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 History of the atom
•Democritus (400 BC) suggested that the material world was
made up of tiny, indivisible particles
• atomos, Greek for “uncuttable”

• Aristotle believed that all matter was made up of 4

elements, combined in different proportions
• Fire - Hot
• Earth - Cool, heavy
• Water - Wet
• Air - Light

• The “atomic” view of matter faded for centuries, until early

scientists attempted to explain the properties of gases
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 Re-emergence of Atomic Theory
John Dalton postulated that:
1. All matter is composed
of extremely small,
indivisible particles called
atoms
2. All atoms of a given
element are identical
(same properties); the
atoms of different
elements are different

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3. Atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions,
only rearranged

4. Compounds are formed when

atoms of more than one element
combine
• A given compound always has
the same relative number and
kind of atoms
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 Atoms are divisible!
• By the 1850s,
scientists began to
realize that the atom
was made up of
subatomic particles
• Thought to be positive
and negative
• How would we know
this if we can’t see it or
touch it?

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Cathode Rays and Electrons
• Mid-1800’s scientists began to study electrical
discharge through cathode-ray tubes. Ex: neon
signs
» Partially evacuated tube in which a current
passes through
» Forms a beam of electrons which move from
cathode to anode
» Electrons themselves can’t be seen, but certain
materials fluoresce (give off light) when energised

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JJ Thompson
observed that when a
magnetic or electric
field are placed near
the electron beam,
they influence the
direction of flow
– opposite charges
attract each
other, and like
charges repel.
– The beam is
negatively
charged so it was
repelled by the
negative end of
the magnet
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 The JJ Thompson Model
• Thompson understood that all matter was
inherently neutral, so there must be a counter
• A positively charged particle, but where to put it
• It was suggested that the negative charges were
balanced by a positive umbrella-charge
• “Plum pudding model” “chocolate chip cookie model”

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Earnest Rutherford’s contribution
to Atomic Theory was as a result
of this experiment where he fired
positive alpha particles at a thin
sheet of gold foil.
At this time J.J.Thomson’s
“current bun” model of the atom
was accepted. According to this
theory Rutherford expected most
of the alpha particles to pass
straight through the foil or be
deviated a little.
Most of the alpha particles did
pass straight through, but some
were deflected and, 1 in every
10,000 appeared to rebound from
the foil
Clearly Thomson’s model would
have to change to account for
these results
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10
 Rutherford expected …
• Rutherford believed that the mass and positive
charge was evenly distributed throughout the atom,
allowing the  particles to pass through unhindered

 particles

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 Rutherford explained …
• Atom is mostly empty space
• Small, dense, and positive at the center
• Alpha particles were deflected if they got close
enough

 particles
+

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The modern atom is composed of two regions:
• Nucleus: Containing
protons and neutrons, it is
the bulk of the atom and
has a positive charge
associated with it
• Electron cloud:
Responsible for the majority
of the volume of the atom, it
is here that the electrons
can be found orbiting the
nucleus (extranuclear)

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 Major Subatomic Particles
Name Symbol Charge Relative Mass Actual Mass (g)
(amu)
Electron e- -1 1/1840 9.11x10-28
Proton p+ +1 1 1.67x10-24
Neutron no 0 1 1.67x10-24

• Atoms are measured in picometers, 10-12 meters

» Hydrogen atom, 32 pm radius
• Nucleus tiny compared to atom
• If the atom were a stadium, the nucleus would be a marble
• Radius of the nucleus is on the order of 10-15 m
• Density within the atom is near 1014 g/cm3
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 Nuclear Symbols
• Every element is given a corresponding symbol
which is composed of 1 or 2 letters (first letter upper
case, second lower), as well as the mass number
and atomic number

mass number

E
A
elemental symbol

atomic number Z 15
 Your turn
• Find the
• number of protons
• number of neutrons
• number of electrons
• atomic number
• mass number

19 80 184
9 F 35 Br 74 W
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Here is a physical mixture of
Sulfur and iron. We know it
a physical mixture because
both sulfur and iron retain
their separate properties and
the mixture can be easily
separated using a magnet

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Now the mixture is heated
to provide some
ACTIVATION ENERGY.
Best carried out in fume
hood just in case…….

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Once the reaction has started we can remove it from the flame as it
continues by itself (an exothermic reaction). Clearly some kind of
chemical reaction is taking place

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What went on inside the test tube
was a bit like a lava flow

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Caroline obtained a
black solid lump and her
test tube disintegrated!!

The compound had

completely different
properties from either the
sulfur or the iron.

When we added a little

acid to the solid it gave
off a gas which smelt of
rotten eggs!
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Even Jenna spotted that
something had changed.

Now she is
supposed to work
out whether each of
the ingredients were
elements, compound
or mixtures?

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Elements,Compounds Mixtures
• In elements the atoms are all the same
• In compounds two or more elements are
chemically combined in simple, whole
number, ratios
• Mixtures can be heterogeneous, where it
does not have the same consistency
throughout, or homogeneous, where any
sample taken will be the same.
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Back to Atoms and the Rutherford Bohr model

• Atoms are very small ~ 10-10 meters

• All atoms are made up of three sub-atomic
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons

The protons and neutrons form a small

positively charged nucleus
The electrons are in energy levels outside the
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nucleus
Atomic Structure - Definitions
• Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons
in the nucleus of an atom. The number of
protons equals the number of electrons in a
neutral atom
• N.B. No. of protons always equals the no. of
electrons in any neutral atom of an element.
• Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of
protons and the number of neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.

So how can you work out the number of neutrons in an atom?
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No. of neutrons = Mass number – atomic number
Atomic Structure - Questions
Copy and complete the following table:

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 Summary Slide
• All atomic masses are relative to the mass
of carbon-12.

• Eg one hydrogen atom weighs 1/12 the

mass of a carbon-12 atom.

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 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the
same atomic number, but different mass numbers,
i.e. they have different numbers of neutrons.

Each atom of chlorine

contains the following:
35 Cl 37 Cl
17 17

17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons 17 electrons
18 neutrons 20 neutrons
The isotopes of chlorine are often referred to as
chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 28
 Isotopes
• Isotopes of an element have the same chemical
properties because they have the same number of
electrons. When a chemical reaction takes place, it
is the electrons that are involved in the reactions.
• However isotopes of an element have the slightly
different physical properties because they have
different numbers of neutrons, hence different
masses.
• The isotopes of an element with fewer neutrons will
have:
• Lower masses • faster rate of diffusion
• Lower densities • lower melting and boiling points
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Information stored in a little box
• You should be able to tell me 10 ’things’
about the isotopes below
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17Cl
1. Name 6. Period

2. No of protons 7. Group

3. No of electrons 8. Valence electrons

4. No of neutrons 9. Atomic Number

5. Electronic structure 10. Mass number

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Metals, Metalloids and Non-metals

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Organizing the elements into the
Period Table of elements

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Groups and Periods

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The Main Groups named.

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