atomic mass multiply the
atomic mass of each isotope by its percent
abundance and add the results.

Average
Isotopic mass Abundance
Isotope atomic mass
(amu) (%)
(amu)
63
29 Cu 62.9298 69.09
65
29 Cu 64.9278 30.91 63.55

(62.9998 amu) 0.6909 = 43.48 amu

(64.9278 amu) 0.3091 = 20.07 amu
63.55 amu 88
 The element boron consists of two
isotopes, 105B and 115B. Their masses, based
on the carbon scale, are 10.01 and 11.01,
respectively. The abundance of 105B is 20.0%
and the abundance of 115B is 80.0%.
What is the atomic mass of boron?
 What is the average atomic mass for
thallium, Tl? The two stable isotopes and
their abundances are listed here.Tl-205 has a
mass of 205.059 amu with an abundance of
70.48 % and Tl-203 has a mass of 203.059
amu with an abundance of 29.52 % 
91
 1. Calculate the average atomic mass of potassium if the
abundance atomic masses of the isotopes making up its
naturally occurring samples are as given below.
 Isotope Relative abundance Atomic Mass
 potassium-39 93.12 % 38.964 amu
 potassium-41 6.88 % 40.962 amu
 2. Calculate the elemental atomic mass of Mg if the
naturally occurring isotopes are 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg. Their
masses and abundances are as follows:
 Isotope Atomic Mass Isotopic Abundance
 Mg-24 23.98504 u 78.70%
 Mg-25 24.98584 u 10.13%
 Mg-26 25.98259 u 11.17%
92
 3. Lithium has an elemental atomic mass of 6.9410
u and has two naturally occurring isotopes, 6Li and
7Li. Their masses are 6.0151 u and 7.0160 u

respectively. What are the natural abundances (to 2

decimal places in percentage) of the isotopes of
Lithium?

93
94